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Introduction
Propeller analysis calculates the thrust provided and the power required
by a propeller at a particular velocity and propeller rotation speed.
The design objective is to maximize the thrust and to minimize the power.
The blade geometry is designed to maximize the thrust for a given speed
of rotation, engine power and flight speed.
1
Outline of what we will study
1. Dimensional analysis
2. Momentum Theory
Finite wing effects are not required, such as in lifting line theory.
Once this velocity is calculated then the lift and drag forces on a
propeller can be calculated at a number of sections.
The individual lift and drag forces can then be integrated (or summed
numerically) from the strip solutions to give the overall thrust and power.
2
1) Propeller Dimensional Analysis
• geometric similarity
• dynamic similarity.
D = f (U , d , ρ , µ )
Here, there are n = 5 variables, k = 3 quantities, so that the number of
dimensionless parameters, ρ = 5 - 3 = 2.
3
In this simple example there are two nondimensional coefficients, i.e.
D
Drag coefficient, C D = 2
1
2 ρU
ρUd
Reynolds number based on diameter, Rd =
µ
Application to Propellers
Thrust, T:
So T = T ( D, n, ρ ,ν , K ,V0 )
4
Since there are n = 6 variables and k =3 quantities, there will be 3
nondimensional coefficients:
T = CD a nb ρ cν d K eV0 f
Equating for M: 1 = c + e
Equating for L: 1 = a - 3c + 2d - e + f
Equating for T: -2 = - b - d - 2e - f
c = 1 - e
b = 2 - d - 2e - f
a = 1 + 3c - 2d + e - f
i.e. a = 4 - 2d - 2e - f
which gives
K 2
(2) D 2 n 2 ρ , which is of the form of (Mach number)
K a2 π 2a2 π2
D 2n2 ρ = 2
= =
(VTip ) 2 ( M Tip ) 2
( Dn )
V0
(3) nD , which is a non-dimensional velocity
V0
n is the distance travelled in a single revolution
V
So 0 is the distance travelled in one revolution
nD
measured in propeller diameters
V0
This quantity is known as the Advance Ratio, J=
nD
and it is a very important propeller parameter
6
So the equation for the propeller thrust is given by
T = C ρ n 2 D 4 f ( ReTip , M Tip , J ) = kT ρ n 2 D 4
So if ReTip, MTip and J are the same for the model and the full-size
propeller then complete similarity exists.
Torque, Q:
The torque is required to calculate the input power.
By using similar arguments as to those for Thrust above
Q = C ' ρ n 2 D5 g ( ReTip , M Tip , J ) = kQ ρ n 2 D5
Efficiency:
J kT
Hence the propeller efficiency is given by η P =
2π kQ
7
Power:
Using similarity arguments again
PIN = C p ρ n3 D 5 where Cp is known as the Power Coefficient
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Other Propeller Parameters
Other parameters are used to characterise a propeller. These include:
The Blade Activity Factor, AF, is a measure of the amount of power that
a propeller can absorb.
9
Ignoring any flow which is induced through the propeller, then the
velocity and forces acting on the blade element can be represented as:
2
Drag of element: ∆D = CD 12 ρV 2 ∆S = CD 12 ρ ( 2π rn ) c∆r
If the propeller has B blades, then the total torque required to drive the
propeller is given by
Tip
∫
2
Q=B CD 12 ρ ( 2π rn ) rc.dr
Hub
Tip
∫ cr .dr =
2 2 3
= 2π ρ CD Bn
Hub
∫ cr .dr
3 3 3
P = 2π nQ = 4π ρ CD Bn
Hub
In practice the inner part of the propeller is ineffective, so the lower limit
is assumed to be at 20% of the propeller radius (0.2R or 0.1D).
∫
3 3
P = 4π ρ CD Bn cr 3 .dr
0.2R
10
5
3 D 3
So the power, P, is given by P = 4π ρ CD Bn AF
10
The Blade Activity Factor depends only on the chord distribution, c(r).
1 3 1
r r 64
CLi = 4 ∫ Cli d = 4 ∫ Cli r 3dr
0.2 R R D 0.2
Where the sectional design lift coefficient, Cli , is the value of the lift
Note that Cli may vary along the span of the propeller.
A propeller with a larger CLi is able to generate more thrust for the same
distribution of chord.
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Propeller Pitch
1) Geometric Pitch
The Geometric Pitch, β, is the angle between the propeller plane and the
blade element zero lift incidence.
The geometric twist varies with span and so the blade twist is defined by
the value at one station, usually 0.75 R.
A propeller with little twist is called “fine” and the blade elements have
little incidence.
A “coarse” propeller has a lot of twist and its blade elements have large
incidence.
The value of ρG is not fixed but varies with forward speed Vo and the
propeller angular velocity n.
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For a given value of geometric pitch, say β A, the efficiency ηP of a
propeller varies with the advance ratio J.
If the propeller is designed so that the blade can be rotated about its
longitudinal axis then the geometric pitch can be changed to, say, βB
So the above propeller might use βB for take-off and β A for cruise.
There is a pitch angle that will provide the best efficiency for every J.
If the pitch of the propeller blade can be varied then the best efficiency
possible can be adjusted for every airspeed.
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Momentum Theory
The following approach can be used for any propulsive device, e.g.
propeller, turbojet and jet engines. A propeller is shown below where the
A’s represent section Areas and the V’s represent Velocities.
Newton’s Third Law: air applies an equal & opposite force (thrust).
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PIN = d 12 m (VS2 − V02 ) = 12 m& (VS2 − V02 )
dt
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Application of Momentum Theory to Propellers
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Previous analysis: m& = ρ ADVD and T = m& (VS − V0 ) = ρ ADVD (VS − V0 )
VS + V0
Hence VD (VS − V0 ) = 1
2 (V
S
2
− V02 ) or VD =
2
Hence VS = V0 (1 + 2a )
2V0 1
ηP = =
VS + V0 1 + a
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Blade Element Theory
The forces on the blades are estimated by dividing it into elements.
When the aerodynamic forces on each element are known, the forces can
be integrated to give the total thrust, torque and power.
When the velocities VT and VQ are known, then the blade incidence
(angle-of-attack) is known and hence the blade forces can be calculated.
Most of the thrust velocity VT occurs from the velocity of the aircraft V0.
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Also, the propeller is rotating, which causes the slipstream to rotate.
Aerodynamic forces are calculated using elemental lift, ∆L and drag, ∆D.
The element lift, ∆L, and the element drag, ∆D, can be calculated once
the incidence, α, and resultant velocity VR are known, i.e.
2
∆D = BCD 12 ρVR2c∆r , where CD = CD (α ) = CD0 + kCL2 = CD0 + k ( aα )
The aerodynamic forces are resolved to get the component of the thrust
and torque provided by the blade element:
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∆T = B [ ∆L cos φ − ∆D sin φ ] = B 12 ρVR2 c∆r [ CL cos φ − CD sin φ ] , and
dT
= B 12 ρVR2 c [CL cos φ − CD sin φ ] , and
dr
dQ
= B 12 ρVR2cr [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]
dr
VT V (1 + a )
VR can be eliminated from these equations since VR = = 0
sin φ sin φ
2
dT V 2
(1 + a ) c C cos φ − C sin φ , and
= B 12 ρ 0
[ L D ]
dr sin 2 φ
2
dQ V02 (1 + a )
=B2ρ
1
2
cr [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]
dr sin φ
Note that they are both measures of the inflow and that additional
information is used from momentum theory to account for them
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Recall that T = ρ ADVD (VS − V0 )
So that T = ρ ADV02 (1 + a )( 2a )
The inflow varies along the span of the propeller
This variation can be accounted for by applying momentum theory only
to the section of the disk covered by the blade element.
dT ∆T
So that = = 4πρ rV02 a (1 + a )
dr ∆r
2
V02 (1 + a )
Hence 4πρ rV0 a (1 + a ) = B 2 ρ
2 1
c [ CL cos φ − CD sin φ ]
sin 2 φ
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All of this information gives a set of equations with the following
unknowns: a, φ, CL, CD and α at each blade element.
These unknowns are found using the following relations.
α = β −φ
CL = CLα α
CD = CD0 + kCL2
V0 (1 + a )
tan φ =
2π nr
a Bc [CL cos φ − CD sin φ ]
=
1 + a 8π r sin 2 φ
Once these equations have been solved then the local Thrust and Torque
gradients can be calculated using equations derived previously, i.e.
2
dT V 2
(1 + a ) c C cos φ − C sin φ , and
= B 12 ρ 0
[ L D ]
dr sin 2 φ
2
dQ V02 (1 + a )
=B2ρ
1
cr [ CL sin φ + CD cos φ ]
dr sin 2 φ
The power required to drive the propeller can be calculated from the
torque, P = 2π nQ
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Note that the theory presented in these Course Notes is simplified but
nevertheless contains the main elements required for a thorough analysis
of propeller performance.
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Example: Old Exam Question
The chord and pitch distribution of a propeller blade is specified in the
table below. The blade pitch is measured from a reference line to the
local chord line. The blade element section properties are provided
below, and they can be assumed uniform along the blade,
Lift curve slope: 6.0
Zero lift incidence: α0 = - 4°
Drag coefficient: 0.01, assumed to be constant independent of lift
The blade is on a 2.5 m diameter propeller with 3 blades and a hub
diameter of 0.5 m, which is operating at 1600 RPM at airspeed of 200
KEAS at sea level where the air density is 1.225 Kg m-3. The pitch angle
of the blade reference line is, βHub = 22°. Note that β = β Hub + β c − α 0
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Solution
Use the following information:
CLα = 6.0, B =3, V0 = 200 KEAS = 102.9 m/s,
α 0 = −4°, R = 1.25m, ρ = 1.225 Kg / m3 ,
CD = 0.01, n = 1600 / 60 = 26.67 rev/s
(a) At r / R = 0.7, φi = 36° = 0.628 rad
Hence r = 0.7 × 1.25 = 0.875 m
and c = 0.07 × 2.5 = 0.175 m
V0 (1 + a )
tan (φi ) =
2π nr
2π nr 2π × 26.67 × 0.875
(1 + a ) = tan (φi ) = tan ( 36° ) = 1.0353
V0 102.9
a = 0.0353
α = β − φi
β = β Hub + β c − α 0 = 22° + 15.5° + 4° = 41.5°
α = 41.5° − 36° = 5.5°
5.5
CL = CLα × α = 6.0 × × 2π = 0.576
360
2 2
dT 1 V0 (1 + a )
=B ρ 2
c [ CL cos φi − CD sin φi ]
dr 2 sin φi
1.225 102.92 × 1.03532
= 3× 2
× 0.175 × [ 0.576 × cos36° − 0.01 × sin 36°]
2 sin ( 36° )
dT
= 4860 N/m
dr
2 2
dQ 1 V0 (1 + a )
=B ρ cr [CL sin φi − CD cos φi ]
dr 2 sin 2 φi
= 10563 × 0.875 × [ 0.576 × sin 36° − 0.01 × cos36°]
dQ
= 3204 Nm/m
dr
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(b) Note that Hub is located at r / R = 0.25 / 1.25 = 0.2
8
dTi
Total Thrust = ∑ ∆ri , where ∆ri is constant, ∆r = 0.1× 1.25 = 0.125
i =1 dr
8
dTi
∑ dr = 13 + 895 + 2, 078 + 3,370 + 4,545 + 4,961 + 5, 408 + 5,559 = 26,829
i=1
TV 3354 × 102.9
η= =
P 368.7 × 1000
η = 0.936
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