Introduction to Environmental

Systems

M.Sc Environmental Economics

II Semester
Mechanisms of Species
Adaptation
† Change through natural selection
„ Selective pressure determines which organisms
survive and reproduce and which are eliminated.
 Recipe for Change ME N T
GEN R O N
ES V I
+ EN

ADAPTATIONS
NATURAL SELECTION: For? or Against?
The Limits of Change
† Adapt
† Move (migrate)
† Die (extinction)
Vulnerability of different organisms to
environmental changes
Prerequisites for Speciation
† Original population must separate
into smaller populations that do not
interbreed with one another.
† Separated populations must be
exposed to different selective
pressures.
„ Example: arctic and gray fox
Speciation: Foxes
Equilibrium Theory

Ecosystems are stable environments

in which the biotic interactions among
species determine the structure of the
communities present.
Succession and Disturbance

† Ecological succession: transition

between biotic communities
„ Primary: no previous biotic community
„ Secondary: previously occupied by a
community
„ Aquatic: transition from pond or lake to
terrestrial community
Primary Succession

† Mosses invade an area and provide a place

for soil to accumulate.
† Larger plants germinate in the new soil
layer, resulting in additional soil formation.
† Eventually shrubs and trees will invade the
area.
Disturbance and Resilience

† Removes organisms
† Reduces populations
† Creates opportunities for other
species to colonize
Fire and Succession

† Fire climax ecosystems: dependent

upon fire for maintenance of existing
balance; e.g., grasslands, pine and
redwood forests
† What significance does this have for
humans and where they live?
Resilience Mechanisms after a
Forest Fire
† Nutrient release to soil
† Regrowth by remnant roots and seeds
† Invasions from neighboring ecosystems
† Rapid restoration of energy flow and
nutrient cycling
Lessons to Learn
† Managing ecosystems
† The pressure of population
Managing Ecosystems
† Protecting and managing the natural
environment to maintain the goods
and services vital to human economy
and survival.
The Pressures of Population
† What is the
carrying capacity
for the human
population on
Earth?
† How will the
human ecological
footprint impact on
nature’s goods and
services?
Carrying Capacity and
Overshoot
The Production and Distribution of
Food

† Crops and animals: major patterns of

food production
† New patterns: genetically modified
foods
† Food distribution and trade
† Hunger, malnutrition, and famine
Thomas Malthus: 1798

Food
Production
Amount

Population
Growth

Time
Thomas Malthus

† Did not consider changes in

agricultural technology and science
† Did not consider dramatic decreases
in fertility rates in some countries
† Was right, but ahead of his time
Crops and Animals: Major Patterns
of Food Production

† The development of modern

industrialized agriculture
† The green revolution
† Subsistence agriculture and the
developing world
† Animal farming and its consequences
† Prospects for increasing food
production
U.S. Crop Yields
Major Patterns of Food Production:
Past 40 Years and Next 40 Years?

† Bringing additional land into cultivation

† Increasing use of fertilizers
† Increasing use of chemical pesticides
† Increasing use of irrigation
Major Patterns of Food Production:
Past 40 Years and Next 40 Years?

† Substituting new genetic varieties

† Rotating crops
† Growing many different kinds of crops
† Recycling animal wastes
† Grain over animal production
The Green Revolution

† Temporarily closed the gap between

food production and need in some
countries
† Heavy reliance on irrigation and
fertilizers
† Negative impact on small farmers and
culturally specific crops
Subsistence Farming: More or
Less?
† Labor intensive
† Technologically based
† Use of marginal lands
† Clearing of tropical rain forests
† Environmental degradation
Animal Farming and Its
Consequences
† Loss of 70% of grain crops in U.S.
† Overgrazing
† Mismanagement of animal manure
† Most widespread source of water pollution
† Source of 3% of greenhouse gases
† Sustainable on rural farms and with
pastoral herding
Global Population and Grain and Meat
Consumption

Fig. 9-9 here

Prospects for Increasing Food
Production
† Over last 30 years, food production
has surpassed population growth
† World food consumption to increase
50% by 2020
† Agricultural sustainability is highly
dependent on soil and water
conservation
† Global climate changes
40% Increase in Food Production Needed
over Next Two Decades

† Eat lower on the food chain, less

meat
† Convert cash crops to food
† Eat less
† Increase crop yields
† Double Green Revolution!
40% Increase in Food Production Needed
over Next Two Decades

† Convert animal farms to grain farms

† Develop alternative foods
† Convert pet food to human food
† The promise of biotechnology