On Sound
Sound is any longitudinal (“compression”) wave in a
4: Sound Waves
(Chapter 16)
Phys130, A04
Dr. Robert MacDonald
http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/09/30/elephant-communication.html
Wavefunction of Sound
Sound waves generally travel out in all directions from
a source. But for now, we’ll focus on sound waves
travelling in a straight line in one direction, which we’ll
call the positive x axis (since we can).
This is the same wave function we’ve been working
with up till now: y(x, t) = A cos(kx – ωt). (The phase
constant ϕ0 isn’t important for now, so we’ll set that
to zero to keep things tidy.)
• Here I’m using y to represent the displacement of
the particles along the direction of wave motion. This
is different than on a string, but the principles are
the same.
3 4
tangible medium, like air, wood, rock, the sun, etc.
• At least some aspects of an earthquake are
essentially huge sounds.
The audible range of sound for humans is about
20–20,000 Hz. Sounds below this range are called
infrasonic; above this range they’re called ultrasonic.
• Elephants use low frequency (13–35 Hz) sounds to
communicate with each other through the earth,
over distances of more than 2.5 km. They can find
each other, converse, even recognize each other.
2
Displacement vs Pressure
In addition to talking about sound as a wave of particle
displacements, we can talk about pressure waves,
describing how the air pressure changes as the sound
wave passes and the molecules bunch or spread.
This is a useful description since it’s how we hear. The
eardrum has air on both sides.
• Inside your head the eardrum is vented by the
Eustachian tube, so it’s always at atmospheric pressure
(unless the tube is plugged!).
• A sound wave changes the pressure up and down on
the outside of the eardrum. The difference moves the
eardrum back and forth.
 Since what the wave causes is these variations in
pressure, that’s what we’ll use to describe sound — the
difference from atmospheric pressure.

Recall how a “high-then-low” longitudinal displacement

graph results in particles bunching and spreading. Let’s
look at the sinusoidal version of that and figure out how
to describe what the pressure’s doing.

http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/sound-pressure-density.htm
5

Displacement → Pressure
Undisturbed cylinder Surface area S
of air:
Δx So the difference in the displacements in either end of
O x x+Δx our (tiny, imaginary) cylinder results in a change in the
When a sound wave passed through, each end of this length of the cylinder — and a change in the volume of
cylinder will be displaced according to the wavefunction y. the cylinder, since the area of the ends hasn’t changed.
The displacement of the left end at time t will be y(x, t); The change in the volume is the area of the end times
the displacement of the right end will be y(x+Δx, t). the change in the length:
y(x, t) < y(x+Δx, t) y(x, t) > y(x+Δx, t) ! ΔV = S [y(x+Δx, t) - y(x, t)]
Let’s get rid of S by looking at the fractional change in
volume:
>Δx <Δx
O x+Δx O x+Δx
x x
8
That last version becomes a derivative if Δx is very small Since we know the wavefunction, y(x, t) = A cos(kx - ωt), we
(i.e. the limit Δx→0): can evaluate ∂y/∂x and determine a formula for p(x,t):
Difference from atmospheric
pressure in a sinusoidal sound
wave.
The change in volume results in a change in pressure where k is the wavenumber, B is the bulk modulus, A is the
(you’re compressing or expanding the gas). The amount displacement amplitude, and ω is the angular frequency.
of pressure change depends on the bulk modulus B, Max difference from atmospheric
pressure in a sinusoidal sound wave.
defined as
See Section 12.7 for
more details about B.
• More amplitude means more pressure change.

If we define p(x,t) as the difference between the pressure

• More bulk modulus means it’s harder to compress the
gas, so for a given amplitude you get more pressure
in our cylinder and atmospheric pressure (i.e. p = ΔP), change.
then
• Shorter wavelength means more pressure change (!).
9 10

Perception of Sound
Loudness depends on the amplitude of the sound
wave. But the perceived loudness varies from person
to person!
• We don’t have a uniform frequency response —
some frequencies sound louder than others, even
at the same amplitude. The details vary from
person to person.
• We lose sensitivity to sound over time, especially
at the higher frequencies.
• Loud sounds damage hearing, too — look at
http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/sound-pressure-density.htm
rock musicians and orchestra members.
12
Pitch is of course mainly dependent on the From The Physics Hypertextbook
http://physics.info/music/
(fundamental) frequency of the sound wave. But there
are a number of “auditory illusions” that make a pitch
sound higher or lower. For example, if you hear two
tones at the same frequency but different amplitudes, the
louder one will tend to sound a little lower.

Timbre (aka, tone colour or quality), the characteristic

sound of an instrument, comes from the particular
combination of sine waves of various frequencies and
amplitudes that make up its sound — that is, its harmonic
content. These waves come from the air or string as well
as from the instrument body.

• The human voice works basically the same way.

13
http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Fourier_Making_Waves

Noise is a combination of a range of frequencies, not

just harmonics.
• “White noise” is a uniform combination of all
frequencies of sound (within some range, of course).
• This is why instruments that are out of tune with
each other sound so bad: the combination isn’t
harmonic but noisy.
15
Speed of Sound in a Fluid
We have an expression for the speed of a wave on a
string:
What does the speed of a wave (sound) in a fluid
depend on?
• We can expect it has something to do with how
difficult it is to compress the fluid; this is described
by the bulk modulus.
• It’s probably related to how hard it is to get the
molecules of gas moving — their mass, or (similar
to the string) their mass density.
We can use the wave equation to find the speed.
16
We’ll start by looking at the speed of sound through a Volume of pipe segment:
A = area Δx A = area
pipe. ! V = AΔx
pipe
Mass of fluid in pipe segment:
• This is a relevant example, since it describes wind x axis
p(x,t) p(x+Δx,t)
! m = ρV = ρ A Δx
instruments and the human voice.
Greek letter “rho”
We’ll ignore any effects of the walls of the pipe (like
ρ is the mass density —"the mass per unit volume
friction); as long as the pipe is reasonably big it shouldn’t
(usually measured in kg/m3). It’s how “heavy” the air or
have much effect. (Sound through a small tube, it turns
water etc is.
out, is slowed down by the walls. This is called the “tube
effect.”)
We can describe the sound by the way it changes the
All we care about is that the fluid can’t expand laterally fluid’s pressure as it passes through, like before. The
(i.e. can’t squish out the sides of the pipe). pressure wave p(x,t) gives the amount that the pressure
Remember our three ingredients for the wave equation: at point x is increased or decreased by the sound wave,
a restoring force, Newton II (F = ma), and linearization. at time t.
17 18

Remember that pressure is a force distributed over an We can put this information into F = ma, as a step
area (“force per unit area”). For example, a larger towards relating what we know to the Wave Equation.
parachute will slow your fall better than a smaller one.

So the force on each side of the segment of fluid is given Net Force mass
acceleration
by the pressure there times the area. The force on the
left end (pushing right) is F(x,t) = A p(x,t), and on the So we can cancel out A; the speed of sound doesn’t
right end (pushing left) is F(x+Δx,t) = A p(x+Δx,t). depend on the size of the pipe!

The net force on the segment of fluid is just the We found previously that
difference of these (remember right = positive): which gives us:

19 20
That last equation should look vaguely familiar from the
derivation of wave speed on a string. Let’s rearrange it a
bit:
Speed of Sound in a Solid
The speed of sound in a solid is more complex than
we’re going to deal with here. It’s complicated by the
way the surrounding material keeps the wave from
The left hand side is just the x-derivative of the slope — squishing the material out sideways.
or the second x-derivative of the position — if Δx is It depends on the density, the bulk modulus (how hard it
very small. So we put that in: is to compress), and the shear modulus (how hard it is to
shear the material), and sometimes some other things.
All this adds complexity without adding much more
Huzzah! The Wave Equation! This means that ρ/B=1/v2, than a few formulas. (If you’re curious, though, it’s in
or: your textbook...) We’ll focus on fluids here.
Speed of sound in a fluid.
B is the bulk modulus.
21 ρ is the mass density. 22

Speed of Sound in a Gas Speeds of Sound

A gas is of course just a type of fluid, but it’s interesting Here is the speed of sound in a few different media:
to study specifically. For any fluid the speed of sound is
given by: • Air (0ºC):! 331 m/s
• Air (20ºC):! 343 m/s
• Helium (0ºC):! 965 m/s
In a gas, though, the bulk modulus B depends on the
pressure of the gas — which can be changed quite • Water (20ºC):! 1482 m/s
easily. So, obviously, does the mass density ρ. • Lead! 1960 m/s
Temperature and pressure in a gas are closely related. • Copper! 5010 m/s
So the speed of sound in a gas is very sensitive to the • Glass (Pyrex)! 5640 m/s
pressure and the temperature.
23 24
Echolocation: Bat vs Dolphin Dolphins in water:

Compare the wavelength of sonar used by bats (in air,

say at 20°C) to that used by dolphins. Assume they
both use a frequency of 100 kHz = 1.00x105 Hz. Any
required constants will be supplied.
• Start by looking for a connection between
information we have — frequency —"and
information we’re looking for — wavelengths. This
is a simple one: v = λf for any wave, so we’ll start
with that: λ = v/f.
• Frequency is the same in both situations, but the
speed of sound changes.
25
For water, the density is 1.00 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3, and
the textbook says B = 2.18x109 Pa. This gives
v = 1476 m/s.
Then the wavelength is λ = v/f = (1476m/s)/(1.00x105Hz)
or λ = 0.0148 m.
This is independent of temperature, aside from slight
changes in the density of water.
26

Bats in air:
The bulk modulus of air at 20°C is about 1.42x105 Pa.
The density of air at 20°C is about 1.204 kg/m3.
This gives v = 343 m/s, and λ = v/f = 0.00343 m.
• Dolphins in water: λ = 1.48 cm
So now you know:
• how the displacement of molecules in a sound wave
results in a change in pressure.
• how to describe a sound wave in terms of either
displacement or pressure.
• what determines the speed of sound in a liquid or a
gas.

• Bats in air: 0.34 cm

Bats can distinguish much smaller objects.
(This makes sense — they hunt bugs!)

27 28
 Wave Intensity Britain’s “Listening Ears”
In one-dimensional waves (e.g. waves on a string), all of
the energy that enters the string at one end makes it to
the other end (aside from energy lost to damping).
In three-dimensional waves (e.g. sound, light), the energy
spreads out in more than one direction.
The intensity (I) of a (3D) wave is the average rate at
which energy is transported across some unit of area.
In other words, it’s the average power per unit area.
• Written mathematically, intensity is defined as:
! I = P/A.

29
http://www.ajg41.clara.co.uk/mirrors/dungeness.html

Spherical Symmetry
Consider a spherical wave — a wave which spreads
200 foot out evenly in all directions. This is the kind of wave
sound mirror you get from a “point” source of light (bulb, candle,
star), sound, etc.
At a distance r from the source, the energy of the
wave is spread over the surface of a sphere of area
4πr2. So the intensity is given by: Power coming
Intensity of sound in from the source
spherical waves.
Surface area of a sphere
30 foot The way intensity drops with the square of distance is
sound mirror called the inverse square law.
32
 Inverse Square Law
The Inverse Square Law describes how intensity
changes as a function of distance.
Consider two spheres of radius r1 and r2 centred on
the wave source. As long as the medium doesn’t
absorb any energy as the wave travels between the
spheres (i.e. no damping), the total power P going
through each sphere should be the same. Then
and
Equate these and rearrange and we find:
Inverse square law
for intensity of
33
spherical waves.
Example: Solar Panels
Consider a 1 m2 solar panel in use at the equator (so
we don’t have to worry about seasons).
The Earth is closest to the Sun in January, at a distance
of r1 = 1.47x108 km.
The Earth is furthest from the Sun in July, at a distance
of r2 = 1.52x108 km.
If the solar panel generates 200 W of power in January
(P1), how much power does it generate in July (P2)?
34

Intensity and Area

Intensity is defined as power per unit area —"that
is, the amount of energy passing through some surface
every second (or whatever).
For a spherical wave, at a distance r from the source
1.47x108 km the original power is distributed over the surface of a
sphere of radius r. So the intensity of the wave at this
1.52x108 km distance is given by I = P ⁄ 4πr2.
200 W
If you’re standing at a distance r and hold up a sheet
with area A, the amount of power striking that sheet is
given by I A — the intensity times the area of the
sheet. (Not the area of the imaginary sphere.)
36
Not all waves are spherical! The formula for intensity
depends entirely on the shape of the waves. The
intensity of a laser, for example — the amount of energy
going into that little dot of light per second — is almost
independent of distance r.
So we need to know the shape of the wave in order to
figure out the intensity at a distance r from the source.
But if you want to know how much power is striking
your photosensor, microphone, etc, it doesn’t matter
what the shape of the wave was. All that matters is the
intensity of the wave and how big your sensor is. P = I A
is always true —"it’s the definition of intensity!
37
Winspear Centre
The Winspear Centre downtown has fantastic
acoustics —"there are no bad seats! The whole place
was designed around how sound is transported,
reflected, focussed, and mixed. No inverse square law!
39
Shaping Sound
Your voice can be reasonably modelled as a point
source radiating in all directions. But if you cup your
hands, the sound that would have gone to the sides
also gets reflected forward. The result is that the
sound doesn't spread out as much, so it decreases
more slowly than 1/r2.
Reflections from walls mean that the inverse square
law is blown away indoors.
• In fact, theatres (including home theatres!) and
concert halls should be carefully designed so you
don’t end up with weird dead spots or other
effects.
38
e.g. Intense Concert
During a particularly thrilling part of an Edmonton
Symphony concert, the sound intensity reaching your
eardrum is 0.80 W/m2.
Assume the eardrum is a circle of radius 0.4 mm.
What is the average rate at which energy is reaching
your ear?
40
Examples of Sound Intensity Intensity vs Amplitude
We should expect the intensity of a sound wave to be
Intensity at 1 m
Power
away
related to the displacement amplitude, or equivalently to
the pressure amplitude. Let’s figure out what the
Threshold of hearing 1x10-12 W/m2 relationship is.
Remember that Energy = (Force) x (Distance),
Typical conversation 1x10-5 W 8x10-7 W/m2
which means that Power = (Force) x (Velocity).
Loud shout 3x10-2 W 2x10-3 W/m2 (Power / unit area) = (Force / unit area) x (Velocity)

Threshold of pain 1 W/m2 In other words, (Intensity) = (Pressure) x (Velocity).

I calculated intensity assuming spherical waves The velocity depends on the displacement amplitude, so
and the inverse square law. we can use this to relate intensity to amplitude.
42

So if we want the velocity of the air, caused by the
change in pressure from the sound wave, look to the
wave equation: y(x, t) = A cos(kx – ωt). The derivative
∂y/∂t gives the particle velocity we’re looking for.
This last equation, I(x,t), is the “instantaneous intensity”,
the power per unit area at some place and at some time.
We’re almost never interested in this; rather, when we
say “intensity” we generally mean the time-averaged
intensity.
Remember that the average of sin2 over a period is 1/2.
Then the time average of I(x,t) = BωkA2sin2(kx–ωt) is
wave speed!

This is the instantaneous intensity. “rho”

Average intensity of a ρ = mass density

sinusoidal sound wave B = bulk modulus
in a fluid. ω = angular frequency
A = displacement amplitude
43 44
 Intensity vs Pressure The Decibel Scale
Human sight and hearing are logarithmic. The
Remember that the maximum pressure (the “pressure
perceived “brightness” or “loudness” of something
amplitude”) is given by pmax"="BkA. Then A = pmax/Bk.
goes like the logarithm of the intensity.
Use this in I!=!(1/2)BωkA2:
So for sound they developed something called the
sound intensity level (not to be confused with
“sound intensity”!). It’s represented by a β (Greek
letter “beta”), and is defined as: sound intensity
reference intensity:
not a “B”!
base 10 logarithm 10-12 W/m2
p2max Average intensity of a pmax = pressure amplitude
I= √ sinusoidal sound wave ρ = mass density It’s measured in “decibels” or dB. One dB is 1/10 of a
2 ρB in a fluid. B = bulk modulus “bel”. We pretty much always use decibels, though.
v = wave speed
ρ = Greek letter “rho”
ω = Greek letter “omega” 45 46

The threshold of pain (1 W/m2) then corresponds to

(10"dB)log(100/10-12)"="120"dB. Examples of Sound Intensity
A typical conversation (~10-6 W/m2) is around 65"dB. Intensity Intensity Level
at your ear at your ear
A whisper is more like 20"dB (~10-10 W/m2).
Ninja through dry leaves 0.5x10-12 W/m2 –3 dB
Remember that the frequency response of the human
ear isn’t uniform, so 65 dB will sound louder at some Threshold of hearing 1x10-12 W/m2 0 dB
frequencies than at others. There are specialized sound
scales and meters that adjust the numbers so that a Typical conversation 3.2x10-6 W/m2 65 dB
particular sound level will sound the same at all
frequencies. Pirate conversation 3.0x10-2 W/m2 105 dB

• The “dBA” scale is one of these. So 65 dBA sounds Rock concert 1x100 W/m2 120 dB
the same at all frequencies, but high and low
frequencies will carry a lot more power. Threshold of pain 1.0x101 W/m2 130 dB

47
 Decibels and Attenuation
It’s often useful to use other reference intensities for
various purposes.
Amplifiers and attenuators will sometimes list how
much they’re changing the signal in dB.
• In this case the “reference” intensity is the input.
Stereos often display volume in “negative decibels”.
• The stereo is attenuating (quietening) the signal
from the CD or whatever.
• 0 dB on this scale is an unattenuated signal.
(Positive dB means you’re actually amplifying it.)
49
Starting with the sound intensity level, first let’s write
down the difference:
So it’s basically the usual definition of sound intensity
level, but using the original intensity as the reference. (In
other words, decibels add!)
Now we’ll apply the inverse square law:
51
Example: Chirping Bird
Consider an “ideal” bird —"a point source. The bird’s
sound will be radiating equally in all directions, in a
spherical or hemispherical way, so it follows an inverse
square law.
If you go three times farther away from the bird, how
much does the sound intensity level of the birdsong
change?
How much does the pressure amplitude change?
50
So moving three times farther away from the bird
reduces the sound intensity level of the song by almost
10"dB.
What does this do to the pressure amplitude?
52
 We’re looking for pressure amplitude, and we have the
change in sound intensity level. This is related to the
sound intensity, which is related to the pressure
amplitude by the formula:
Since we’re looking for the relative change in pressure
amplitude we don’t actually need to know the density"ρ
or the bulk modulus B. (I’ll call the pressure amplitude p
here instead of pmax to tidy it up a bit.)
These cancel out;
it’s the same air!
Consider an imaginary cylinder of radius 12"m and height
10 m, with no end caps.
All of the acoustic energy that leaves the spark must pass
through this cylinder, at the same (total!) rate.
• So the total power passing through the cylinder is the
same as the total power coming from the source.
That energy is uniformly distributed
over the whole cylinder — by
symmetry.
So the intensity at any point on this
cylinder is the total power divided by
the cylinder’s area (ignoring the ends!).
55
e.g. Cylindrical sound wave
A (very large!) electric spark jumps along a straight line
of length L = 10 m, and produces a noise with acoustic
power of Ps = 1.6x104 W.
The bang travels radially outward from the spark; the
wave looks like an expanding cylinder.
• What is the intensity I of the sound at a distance of
r"="12"m from the spark?
• At what rate P d does sound energy reach an acoustic
detector of area Ad = 2.0 cm2, aimed at the spark and
located 12"m away from it?
54
Total power passing through the cylinder = Ps
Total area of the cylinder sides = 2π•r•L
Sound intensity at 12 m from the spark:
! I = P/A (definition of intensity!)
I = Ps / (2π•r•L)
! = (1.6x104 W) / (2π•(12 m)•(10 m))
! = 21.2 W/m2.
56
So that’s the intensity of sound at the surface of our
acoustic detector.
How much acoustic power is the detector receiving?
From the definition of intensity: P = I•A.
Area of the detector = Ad = 2.0 cm2 = 2.0x10–4 m2.
So the detector receives a power of:
! Pd = (21.2 W/m2)•(2.0x10–4 m2) ≈ 4.2x10–3 W
or 4.2 mW.
57
The Treachery of Images, René Magritte, c. 1928
So now you know:
• what “intensity” means (definition: I = P/A).
• how the intensity of a wave can change with
distance, what the “inverse square law” is, and when
it applies.
• how the intensity of a sound wave is related to its
displacement amplitude and pressure amplitude.
• what the “decibel” scale is, and how it measures
relative intensity.
• That is, the intensity of a wave relative to some
reference intensity.
58
Standing Waves in a Pipe
When a wave reaches the end of a pipe, whether the
end is open or closed, it reflects back into the pipe.
• The wave may be inverted or not at the reflection,
just like with a wave on a string with a loose or
fixed end.
The incoming and reflected wave interfere (their
displacements add), and just as with strings you get a
standing wave.
We can describe the standing wave in terms of
displacement or pressure, just like with other sound
waves.
60
 Longitudinal Waves and Pipe Ends
Standing Wave
Same wavefunction as a transverse standing wave! Closed end of a pipe = displacement node
displacement y of the particle at position x, at time t: (air has nowhere to go!)
! y(x,t) = A sin(kx) sin(ωt) • Pressure can change! ! pressure antinode
But now the displacement y is along the same direction
Open end of a pipe = displacement antinode
as the wave motion.
Magnutude of pressure change p is largest where • Pressure is equalized to atmospheric pressure!
displacement y is 0, and p = 0 where |y| is max. !"pressure node.
• displacement nodes = pressure antinodes
pressure nodes = displacement antinodes
So a good pressure wavefunction is:
! p(x,t) = pmax cos(kx) sin(ωt) 62

Wind
Instruments
Davis Organ @ Winspear
Usually have at least one end open, the
other either open or closed.

Generate “noise” by buzzing lips or a

reed, or blowing air past a “mouth”
(e.g. recorder, pipe organ).

• Noise is a continuous combination

of many frequencies!

Frequencies matching the pipe

harmonics resonate and are amplified.

63
 Standing Waves in a Pipe
Displacement
envelopes shown.
One Closed End (“Stopped”)
A pipe’s open end has a
displacement antinode. The closed
end has a displacement node. This
is a little different, obviously.
The distance between a node and
its nearest antinode is only λ/4. So
the longest wavelength you can get
in a “stopped” pipe is λ1=4L —
twice as long as before (so twice
as low a note!).
The next harmonic will occur
when we’ve squeezed in another
half cycle, so λ = 4L/3 = λ1/3.
After that we’ll get λ = 4L/5, etc...
— only odd harmonics allowed!
67
Two Open Ends
This is basically the opposite of
the “clamped” string, which had
displacement nodes at each end.
With two open ends we have
displacement antinodes and
pressure nodes.
The longest wavelength that can
produce a standing wave is still
λ1=2L, just like with a clamped
string.
The situation is basically the same
as before, so the formulas turn Allowed standing
out the same. (Remember v = λf.) waves in a pipe
with two open
ends.
66
Frequency and Temperature
The wavelengths of standing waves possible in a pipe are
determined by the length of the pipe.
Since v = λf (for any wave, remember!) this means the
frequency will depend on the speed of sound in the pipe
— and that depends on air temperature!
As the temperature changes, the tuning of the
instrument changes. (As you may know if you’ve ever
played music outdoors.)
This can be a big problem for large pipe organs; often
Allowed standing some pipes are warmer than others.
waves in a pipe
with one open
68
end.
 Resonance and Sound
We studied forced oscillations previously. It works
the same way with sound in a pipe as it does with a
simple harmonic oscillator.
If you generate a sound with some frequency near the
pipe, the molecules of air in the pipe will oscillate with
that frequency (just like the rest of the air). That’s all
there is to forced oscillations and sound.
Just like before, if you drive the molecules of air at a
frequency they’d like to move at anyway, the
oscillations build up, the amplitude increases, and you
get resonance.
69
e.g.: Sound resonance
You pick up a cardboard tube of length L = 67.0 cm and
hold it near your ear. Random background sounds from
the room set up a standing wave in the tube at its
fundamental frequency.
(Other standing waves, too, but the fundamental
frequency is strongest.)
• Assuming the speed of sound is v = 343 m/s, what
fundamental frequency do you hear from the tube?
• If you jam your ear against one end of the tube, what
fundamental frequency do you hear from the tube?
71
The simple harmonic oscillator has only one resonant
frequency; if you let it go it will oscillate with that
frequency.
But air in a pipe (or a string!) will be happy to oscillate in
any of its harmonics.
So if you apply sound with the same frequency as one
(or more!) of the pipe's harmonics the air in the pipe
will resonate.
• As the sound reflects back and forth in the pipe, it’s
reinforced and added to by the incoming sound.
• You may have already seen this in your labs.
70
Example: guitar and pipe
A 3 m stopped organ pipe (one end open) generates
sound in its first harmonic. The speed of sound in the
pipe is 350 m/s.
A nearby piece of guitar string is excited into its third
harmonic by the sound. The string has linear mass
density 5 g/m and tension 50 N.
How long is the guitar string?
72
 So now you know: Interference of Waves
• what standing sound waves are possible in a pipe, Interference is the term for what happens when two
and how that depends on whether the pipe ends are or more waves overlap. Standing waves are a good
open or closed. example.
• How the wavelength and frequency of a standing A different type of interference occurs when you have
sound wave are related to the sound speed and the two or more similar waves travelling in the same
pipe length (and pipe ends). direction, or spreading out together in space.
• how sound waves can set up standing waves by The waves can add constructively, or destructively. Which
resonance. one you get depends on the relative phase of the
two waves at the place you’re looking.
(Remember, the principle of superposition is the
statement that when two waves overlap, they just add.)
73 74

Some Demos
Combined
waveform

wave 1 Several animations showing superposition of 1-D

wave 2 waves, including beats, standing waves, and more:
http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/superposition/superposition.html
Waves exactly in phase Waves exactly out of phase
∆ϕ = (2n)π, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ... ∆ϕ = (2n+1)π, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ... Building snapshot & history graphs:
At the place where we’re looking, the two waves have http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/wave-x-t/wave-x-t.html

different phases (in general). ∆ϕ = difference in phase.

Two-source interference (shown later):
Remember: phase = kx – ωt + ϕ0.
∆ϕ depends on: http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/feschools/waves/super2.htm

• how the waves were created (different ϕ values) 0

• how far they travelled (difference in x/λ (or kx))

• what happened to them on the way (reflections etc)
∆ϕ can have any value! 75 76
Phase Difference
Think of a microphone placed near a set
of two speakers, producing sound like this:
• the same pure (single frequency) tone.
• produced in phase (simultaneous
crests, etc).
The principle of superposition says that the
sound wave at the microphone will be the
sum of the waves from each source.
• Here we have identical waves, with
different phases when they reach the
mic.
How they add depends on the difference in
phase ∆ϕ at the microphone.
• In this case, ∆ϕ depends only on the
difference in path length, ∆L.
77
∆ϕ vs ∆L
Remember that phase is kx – ωt + ϕ0.
• We’re told the speakers are emitting in phase, so
their wavefunctions have the same ϕ0 values.
• The mic is listening to both speakers at the same
time, so their wavefunctions have the same t values.
• The waves travelled different distances to reach the
mic, so their wavefunctions have different x values!
•x 1 = L1 and x2 = L2.
Use this to relate the phase difference ∆ϕ to the
path difference ∆L.
78

Example: Pirates vs Ninjas

Two Ninjas board a pirate’s ship
and head toward the mast when Pirate
they’re spotted by a Pirate. They
both attack with sound beam guns
at the same time. The frequency
of the beams is 940 Hz.

beam

sou
nd
Does the Pirate experience the

d
Difference in phase

bea
soun
beams as constructive or destructive 5.00 m
at the microphone

m
Radians interference, or somewhere in
Difference in per cycle between?
number of cycles 1.00 m 3.00 m
Remember, this equation assumes: Ninja mast Ninja

•the waves were created in phase, and that

•nothing happened to them on the way.
79 80
Speed of sound = 344 m/s.
 Beats Consider two sound waves with fa > fb. Then Ta < Tb.
Choose t = 0 at a point where the waves are in phase at
Beats in sound are one particular case of superposition. When two
periodic waves of very close (but not equal) wavelengths overlap, the the place where we’re listening. (Call that position x =
combined wave will pulse, or “beat”. 0.)
The next time the two waves will be in phase will be
wave 1 when wave a has gone through exactly one more cycle
than wave b. The phase difference at this point will have
wave 2 increased by 2π. Call this time t = Tbeat, the “beat
period”.
Let n = number of cycles wave a goes through in this
time; then wave b goes through (n –"1) cycles.
Combined
waveform ! Tbeat = nTa! for wave a
" Tbeat = (n –"1)Tb! for wave b
81 82

Solve one equation for n and plug it into the other, and
rearrange. (We want to get rid if n, but keep Tbeat.)
We get:
Since f = 1/T, flip this over:
This started with the definition fa > fb. In general:
So now you know:
• what “constructive interference” and “destructive
interference” are.
• how you can determine what will happen when two
waves interfere by looking at the relative phase.
• what happens when two sounds with very similar
frequencies interfere.

! fbeat = |fa –"fb|

So the “beat frequency” (the frequency of pulses) is just

the difference in the two original frequencies.
83 84
 The Doppler Effect Doppler: Stationary listener
I think most of you are familiar with the Doppler effect.
Think of an engine or a siren going by. (“Vreeeee-
whooooooom...”)
Let’s figure out how that works.
First, a simulation:
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/doppler.htm

85

Doppler: Stationary Listener The wavelength is the distance between crests in a

snapshot. So it’s the distance to the last crest when the
How do we determine the frequency of sound the next crest is generated.
v vs Time t = 0
listener hears, when the source is moving at speed vs? “ping”
(Note that it will be different in front of or behind the
moving source.) vTs vsTs
The speed of sound is whatever it is in the medium v v vs Time t = Ts
(e.g. air), regardless of how the source is moving. “ping”
λ
The time to generate one cycle of sound is the period
(by definition): Ts = 1/fs. This is the time that goes by Then the wavelength is the distance travelled by the first
after one crest is generated before the next one crest plus the distance the source moved before
comes out. producing the next crest.
During this time, the wave move a distance vTs, and In front: λ = vTs – vsTs = (v–vs)Ts = (v–vs)/fs.
the source moves a distance vsTs. Behind the source: λ = vTs + vsTs = (v+vs)Ts = (v+vs)/fs.
87 88
To find out what frequency the listener hears, look at
what happens to the period:
TL, the period of the waves heard by the listener, is the
time it takes two successive crests to pass the listener
(regardless of where they came from). After one crest
goes by, the wave has to travel a distance of λ for the
next crest to reach the listener.
The wave’s speed is v. Then TL = λ/v. That means
fL = v/λ, and:
behind the source in front of the source
89
Doppler: Moving Listener
If the listener is moving in the same direction as the
source, then the speed at which the waves are
approaching the listener is v + vL.
Then the time it takes for the listener to hear two
successive crests is going to be TL = λ/(v + vL).
Plug in lambda from before ((v+vs)/fs or (v–vs)/fs) to get
the general Doppler shift equation, for either a moving
source or a moving listener or both:
The Doppler Effect
for a moving source s
and/or a moving listener L.
v = speed of sound.
90

e.g.: Car chases Example: Diana, Duck of Science

police you
Diana, Duck of Science!, fires her
assistant Bob the Thrillseeking Cat
S L out of a cannon at 30 m/s.
μ!
At what frequency does Diana
hear Bob’s 1000 Hz meow, before
S L and after Bob has passed her?

If Diana sends a 10,000 Hz sound

pulse at Bob after he’s passed her,
S L at what frequency does she hear Quark!
the reflection?

S L
92
 Sonic Boom Recall that the wavelength of the sound in front of the
object is given by:
As we saw in the Doppler Effect
sim, the faster an object is moving
the more the waves in front of it
bunch up. When vs = v, the wave length is zero —"representing the
It takes an increasing amount of
waves piling up on top of each other, as we discussed.
force to compress the air like When vs > v, this equation is no longer meaningful!
that, the faster the plane goes; this
is the “sound barrier”.
Once the object is moving faster
than the speed of sound, it’s
outpacing the sound waves; each
wave is generated outside the
previous one.
Waves pile up, and the result is a Navy Lt. Ron Candiloro's F/A-18 Hornet
shock wave. Breaking the “Sound Barrier”
http://www.defenselink.mil/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=43041
93 94

The sound created at

point S1 expands in all
So now you know:
directions by a distance • what the Doppler Effect is, and what causes it.
vt in time t. In that
time the object moves • what the relationship is between the frequency of
sound produced by some source and the frequency
forward by a distance detected by some listener, when one or both is
vst. moving.
Then, from the diagram, the angle α between the • what causes a “sonic boom”.
shockwave and the direction of motion is given by:

or Mach number:

shock wave angle

95 96