Amplitude modulation (AM) is a form of modulation in which the amplitude of a carrier wave is

varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating signal. (Contrast this with frequency modulation,
in which the frequency of the carrier is varied; and phase modulation, in which the phase is varied.)
AM is commonly used at radio frequencies and was the first method used to broadcast commercial
radio. The term "AM" is sometimes used generically to refer to the AM broadcast (mediumwave)
band (see AM radio). Ampli ...

Including:

• Amplitude modulation - Applications in radio

o Amplitude modulation - AM vs. FM
• Amplitude modulation - Forms of AM
• Amplitude modulation - Example
o Amplitude modulation - A more general example
• Amplitude modulation - Modulation index
• Amplitude modulation - Amplitude modulator designs
o Amplitude modulation - Circuits
o Amplitude modulation - Low level
o Amplitude modulation - High level

Read more here: » Amplitude modulation: Encyclopedia - Amplitude modulation

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Amplitude

modulation - Applications in radio
A basic AM radio transmitter works by first DC-shifting the modulating signal, then multiplying
it with the carrier wave using a frequency mixer. The output of this process is a signal with the
same frequency as the carrier but with peaks and troughs that vary in proportion to the
strength of the modulating signal. This is amplified and fed to an antenna. Amplitude
modulation - AM vs. FM. AM radio's main limitation is its susceptibility to atmospheric
interference, which is heard as static from the receive ...

See also:
Amplitude modulation, Amplitude modulation - Applications in radio, Amplitude modulation -
AM vs. FM, Amplitude modulation - Forms of AM, Amplitude modulation - Example, Amplitude
modulation - A more general example, Amplitude modulation - Modulation index, Amplitude
modulation - Amplitude modulator designs, Amplitude modulation - Circuits, Amplitude
modulation - Low level, Amplitude modulation - High level
Read more here: » Amplitude modulation: Encyclopedia II - Amplitude modulation -
Applications in radio

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Automatic gain control

Automatic gain control (AGC) is an electronic system found in many types of devices. Its
purpose is to control the gain of a system in order to maintain some measure of performance
over a changing range of real world conditions. A very common and typical example is the AGC
used in AM radio. Such a receiver is essentially linear - that is, the output is proportional to the
input. This is a necessary requirement because the information content of the signal is carried
by the changes of amplitude of the carrier frequency. If the c ...
Read more here: » Automatic gain control: Encyclopedia - Automatic gain control

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Very low frequency

Very low frequency or VLF refers to radio frequencies (RF) in the range of 3 to 30 kHz. Since
there is not much bandwidth in this band of the radio spectrum, only the very simplest signals
are used, such as for radionavigation. Because VLF waves can penetrate water only to a depth
of roughly 10 to 40 metres (30 to 130 feet), depending on the frequency and the salinity of
the water, they are used to communicate with submarines nea ...

Including:

• Very low frequency - Details of VLF submarine communication methods

• Very low frequency - PC-based VLF reception
• Very low frequency - List of VLF transmitters

Read more here: » Very low frequency: Encyclopedia - Very low frequency

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Orthogonal frequency-

division multiplexing
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM), also sometimes called discrete multitone
modulation (DMT), is a transmission technique based upon the idea of frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM). Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Characteristics. An OFDM
carrier signal is the sum of a number of orthogonal sub-carriers, with baseband data on each
sub-carrier being independently modulated commonly using some type of quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM) or phase-shift keyin ...

Including:

• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Characteristics

o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Benefits
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Disadvantages of OFDM
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - OFDM feature abstract
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Usage
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - ADSL
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Wireless LAN
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Digital radio and television
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - DVB-T's implementation of
COFDM
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - DRM and Eureka-147's DAB
implementation of COFDM
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Ultra wideband
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Flash-OFDM
o Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - BST-OFDM
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Ideal encoder
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Mathematical Description
• Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - OFDM history

Read more here: » Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing: Encyclopedia - Orthogonal

frequency-division multiplexing

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Audio level compression

Audio level compression, also called compression or limiting, is a process that manipulates the
dynamic range of an audio signal. Compression is used in sound recording and live sound
reinforcement fields to improve the perceived quality of audio. (This should not be confused
with audio data compression, which reduces the data size of digital audio signals.) A
compressor is the device used to create compression. Audio level compression - Controls. A
compressor reduces the dynamic range ...

Including:

• Audio level compression - Controls

• Audio level compression - Limiting
• Audio level compression - Side-chaining
• Audio level compression - Multiband compression
• Audio level compression - Common uses
• Audio level compression - Underlying electronics
• Audio level compression - Other uses

Read more here: » Audio level compression: Encyclopedia - Audio level compression

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Alternator

An alternator is an electromechanical device that converts mechanical energy to alternating
current electrical energy. Most alternators use a rotating magnetic field. Different geometries -
such as a linear alternator for use with stirling engines - are also occasionally used. In principle
any AC generator can be called an alternator, but usually the word refers to small rotating
machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines. Alternator - History.
Alternating current generating ...

Including:

• Alternator - History
• Alternator - Theory of operation
• Alternator - Automotive alternators
• Alternator - Radio alternators
• Alternator - External articles and futher reading
Read more here: » Alternator: Encyclopedia - Alternator

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Amateur Radio Direction

Finding
Amateur Radio Direction Finding is an amateur map and compass sport that combines the
skills of orienteering and radio direction finding. It is a timed race in which individual
competitors use a topographic map and a magnetic compass to navigate through diverse,
wooded terrain while searching for radio transmitters. The rules of the sport and international
competititions are organized by the International Amateur Radio Union. World wide, the sport
is most often refered to by its English language acronym, ARDF, but ...

Including:

• Amateur Radio Direction Finding - History

• Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Description of competition and rules
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Entry categories
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Youth competitions
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Local variations
• Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Map and course details
• Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Equipment and clothing
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Transmitter equipment
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Receiver equipment
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Clothing
o Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Other equipment
• Amateur Radio Direction Finding - Variations

Read more here: » Amateur Radio Direction Finding: Encyclopedia - Amateur Radio Direction
Finding

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Amateur radio

Amateur radio, often called ham radio, is a hobby enjoyed by many people throughout the
world. An amateur radio operator, ham, or radio amateur uses two-way radio to communicate
with other radio amateurs, for recreation or self-edification. As of 2004 there were about 3
million hams worldwide with about 700,000 in the USA, 600,000 in Japan, 140,000 each in
South Korea and Thailand, 57,000 in Canada, 70,000 in Germany, 60,000 in UK, 11,000 in
Sweden, and 5,000 in Norway. Amateur radio - ...

Including:

• Amateur radio - History

• Amateur radio - Amateur Radio Activities and Practices
o Amateur radio - Emergency and public service communications
o Amateur radio - DXing QSL cards and awards
o Amateur radio - Contesting
o Amateur radio - Vintage Radio
o Amateur radio - VHF UHF and microwave weak-signal operation
o Amateur radio - Portable operations
o Amateur radio - Low power operations
• Amateur radio - Amateur radio licensing
o Amateur radio - US Licensing
o Amateur radio - International operation
o Amateur radio - Privileges of the Amateur
• Amateur radio - Governance and amateur radio societies
o Amateur radio - Band plans and frequency allocations
• Amateur radio - Amateur radio in popular culture
• Amateur radio - Publications

Read more here: » Amateur radio: Encyclopedia - Amateur radio

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia - Sound effect

For the album, see Sound Affects. Sound effects or audio effects are artificially created or
enhanced sounds, or sound processes used to emphasize artistic or other content of movies,
video games, music, or other media. In motion picture and television production, a sound
effect is a sound recorded and presented to make a specific storytelling or creative point
without the use of dialogue or music. The term often refers to a process applied to a recording,
without necessarily referring to the recordi ...

Including:

• Sound effect - History

• Sound effect - In film
• Sound effect - In video games
• Sound effect - Recording effects
• Sound effect - Processing effects
• Sound effect - Aesthetics in film
• Sound effect - Techniques

Read more here: » Sound effect: Encyclopedia - Sound effect

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Frequency

modulation - Theory
If the signal to be transmitted is which is restricted in amplitude to be and the sinusoidal
carrier is where fc is the carrier's base frequency in hertz and A is an arbitrary amplitude, the
carrier will be modulated by the signal as in where, f(t) = fc + fΔx ...

See also:
Frequency modulation, Frequency modulation - Applications in radio, Frequency modulation -
Theory, Frequency modulation - Modulation Index
Read more here: » Frequency modulation: Encyclopedia II - Frequency modulation - Theory

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Frequency

modulation - Applications in radio
Edwin Armstrong presented his paper: "A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling
by a System of Frequency Modulation", which first described FM radio, before the New York
section of the Institute of Radio Engineers on November 6, 1935. Frequency modulation
requires a wider bandwidth than amplitude modulation by an equivalent modulating signal, but
this also makes the signal more robust against interference. Frequency modulation is also
more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena. As a result, FM was chosen
a ...

See also:
Frequency modulation, Frequency modulation - Applications in radio, Frequency modulation -
Theory, Frequency modulation - Modulation Index
Read more here: » Frequency modulation: Encyclopedia II - Frequency modulation -
Applications in radio

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Rectifier -

Applications
One of the first applications of rectifiers was detection of amplitude modulated radio signals by
a diode. In early Crystal radio receivers the diode was a simple piece of semiconductive
mineral. Rectifier - Power transmission. AC is used for current transmission because it can
easily be stepped up or down in voltage by a simple transformer. High voltage power lines
transmit the same power at lower current (which causes lower heat) and it is then stepped
down by substation transformers to the more manageab ...

See also:
Rectifier, Rectifier - 'Half-wave' rectification, Rectifier - 'Full-wave' rectification, Rectifier -
Applications, Rectifier - Power transmission, Rectifier - Rectifier output smoothing, Rectifier -
Rectification efficiency
Read more here: » Rectifier: Encyclopedia II - Rectifier - Applications

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Radio control -

Modern military and aerospace applications
Remote control military applications are typically not radio control in the direct sense, directly
operating flight control surfaces and propulsion power settings, but instead take the form of
instructions sent to a completely autonomous, computerized automatic pilot. Instead of a "turn
left" signal that is applied until the aircraft is flying in the right direction, the system sends a
single instruction that says "fly to this point". The most outstanding example of remote r ...

See also:
Radio control, Radio control - History, Radio control - Military applications in the Second World
War, Radio control - Radio-controlled models, Radio control - Modern military and aerospace
applications, Radio control - Industrial control
Read more here: » Radio control: Encyclopedia II - Radio control - Modern military and
aerospace applications

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Quadrature amplitude

modulation - Overview
As with all modulation schemes, QAM conveys data by changing some aspect of a base signal,
the carrier wave, (usually a sinusoid) in response to a data signal. In the case of QAM, the
amplitude of two quadrature waves is changed (modulated or keyed) to represent the data
signal. Phase modulation (analogue PM) and phase-shift keying (digital PSK) can be regarded
as a special case of QAM, where the amplitude of the modulating signal is constant, with only
the phase varying. This can also be extended to frequency modulation (FM) and frequency-
shift keying (FSK), as ...

See also:
Quadrature amplitude modulation, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Overview, Quadrature
amplitude modulation - Ideal structure, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Transmitter,
Quadrature amplitude modulation - Receiver, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Performance,
Quadrature amplitude modulation - Definitions, Quadrature amplitude modulation -
Rectangular QAM, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Odd-k QAM, Quadrature amplitude
modulation - Non-rectangular QAM
Read more here: » Quadrature amplitude modulation: Encyclopedia II - Quadrature amplitude
modulation - Overview

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Quadrature amplitude

modulation - Ideal structure
Quadrature amplitude modulation - Transmitter. The following picture shows the ideal
structure of a QAM transmitter: First the flow of bits to be transmitted is split into two equal
parts: this process generates two independent signals to be transmitted. They are encoded
separately just like they were in an ASK modulator. Then one channel (the one "in phase") is
multiplied by a cosine, while the other channel ("in quadrature") is multiplied by a sine. This
way there is a phase of 90° between them. They are simply added one to the other and sent
through the real channel.
See also:

Quadrature amplitude modulation, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Overview,

Quadrature amplitude modulation - Ideal structure, Quadrature amplitude
modulation - Transmitter, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Receiver, Quadrature
amplitude modulation - Performance, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Definitions,
Quadrature amplitude modulation - Rectangular QAM, Quadrature amplitude
modulation - Odd-k QAM, Quadrature amplitude modulation - Non-rectangular QAM
Read more here: » Quadrature amplitude modulation: Encyclopedia II - Quadrature
amplitude modulation - Ideal structure

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Radio control -

Military applications in the Second World War
Radio control was further developed during World War II, primarily by the Germans who used
it in a number of missile projects. Their main effort was the development of radio-controlled
missiles and glide bombs for use against shipping, a target that is otherwise both difficult and
dangerous to attack. However by the end of the war the Luftwaffe was having similar problems
attacking allied bombers, and developed ...

See also:
Radio control, Radio control - History, Radio control - Military applications in the Second World
War, Radio control - Radio-controlled models, Radio control - Modern military and aerospace
applications, Radio control - Industrial control
Read more here: » Radio control: Encyclopedia II - Radio control - Military applications in the
Second World War

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Orthogonal

frequency-division multiplexing - Mathematical Description
The low-pass equivalent OFDM signal is expressed as where {Ik} are the data symbols, N is
the number of subcarriers, and T is the OFDM block time. The subcarriers spacing of 1 / T Hz
makes the subcarriers orthogonal; this property is ex ...

See also:
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing -
Characteristics, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Benefits, Orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing - Disadvantages of OFDM, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing -
OFDM feature abstract, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Usage, Orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing - ADSL, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing -
HomePlug powerline alliance, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Wireless LAN,
Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - Digital radio and television, Orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing - DVB-T's implementation of COFDM, Orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing - DRM and Eureka-147's DAB implementation of COFDM, Orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing - Ultra wideband, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing -
Flash-OFDM, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - BST-OFDM, Orthogonal frequency-
division multiplexing - Ideal encoder, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing -
Mathematical Description, Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing - OFDM history
Read more here: » Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing: Encyclopedia II - Orthogonal
frequency-division multiplexing - Mathematical Description

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Klystron tube - Reflex

klystron
In the reflex klystron, the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The
electrons are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun. After passing through the
resonant cavity they are reflected by a negatively charged reflector electrode for another pass
through the cavity, where they are then collected. The electron beam is velocity modulated
when it first passes through the cavity. The formation of electron bunches takes place in the
drift space between the reflector and the cavity. The voltage on the reflector mu ...

See also:
Klystron tube, Klystron tube - Two-chamber klystron, Klystron tube - Reflex klystron, Klystron
tube - Multicavity klystron, Klystron tube - Multibeam klystron, Klystron tube - Floating drift
tube klystron, Klystron tube - Collector, Klystron tube - Applications
Read more here: » Klystron tube: Encyclopedia II - Klystron tube - Reflex klystron

amplitude modulation - applications in radio: Encyclopedia II - Electronics

engineering - Subfields
Electronics engineering has many subfields. This section describes some of the most popular
subfields in electronics engineering. Although there are engineers who focus exclusively on one
subfield, there are also many who focus on a combination of subfields. For more information
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Methods
on•each2 Frequency synthesis
of the following, click the read more... link. Electronics engineering - Overview of
2.1 FixedElectronics
electronicsoengineering. frequencyengineering
systems involves the design and testing of electronic
circuits that use the electronic properties
o 2.2 Variable frequency systems of components such as resistors, capacitors,
inductors
• 3 Frequency multiplication
• 4 Frequency mixing and modulation
o 4.1 AM modes
Radio transmitter design
 4.1.1 Low level and high level
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
 4.1.1.1 Low level
Jump to: navigation, search
 4.1.1.2 High level
This article has multiple issues.ofPlease
4.1.2 Types help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
AM modulators
 4.1.2.1 Plate AM modulators
• It may contain an excessive amountAM
4.1.2.2 Screen of intricate detail which may only interest a specific audience. Tagged since August 2008.
modulators
• It oneeds 4.2to be updated.
Other modes whichTaggedare
since August
related to2009.
AM
 4.2.1 Single-sideband modulation
• It may need a complete
 4.2.1.1 rewrite
Filtertomethod
meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Tagged since May 2009.
This article only describes  one4.2.1.2 Phasing
highly methodaspect of its associated subject. Please help improve this article by adding more general
specialized
 4.2.2 Vestigial-sideband
information. The talk page may contain suggestions. modulation
(October 2009)
 4.2.3 Morse
Radio transmitter design is a complex topic which can be broken down into a series
o 4.3
of smaller topics. FMcommunication
A radio modes system requires two tuned circuits each at
the transmitter and receiver,
 4.3.1 Direct FMto the same frequency. The transmitter
all four tuned [1]

is an electronic device which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an

4.3.2
electromagnetic signal such Indirect
as radio, FM or other telecommunications.
television,
• 5 RF power amplifiers
o 5.1 Valves
 5.1.1 Advantages of valves
 5.1.2 Disadvantages of valves
o 5.2 Solid state
• 6 Linking the transmitter to the aerial
• 7 EMC matters
o 7.1 RF leakage (defective RF shielding)
o 7.2 Spurious emissions
 7.2.1 Harmonics
 7.2.1.1 Avoiding harmonic generation
 7.2.1.2 Removal of harmonics with filters
 7.2.1.3 Detection
 7.2.2 Local oscillators and unwanted mixing products
 7.2.3 Instability and parasitic oscillations
• 8 See also
[edit] Methods
At the beginning of the 20th century, there were four chief methods of arranging the
transmitting circuits:[2]

1. The transmitting system consists of two tuned circuits such that the
one containing the spark-gap is a persistent oscillator; the other,
containing the aerial structure, is a free radiator maintained in
oscillation by being coupled to the first (Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo
Marconi).
2. The oscillating system, including the aerial structure with its
associated inductance-coils and condensers, is designed to be both a
sufficiently persistent oscillator and a sufficiently active radiator
(Oliver Joseph Lodge).
3. The transmitting system consists of two electrically coupled circuits,
one of which, containing the air-gap, is a powerful but not persistent
oscillator, being provided with a device for quenching the spark so
soon as it has imparted sufficient energy to the other circuit
containing the aerial structure, this second circuit then independently
radiating the train of slightly damped waves at its own period (Oliver
Joseph Lodge and Wilhelm Wien).
4. The transmitting system, by means either of an oscillating arc
(Valdemar Poulsen) or a high-frequency alternator (Rudolf
Goldschmidt), emits a persistent train of undamped waves interrupted
only by being broken up into long and short groups by the operator's
key.

[edit] Frequency synthesis

[edit] Fixed frequency systems
For a fixed frequency transmitter one commonly used method is to use a resonant
 quartz crystal in a Crystal oscillator to fix the frequency. Where the frequency has to
be variable, several options can be used.

[edit] Variable frequency systems

• An array of crystals – used to enable a transmitter to be used on

several different frequencies; rather than being a truly variable
frequency system, it is a system which is fixed to several different
frequencies (a subset of the above).
• Variable-frequency oscillator (VFO)
• Phase-locked loop frequency synthesiser
• Direct digital synthesis

Frequency doubler Frequency tripler

A basic design for a frequency doubler (screen grids, bias supplies and A basic design for a frequency tripler (screen grids, bias supplies and
other elements are not shown). other elements are not shown).
[edit] Frequency multiplication
For VHF transmitters, it is often not possible to operate the oscillator at the final
output frequency. In such cases, for reasons including frequency stability, it is better
to multiply the frequency of the free running oscillator up to the final, required
frequency.
If the output of an amplifier stage is tuned to a multiple of the frequency with which
the stage is driven, the stage will give a larger harmonic output than a linear
amplifier. In a push-push stage, the output will only contain even harmonics. This is
because the currents which would generate the fundamental and the odd harmonics in
this circuit (if one valve was removed) are canceled by the second valve. In the
diagrams, bias supplies and neutralization measure have been omitted for clarity. In a
real system, it is likely that tetrodes would be used, as plate-to-grid capacitance in a
tetrode is lower, thereby reducing stage instability.
In a push-pull stage, the output will contain only odd harmonics because of the
canceling effect.
[edit] Frequency mixing and modulation
The task of many transmitters is to transmit some form of information using a radio
signal (carrier wave) which has been modulated to carry the intelligence. A few rare
types of transmitter do not carry information: the RF generator in a microwave oven,
electrosurgery, and induction heating. RF transmitters that do not carry information
are required by law to operate in an ISM band.

[edit] AM modes
In many cases the carrier wave is mixed with another electrical signal to impose
information upon it. This occurs in Amplitude modulation (AM). Amplitude Modulation:
In Amplitude modulation the instantaneous change in the amplitude of the carrier
Frequency with respect to the amplitude of the modulating or Base band signal.

[edit] Low level and high level

[edit] Low level

Here a small audio stage is used to modulate a low power stage, the output of this
stage is then amplified using a linear RF amplifier.

• Advantages

The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be
modulated, which only requires a small audio amplifier to drive the modulator.

• Disadvantages

The great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifier chain is less efficient,
because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation. Hence class C amplifiers
cannot be employed.
An approach which marries the advantages of low-level modulation with the efficiency
of a Class C power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for
the substantial distortion of the AM envelope. A simple detector at the transmitter
output (which can be little more than a loosely coupled diode) recovers the audio
signal, and this is used as negative feedback to the audio modulator stage. The overall
chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned,
though the RF amplifier itself still retains the Class C efficiency. This approach is
widely used in practical medium power transmitters, such as AM radiotelephones.

[edit] High level

• Advantages

One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only

the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at
a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final
stage for a smaller DC power input. However, in many designs in order to obtain
better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as
well as the final stage.

• Disadvantages

A large audio amplifier will be needed for the modulation stage, at least equal to the
power of the transmitter output itself. Traditionally the modulation is applied using an
audio transformer, and this can be bulky. Direct coupling from the audio amplifier is
also possible (known as a cascode arrangement), though this usually requires quite a
high DC supply voltage (say 30 V or more), which is not suitable for mobile units.

[edit] Types of AM modulators

A wide range of different circuits have been used for AM. While it is perfectly possible
to create good designs using solid-state electronics, valved (tube) circuits are shown
here. In general, valves are able to easily yield RF powers far in excess of what can be
achieved using solid state. Most high-power broadcast stations still use valves.

[edit] Plate AM modulators

 In plate modulation systems the voltage delivered to the stage is changed. As the
power output available is a function of the supply voltage, the output power is
modulated. This can be done using a transformer to alter the anode (plate) voltage.

Anode modulation using a transformer. An example of a series modulated amplitude modulation stage.
The advantage of the transformer method is that the audio power can be supplied to
the RF stage and converted into RF power. With anode modulation using a
transformer, the tetrode is supplied with an anode supply (and screen grid supply)
which is modulated via the transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias, both the
input and outputs are tuned LC circuits which are tapped into by inductive coupling. In
series modulated amplitude modulation, the tetrode is supplied with an anode supply
(and screen grid supply) which is modulated by the modulator valve. The resistor VR1
sets the grid bias for the modulator valve, both the RF input (tuned grid) and outputs
are tuned LC circuits which are tapped into by inductive coupling.
When the valve at the top conducts more than the potential difference between the
anode and cathode of the lower valve (RF valve) will increase. The two valves can be
thought of as two resistors in a potentiometer.

[edit] Screen AM modulators

Screen AM modulator.
Under steady state conditions (no audio driven) the stage will be a simple RF amplifier
where the grid bias is set by the cathode current. When the stage is modulated the
screen potential changes and so alters the gain of the stage.

[edit] Other modes which are related to AM

Several derivatives of AM are in common use. These are

[edit] Single-sideband modulation

Main article: Single-sideband modulation

SSB, or SSB-AM single-sideband full carrier modulation, is very similar to single-
sideband suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)
[edit] Filter method
Using a balanced mixer a double side band signal is generated, this is then passed
through a very narrow bandpass filter to leave only one side-band. By convention it is
normal to use the upper sideband (USB) in communication systems, except for HAM
radio when the carrier frequency is below 10 MHz here the lower side band (LSB) is
normally used.

[edit] Phasing method

This method is an alternative method for the generation of single sideband signals.
One of the weaknesses of this method is the need for a network which imposes a
constant 90o phase shift on audio signals throughout the entire audio spectrum. By
reducing the audio bandwidth the task of designing the phaseshift network can be
made more easy.
Imagine that the audio is a single sine wave E = E° sine (ωt)
The audio signal is passed through the phase shift network to give two identical
signals which differ by 90o.
So as the audio input is a single sine wave the outputs will be
and
These audio outputs are mixed in non linear mixers with a carrier, the carrier drive for
one of these mixers is shifted by 90°. The output of these mixers is combined in a
linear circuit to give the SSB signal.

[edit] Vestigial-sideband modulation

Main article: Vestigial-sideband modulation

Vestigial-sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM) is a type of modulation system
commonly used in analogue TV systems. It is normal AM which has been passed
through a filter which reduces one of the sidebands. Typically, components of the
lower sideband more than 0.75 MHz or 1.25 MHz below the carrier will be heavily
attenuated.

[edit] Morse

Strictly speaking the commonly used 'AM' is double-sideband full carrier. Morse is
often sent using on-off keying of an unmodulated carrier (Continuous wave), this can
be thought of as an AM mode.

[edit] FM modes
Angle modulation is the proper term for modulation by changing the instantaneous
frequency or phase of the carrier signal. True FM and phase modulation are the most
commonly employed forms of analogue angle modulation.

[edit] Direct FM

Direct FM (true Frequency modulation) is where the frequency of an oscillator is

altered to impose the modulation upon the carrier wave. This can be done by using a
voltage-controlled capacitor (Varicap diode) in a crystal-controlled oscillator or
frequency synthesiser. The frequency of the oscillator is then multiplied up using a
frequency multiplier stage, or is translated upwards using a mixing stage, to the
output frequency of the transmitter.

[edit] Indirect FM

Indirect FM solid state circuit.

Indirect FM employs a varicap diode to impose a phase shift (which is voltage-
controlled) in a tuned circuit that is fed with a plain carrier. This is termed phase
modulation. The modulated signal from a phase-modulated stage can be understood
with an FM receiver, but for good audio quality, the audio is applied to the phase
modulation stage. The amount of modulation is referred to as the deviation, being the
amount that the frequency of the carrier instantaneously deviates from the centre
carrier frequency.
In some indirect FM solid state circuits, an RF drive is applied to the base of a
transistor. The tank circuit (LC), connected to the collector via a capacitor, contains a
pair of varicap diodes. As the voltage applied to the varicaps is changed, the phase
shift of the output will change.
Phase modulation is mathematically equivalent to direct Frequency modulation with a
6dB/octave high-pass filter applied to the modulating signal. This high-pass effect can
be exploited or compensated for using suitable frequency-shaping circuitry in the
audio stages ahead of the modulator. For example, many FM systems will employ pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis for noise reduction, in which case the high-pass
equivalency of phase modulation automatically provides for the pre-emphasis. Phase
modulators are typically only capable of relatively small amounts of deviation while
remaining linear, but any frequency multiplier stages also multiply the deviation in
proportion.

• Sigma-delta modulation (∑Δ)

[edit] RF power amplifiers

[edit] Valves
For high power systems it is normal to use valves, please see Valve RF amplifier for
details of how valved RF power stages work.

[edit] Advantages of valves

• Good for high power systems

• Electrically very robust, they can tolerate overloads for minutes
which would destroy bipolar transistor systems in milliseconds

[edit] Disadvantages of valves

• Heater supplies are required for the cathodes

• High voltages (risk of death) are required for the anodes
• Valves often have a shorter working life than solid state parts because
the heaters tend to fail

[edit] Solid state

For low and medium power it is often the case that solid state power stages are used.
For higher power systems these cost more per watt of output power than a valved
system.
[edit] Linking the transmitter to the aerial
The majority of modern transmitting equipment is designed to operate with a resistive
load fed via coaxial cable of a particular characteristic impedance, often 50 ohms. To
connect the aerial to this coaxial cable transmission line a matching network and/or a
balun may be required. Commonly an SWR meter and/or an antenna analyzer are
used to check the extent of the match between the aerial system and the transmitter
via the transmission line (feeder). An SWR meter indicates forward power, reflected
power, and the ratio between them.
See Antenna tuner and balun for details of matching networks and baluns
respectively.

[edit] EMC matters

Main article: Electromagnetic compatibility
While this section was written from the point of view of an amateur radio operator
with relation to television interference it applies to the construction and use of all radio
transmitters, and other electronic devices which generate high RF powers with no
intention of radiating these. For instance a dielectric heater might contain a 2000 watt
27 MHz source within it, if the machine operates as intended then none of this RF
power will leak out. However, if the device is subject to a fault then when it operates
RF will leak out and it will be now a transmitter. Also computers are RF devices, if the
case is poorly made then the computer will radiate at VHF. For example if you attempt
to tune into a weak FM radio station (88 to 108 MHz, band II) at your desk you may
lose reception when you switch on your PC. Equipment which is not intended to
generate RF, but does so through for example sparking at switch contacts is not
considered here.

[edit] RF leakage (defective RF shielding)

Main article: RF shielding
All equipment using RF electronics should be inside a screened metal box, all
connections in or out of the metal box should be filtered to avoid the ingress or egress
of radio signals. A common and effective method of doing so for wires carrying DC
supplies, 50/60 Hz AC connections, audio and control signals is to use a feedthrough
capacitor. This is a capacitor which is mounted in a hole in the shield, one terminal of
the capacitor is its metal body which touches the shielding of the box while the other
two terminal of the capacitor are the on either side of the shield. The feed through
capacitor can be thought of as a metal rod which has a dielectric sheath which in turn
has a metal coating.
In addition to the feed through capacitor, either a resistor or RF choke can be used to
increase the filtering on the lead. In transmitters it is vital to prevent RF from entering
the transmitter through any lead such as an electric power, microphone or control
connection. If RF does enter a transmitter in this way then an instability known as
motorboating can occur. Motorboating is an example of a self inflicted EMC problem.
If a transmitter is suspected of being responsible for a television interference problem,
then it should be run into a dummy load; this is a resistor in a screened box or can
which will allow the transmitter to generate radio signals without sending them to the
antenna. If the transmitter does not cause interference during this test, then it is safe
to assume that a signal has to be radiated from the antenna to cause a problem. If the
transmitter does cause interference during this test then a path exists by which RF
power is leaking out of the equipment, this can be due to bad shielding. This is a rare
but insidious problem and it is vital that it be tested for. Such leakage is most likely to
occur on homemade equipment or equipment that has been modified. RF leakage from
microwave ovens may also sometimes be observed, especially when the oven's RF
seal has been compromised.

[edit] Spurious emissions

• Early in the development of radio technology it was recognised that

the signals emitted by transmitters had to be 'pure'. For instance
Spark-gap transmitters were quickly outlawed as they give an output
which is so wide in terms of frequency. In modern equipment there
are three main types of spurious emissions.

• The term spurious emissions refers to any signal which comes out of
a transmitter other than the wanted signal. The spurious emissions
include harmonics, out of band mixer products which are not fully
suppressed and leakage from the local oscillator and other systems
within the transmitter.

[edit] Harmonics

These are multiples of the operation frequency of the transmitter, they can be
 generated in a stage of the transmitter even if it is driven with a perfect sine wave
because no real life amplifier is perfectly linear.

Note that B+ is the anode supply, C- is the grid bias. While the circuit shown Note that B+ is the anode supply, C- is the grid bias. While the
here uses tetrode valves (for example 2 x 4CX250B) many designs have used circuit shown here uses a tetrode valve (for example the
solid state semiconductor parts (such as MOSFETS). Note that NC is a 4CX250B) many designs have used solid state semiconductor
neutralization capacitor. parts (such as MOSFETS).
[edit] Avoiding harmonic generation
It is best if these harmonics are designed out at an early stage. For instance a push-
pull amplifier consisting of two tetrode valves attached to an anode tank resonant LC
circuit which has a coil which is connected to the high voltage DC supply at the centre
(Which is also RF ground) will only give a signal for the fundamental and the odd
harmonics.

[edit] Removal of harmonics with filters

In addition to the good design of the amplifier stages, the transmitter's output should
be filtered with a low pass filter to reduce the level of the harmonics.

[edit] Detection
The harmonics can be tested for using an RF spectrum analyser (expensive) or with an
absorption wavemeter (cheap). If a harmonic is found which is at the same frequency
as the frequency of the signal wanted at the receiver then this spurious emission can
prevent the wanted signal from being received.

[edit] Local oscillators and unwanted mixing products

Please help improve this This section has too much detail, repeating information found elsewhere, all unsourced, and seems to reflect
just the personal experience of an editor by pruning it. Further information might be found on the
Imagine a transmitter, which has an intermediate frequency (IF) of 144 MHz, which is
mixed with 94 MHz to create a signal at 50 MHz, which is then amplified and
transmitted. If the local oscillator signal was to enter the power amplifier and not be
adequately suppressed then it could be radiated. It would then have the potential to
interfere with radio signals at 94 MHz in the FM audio (band II) broadcast band. Also
the unwanted mixing product at 238 MHz could in a poorly designed system be
radiated. Normally with good choice of the intermediate and local oscillator
frequencies this type of trouble can be avoided, but one potentially bad situation is in
the construction of a 144 to 70 MHz converter, here the local oscillator is at 74 MHz
which is very close to the wanted output. Good well made units have been made
which use this conversion but their design and construction has been challenging, for
instance in the late 1980s Practical Wireless published a design (Meon-4) for such a
transverter [1][2]. This problem can be thought of as being related to the Image
response problem which exists in receivers.

Simple but poor mixer

One method of reducing the potential for this transmitter defect is the use of balance
and double balanced mixers. If the equation is assumed to be
E = E1 E2
and is driven by two simple sine waves, f1 and f2 then the output will be a mixture of
four frequencies
f1
f1+f2
f1-f2
f2
If the simple mixer is replaced with a balanced mixer then the number of possible
products is reduced. Imagine that two mixers which have the equation {I = E1 E2} are
wired up so that the current outputs are wired to the two ends of a coil (the centre of
this coil is wired to ground) then the total current flowing through the coil is the
difference between the output of the two mixer stages. If the f1 drive for one of the
mixers is phase shifted by 180° then the overall system will be a balanced mixer.

Note that while this hypothetical design uses tetrodes many designs have
used solid state semiconductor parts (such as MOSFETS).
E = K . Ef2 . ΔEf1
So the output will now have only three frequencies
f1+f2
f1-f2
f2
Now as the frequency mixer has fewer outputs the task of making sure that the final
output is clean will be simpler.

[edit] Instability and parasitic oscillations

If a stage in a transmitter is unstable and is able to oscillate then it can start to

generate RF at either a frequency close to the operating frequency or at a very
different frequency. One good sign that it is occurring is if an RF stage has a power
output even without being driven by an exciting stage. Another sign is if the output
power suddenly increases wildly when the input power is increased slightly, it is
noteworthy that in a class C stage that this behaviour can be seen under normal
conditions. The best defence against this transmitter defect is a good design, also it is
important to pay good attention to the neutralization of the valves or transistors.

[edit] See also

R
a
d
i
o

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o
r
t
a
l

The Wikibook Electronics has a page on the topic of

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Methods
• 2 Frequency
Transmitter designsynthesis
o 2.1 Fixed frequency systems
o 2.2 Variable frequency systems
• 3 Frequency multiplication
Radio transmitter design
• 4 Frequency mixing and modulation
o 4.1
From Wikipedia, the AM modes
free encyclopedia
4.1.1 Low level and high level
Jump to: navigation, search
This article has multiple 4.1.1.1Please
 issues. Low level
help improve it or discuss these issues on the
 4.1.1.2 High level
 4.1.2 Types of AM modulators
• It may contain an excessive amount of intricate detail which may only interest a specific audience.
 4.1.2.1 Plate AM modulators
• It needs to be updated. Tagged since August 2009.
 4.1.2.2 Screen AM modulators
o 4.2 Other modes which are related to AM
• It may need a complete rewrite to meet Wikipedia's quality standards
 4.2.1 Single-sideband modulation
This article only describes  one highly
4.2.1.1 specialized
Filter method aspect of its associated subject
information. The talk page may contain suggestions.
 4.2.1.2 Phasing method (October 2009)
Radio transmitter design 4.2.2
is a Vestigial-sideband
complex topic which canmodulation
be broken down into a series
of smaller topics. A radio communication system requires two tuned circuits each at
 4.2.3 Morse
the transmitter and receiver, all four tuned to the same frequency.[1] The transmitter
is an electronic deviceFM
o 4.3 modes
which, usually with the aid of an antenna, propagates an
electromagnetic signal such as radio,
4.3.1 television,
Direct FM or other telecommunications.
 4.3.2 Indirect FM
• 5 RF power amplifiers
o 5.1 Valves
 5.1.1 Advantages of valves
 5.1.2 Disadvantages of valves
o 5.2 Solid state
• 6 Linking the transmitter to the aerial
• 7 EMC matters
o 7.1 RF leakage (defective RF shielding)
o 7.2 Spurious emissions
 7.2.1 Harmonics
 7.2.1.1 Avoiding harmonic generation
 7.2.1.2 Removal of harmonics with filters
 7.2.1.3 Detection
 7.2.2 Local oscillators and unwanted mixing products
 7.2.3 Instability and parasitic oscillations
• 8 See also
[edit] Methods
At the beginning of the 20th century, there were four chief methods of arranging the
transmitting circuits:[2]

1. The transmitting system consists of two tuned circuits such that the
one containing the spark-gap is a persistent oscillator; the other,
containing the aerial structure, is a free radiator maintained in
oscillation by being coupled to the first (Nikola Tesla and Guglielmo
Marconi).
2. The oscillating system, including the aerial structure with its
associated inductance-coils and condensers, is designed to be both a
sufficiently persistent oscillator and a sufficiently active radiator
(Oliver Joseph Lodge).
3. The transmitting system consists of two electrically coupled circuits,
one of which, containing the air-gap, is a powerful but not persistent
oscillator, being provided with a device for quenching the spark so
soon as it has imparted sufficient energy to the other circuit
containing the aerial structure, this second circuit then independently
radiating the train of slightly damped waves at its own period (Oliver
Joseph Lodge and Wilhelm Wien).
4. The transmitting system, by means either of an oscillating arc
(Valdemar Poulsen) or a high-frequency alternator (Rudolf
Goldschmidt), emits a persistent train of undamped waves interrupted
only by being broken up into long and short groups by the operator's
key.

[edit] Frequency synthesis

[edit] Fixed frequency systems
For a fixed frequency transmitter one commonly used method is to use a resonant
 quartz crystal in a Crystal oscillator to fix the frequency. Where the frequency has to
be variable, several options can be used.

[edit] Variable frequency systems

• An array of crystals – used to enable a transmitter to be used on

several different frequencies; rather than being a truly variable
frequency system, it is a system which is fixed to several different
frequencies (a subset of the above).
• Variable-frequency oscillator (VFO)
• Phase-locked loop frequency synthesiser
• Direct digital synthesis

Frequency doubler Frequency tripler

A basic design for a frequency doubler (screen grids, bias supplies and A basic design for a frequency tripler (screen grids, bias supplies and
other elements are not shown). other elements are not shown).
[edit] Frequency multiplication
For VHF transmitters, it is often not possible to operate the oscillator at the final
output frequency. In such cases, for reasons including frequency stability, it is better
to multiply the frequency of the free running oscillator up to the final, required
frequency.
If the output of an amplifier stage is tuned to a multiple of the frequency with which
the stage is driven, the stage will give a larger harmonic output than a linear
amplifier. In a push-push stage, the output will only contain even harmonics. This is
because the currents which would generate the fundamental and the odd harmonics in
this circuit (if one valve was removed) are canceled by the second valve. In the
diagrams, bias supplies and neutralization measure have been omitted for clarity. In a
real system, it is likely that tetrodes would be used, as plate-to-grid capacitance in a
tetrode is lower, thereby reducing stage instability.
In a push-pull stage, the output will contain only odd harmonics because of the
canceling effect.
[edit] Frequency mixing and modulation
The task of many transmitters is to transmit some form of information using a radio
signal (carrier wave) which has been modulated to carry the intelligence. A few rare
types of transmitter do not carry information: the RF generator in a microwave oven,
electrosurgery, and induction heating. RF transmitters that do not carry information
are required by law to operate in an ISM band.

[edit] AM modes
In many cases the carrier wave is mixed with another electrical signal to impose
information upon it. This occurs in Amplitude modulation (AM). Amplitude Modulation:
In Amplitude modulation the instantaneous change in the amplitude of the carrier
Frequency with respect to the amplitude of the modulating or Base band signal.

[edit] Low level and high level

[edit] Low level

Here a small audio stage is used to modulate a low power stage, the output of this
stage is then amplified using a linear RF amplifier.

• Advantages

The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be
modulated, which only requires a small audio amplifier to drive the modulator.

• Disadvantages

The great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifier chain is less efficient,
because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation. Hence class C amplifiers
cannot be employed.
An approach which marries the advantages of low-level modulation with the efficiency
of a Class C power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for
the substantial distortion of the AM envelope. A simple detector at the transmitter
output (which can be little more than a loosely coupled diode) recovers the audio
signal, and this is used as negative feedback to the audio modulator stage. The overall
 chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned,
though the RF amplifier itself still retains the Class C efficiency. This approach is
widely used in practical medium power transmitters, such as AM radiotelephones.

[edit] High level

• Advantages

One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only

the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at
a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final
stage for a smaller DC power input. However, in many designs in order to obtain
better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as
well as the final stage.

• Disadvantages

A large audio amplifier will be needed for the modulation stage, at least equal to the
power of the transmitter output itself. Traditionally the modulation is applied using an
audio transformer, and this can be bulky. Direct coupling from the audio amplifier is
also possible (known as a cascode arrangement), though this usually requires quite a
high DC supply voltage (say 30 V or more), which is not suitable for mobile units.

[edit] Types of AM modulators

A wide range of different circuits have been used for AM. While it is perfectly possible
to create good designs using solid-state electronics, valved (tube) circuits are shown
here. In general, valves are able to easily yield RF powers far in excess of what can be
achieved using solid state. Most high-power broadcast stations still use valves.

[edit] Plate AM modulators

Anode modulation using a transformer. An example of a series modulated amplitude modulation stage.
In plate modulation systems the voltage delivered to the stage is changed. As the
power output available is a function of the supply voltage, the output power is
modulated. This can be done using a transformer to alter the anode (plate) voltage.
The advantage of the transformer method is that the audio power can be supplied to
the RF stage and converted into RF power. With anode modulation using a
transformer, the tetrode is supplied with an anode supply (and screen grid supply)
which is modulated via the transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias, both the
input and outputs are tuned LC circuits which are tapped into by inductive coupling. In
series modulated amplitude modulation, the tetrode is supplied with an anode supply
(and screen grid supply) which is modulated by the modulator valve. The resistor VR1
sets the grid bias for the modulator valve, both the RF input (tuned grid) and outputs
are tuned LC circuits which are tapped into by inductive coupling.
When the valve at the top conducts more than the potential difference between the
anode and cathode of the lower valve (RF valve) will increase. The two valves can be
thought of as two resistors in a potentiometer.

[edit] Screen AM modulators

Screen AM modulator.
Under steady state conditions (no audio driven) the stage will be a simple RF amplifier
where the grid bias is set by the cathode current. When the stage is modulated the
screen potential changes and so alters the gain of the stage.

[edit] Other modes which are related to AM

Several derivatives of AM are in common use. These are

[edit] Single-sideband modulation

Main article: Single-sideband modulation

SSB, or SSB-AM single-sideband full carrier modulation, is very similar to single-
sideband suppressed carrier modulation (SSB-SC)

[edit] Filter method

Using a balanced mixer a double side band signal is generated, this is then passed
through a very narrow bandpass filter to leave only one side-band. By convention it is
normal to use the upper sideband (USB) in communication systems, except for HAM
radio when the carrier frequency is below 10 MHz here the lower side band (LSB) is
normally used.

[edit] Phasing method

This method is an alternative method for the generation of single sideband signals.
One of the weaknesses of this method is the need for a network which imposes a
constant 90o phase shift on audio signals throughout the entire audio spectrum. By
reducing the audio bandwidth the task of designing the phaseshift network can be
made more easy.
Imagine that the audio is a single sine wave E = E° sine (ωt)
The audio signal is passed through the phase shift network to give two identical
signals which differ by 90o.
So as the audio input is a single sine wave the outputs will be
and
These audio outputs are mixed in non linear mixers with a carrier, the carrier drive for
one of these mixers is shifted by 90°. The output of these mixers is combined in a
linear circuit to give the SSB signal.

[edit] Vestigial-sideband modulation

Main article: Vestigial-sideband modulation

Vestigial-sideband modulation (VSB, or VSB-AM) is a type of modulation system
commonly used in analogue TV systems. It is normal AM which has been passed
through a filter which reduces one of the sidebands. Typically, components of the
lower sideband more than 0.75 MHz or 1.25 MHz below the carrier will be heavily
attenuated.

[edit] Morse

Strictly speaking the commonly used 'AM' is double-sideband full carrier. Morse is
often sent using on-off keying of an unmodulated carrier (Continuous wave), this can
be thought of as an AM mode.

[edit] FM modes
Angle modulation is the proper term for modulation by changing the instantaneous
frequency or phase of the carrier signal. True FM and phase modulation are the most
commonly employed forms of analogue angle modulation.

[edit] Direct FM

Direct FM (true Frequency modulation) is where the frequency of an oscillator is

altered to impose the modulation upon the carrier wave. This can be done by using a
voltage-controlled capacitor (Varicap diode) in a crystal-controlled oscillator or
frequency synthesiser. The frequency of the oscillator is then multiplied up using a
frequency multiplier stage, or is translated upwards using a mixing stage, to the
output frequency of the transmitter.

[edit] Indirect FM

Indirect FM solid state circuit.

Indirect FM employs a varicap diode to impose a phase shift (which is voltage-
controlled) in a tuned circuit that is fed with a plain carrier. This is termed phase
modulation. The modulated signal from a phase-modulated stage can be understood
with an FM receiver, but for good audio quality, the audio is applied to the phase
modulation stage. The amount of modulation is referred to as the deviation, being the
amount that the frequency of the carrier instantaneously deviates from the centre
carrier frequency.
In some indirect FM solid state circuits, an RF drive is applied to the base of a
transistor. The tank circuit (LC), connected to the collector via a capacitor, contains a
pair of varicap diodes. As the voltage applied to the varicaps is changed, the phase
shift of the output will change.
Phase modulation is mathematically equivalent to direct Frequency modulation with a
6dB/octave high-pass filter applied to the modulating signal. This high-pass effect can
be exploited or compensated for using suitable frequency-shaping circuitry in the
audio stages ahead of the modulator. For example, many FM systems will employ pre-
emphasis and de-emphasis for noise reduction, in which case the high-pass
equivalency of phase modulation automatically provides for the pre-emphasis. Phase
modulators are typically only capable of relatively small amounts of deviation while
remaining linear, but any frequency multiplier stages also multiply the deviation in
proportion.
 • Sigma-delta modulation (∑Δ)

[edit] RF power amplifiers

[edit] Valves
For high power systems it is normal to use valves, please see Valve RF amplifier for
details of how valved RF power stages work.

[edit] Advantages of valves

• Good for high power systems

• Electrically very robust, they can tolerate overloads for minutes
which would destroy bipolar transistor systems in milliseconds

[edit] Disadvantages of valves

• Heater supplies are required for the cathodes

• High voltages (risk of death) are required for the anodes
• Valves often have a shorter working life than solid state parts because
the heaters tend to fail

[edit] Solid state

For low and medium power it is often the case that solid state power stages are used.
For higher power systems these cost more per watt of output power than a valved
system.

[edit] Linking the transmitter to the aerial

The majority of modern transmitting equipment is designed to operate with a resistive
load fed via coaxial cable of a particular characteristic impedance, often 50 ohms. To
connect the aerial to this coaxial cable transmission line a matching network and/or a
balun may be required. Commonly an SWR meter and/or an antenna analyzer are
used to check the extent of the match between the aerial system and the transmitter
via the transmission line (feeder). An SWR meter indicates forward power, reflected
power, and the ratio between them.
See Antenna tuner and balun for details of matching networks and baluns
respectively.

[edit] EMC matters

Main article: Electromagnetic compatibility
While this section was written from the point of view of an amateur radio operator
with relation to television interference it applies to the construction and use of all radio
transmitters, and other electronic devices which generate high RF powers with no
intention of radiating these. For instance a dielectric heater might contain a 2000 watt
27 MHz source within it, if the machine operates as intended then none of this RF
power will leak out. However, if the device is subject to a fault then when it operates
RF will leak out and it will be now a transmitter. Also computers are RF devices, if the
case is poorly made then the computer will radiate at VHF. For example if you attempt
to tune into a weak FM radio station (88 to 108 MHz, band II) at your desk you may
lose reception when you switch on your PC. Equipment which is not intended to
generate RF, but does so through for example sparking at switch contacts is not
considered here.

[edit] RF leakage (defective RF shielding)

Main article: RF shielding
All equipment using RF electronics should be inside a screened metal box, all
connections in or out of the metal box should be filtered to avoid the ingress or egress
of radio signals. A common and effective method of doing so for wires carrying DC
supplies, 50/60 Hz AC connections, audio and control signals is to use a feedthrough
capacitor. This is a capacitor which is mounted in a hole in the shield, one terminal of
the capacitor is its metal body which touches the shielding of the box while the other
two terminal of the capacitor are the on either side of the shield. The feed through
capacitor can be thought of as a metal rod which has a dielectric sheath which in turn
has a metal coating.
In addition to the feed through capacitor, either a resistor or RF choke can be used to
increase the filtering on the lead. In transmitters it is vital to prevent RF from entering
the transmitter through any lead such as an electric power, microphone or control
connection. If RF does enter a transmitter in this way then an instability known as
motorboating can occur. Motorboating is an example of a self inflicted EMC problem.
If a transmitter is suspected of being responsible for a television interference problem,
then it should be run into a dummy load; this is a resistor in a screened box or can
which will allow the transmitter to generate radio signals without sending them to the
antenna. If the transmitter does not cause interference during this test, then it is safe
to assume that a signal has to be radiated from the antenna to cause a problem. If the
transmitter does cause interference during this test then a path exists by which RF
power is leaking out of the equipment, this can be due to bad shielding. This is a rare
but insidious problem and it is vital that it be tested for. Such leakage is most likely to
occur on homemade equipment or equipment that has been modified. RF leakage from
microwave ovens may also sometimes be observed, especially when the oven's RF
seal has been compromised.

[edit] Spurious emissions

• Early in the development of radio technology it was recognised that

the signals emitted by transmitters had to be 'pure'. For instance
Spark-gap transmitters were quickly outlawed as they give an output
which is so wide in terms of frequency. In modern equipment there
are three main types of spurious emissions.

• The term spurious emissions refers to any signal which comes out of
a transmitter other than the wanted signal. The spurious emissions
include harmonics, out of band mixer products which are not fully
suppressed and leakage from the local oscillator and other systems
within the transmitter.

[edit] Harmonics

These are multiples of the operation frequency of the transmitter, they can be
generated in a stage of the transmitter even if it is driven with a perfect sine wave
because no real life amplifier is perfectly linear.
Note that B+ is the anode supply, C- is the grid bias. While the circuit shown Note that B+ is the anode supply, C- is the grid bias. While the
here uses tetrode valves (for example 2 x 4CX250B) many designs have used circuit shown here uses a tetrode valve (for example the
solid state semiconductor parts (such as MOSFETS). Note that NC is a 4CX250B) many designs have used solid state semiconductor
neutralization capacitor. parts (such as MOSFETS).
[edit] Avoiding harmonic generation
It is best if these harmonics are designed out at an early stage. For instance a push-
pull amplifier consisting of two tetrode valves attached to an anode tank resonant LC
circuit which has a coil which is connected to the high voltage DC supply at the centre
(Which is also RF ground) will only give a signal for the fundamental and the odd
harmonics.

[edit] Removal of harmonics with filters

In addition to the good design of the amplifier stages, the transmitter's output should
be filtered with a low pass filter to reduce the level of the harmonics.

[edit] Detection
The harmonics can be tested for using an RF spectrum analyser (expensive) or with an
absorption wavemeter (cheap). If a harmonic is found which is at the same frequency
as the frequency of the signal wanted at the receiver then this spurious emission can
prevent the wanted signal from being received.

[edit] Local oscillators and unwanted mixing products

Please help improve this This section has too much detail, repeating information found elsewhere, all unsourced, and seems to reflect
just the personal experience of an editor by pruning it. Further information might be found on the
Imagine a transmitter, which has an intermediate frequency (IF) of 144 MHz, which is
mixed with 94 MHz to create a signal at 50 MHz, which is then amplified and
transmitted. If the local oscillator signal was to enter the power amplifier and not be
adequately suppressed then it could be radiated. It would then have the potential to
interfere with radio signals at 94 MHz in the FM audio (band II) broadcast band. Also
the unwanted mixing product at 238 MHz could in a poorly designed system be
radiated. Normally with good choice of the intermediate and local oscillator
frequencies this type of trouble can be avoided, but one potentially bad situation is in
the construction of a 144 to 70 MHz converter, here the local oscillator is at 74 MHz
which is very close to the wanted output. Good well made units have been made
which use this conversion but their design and construction has been challenging, for
instance in the late 1980s Practical Wireless published a design (Meon-4) for such a
transverter [1][2]. This problem can be thought of as being related to the Image
response problem which exists in receivers.

Simple but poor mixer

One method of reducing the potential for this transmitter defect is the use of balance
and double balanced mixers. If the equation is assumed to be
E = E1 E2
and is driven by two simple sine waves, f1 and f2 then the output will be a mixture of
four frequencies
f1
f1+f2
f1-f2
f2
If the simple mixer is replaced with a balanced mixer then the number of possible
products is reduced. Imagine that two mixers which have the equation {I = E1 E2} are
wired up so that the current outputs are wired to the two ends of a coil (the centre of
this coil is wired to ground) then the total current flowing through the coil is the
difference between the output of the two mixer stages. If the f1 drive for one of the
mixers is phase shifted by 180° then the overall system will be a balanced mixer.

Note that while this hypothetical design uses tetrodes many designs have
used solid state semiconductor parts (such as MOSFETS).
E = K . Ef2 . ΔEf1
So the output will now have only three frequencies
f1+f2
f1-f2
f2
Now as the frequency mixer has fewer outputs the task of making sure that the final
output is clean will be simpler.

[edit] Instability and parasitic oscillations

If a stage in a transmitter is unstable and is able to oscillate then it can start to

generate RF at either a frequency close to the operating frequency or at a very
different frequency. One good sign that it is occurring is if an RF stage has a power
output even without being driven by an exciting stage. Another sign is if the output
power suddenly increases wildly when the input power is increased slightly, it is
noteworthy that in a class C stage that this behaviour can be seen under normal
conditions. The best defence against this transmitter defect is a good design, also it is
important to pay good attention to the neutralization of the valves or transistors.

[edit] See also

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The Wikibook Electronics has a page on the topic of

Transmitter design
Overview
The circuit was designed to be able to obtain signals via amplitude modulation
where the sensitivity and selectivity is fairly good.

Terminology

o Amplitude Modulation AM – a method of emphasizing data on an

alternating current waveform or radio wave wherein the carried transmitted
signal varies with reference to the amplitude; the highest frequency of the
modulating data is typically less than 10 percent of the carrier frequency and the
overall power signal varies depending on the amplitude of the modulating data

Circuit Explanation
Three BC549 transistor were used to construct this circuit. These are low noise
type small signal NPN Silicon epitaxial planar transistors which are subdivide into
three groups according to current gain. The circuit will operate under medium wave
frequency but can work under higher frequencies if another type of capacitor and
tuning coil will be used. The composite pair of transistor Q1 (conducts on emitter
follower) and Q2 (conducts on common emitter) results to high gain and high input
impedance while the third transistor executes a dual function by demodulating the
RF carrier and amplifying the audio signal.

The overall performance of the circuit is influenced by the value and regenerative
feedback of the 120K ohm resistor between the Q2 output and tank circuit. İn the
existence of excessive feedback, the circuit becomes unstable while insufficient
feedback makes the circuit deaf. The selectivity and sensitivity of the circuit varies
with the value set on the resistor R1.
Taken from an old radio, a tuning capacitor and a ferrite rod was reused which can
be tuned around 550-1600 KHz. The copper wire is wound around the ferrite rod
and rotating the rod would void some signals while improving the others. An
external antenna, can be of several feet of flexible wire, may be necessary if the
location of the receiver is in an area of weak reception. The tuning capacitor’s
moving plates should be connected to the base of Q1 while the fixed plates to the
junction of R1 and C1. Useless oscillation and instability may occur if the
connection of the capacitor is reversed.

Application
Amplitude modulation may be utilized not only in radio communications but also in
transmitting human voice electronically, where the voice waves on both sides are
modulating the voltage of the direct current loop connected to them by the
telephone company. In AM radio, the voltage or amplitude of a carrier with a fixed
center frequency by the station is varied by the analog audio signal. Amplitude
modulation is also used in digital data, like quadrature amplitude modulation,
where both amplitude and phase modulation are used to create different binary
states for transmission. AM is also used in modulating the light waves in optical
fibers.

Some of the advantages possessed by using amplitude modulation receiver are,

simplicity of implementation, can be demodulated using a circuit consisting of very
few components and they are cheap as no specialised components are needed.
The disadvantages that one may encounter are inefficient in terms of its power
usage, inefficient in terms of its use of bandwidth and prone to high levels of noise.

Source:www.zen22142.zen.co.uk/Circuits/rf/amrec.html
30 Metre QRSS Beacon Updates
The MEPT Beacon has gone through some steady changes over the past
few days. Most importantly it is now in somewhat of a "finished" state,
stable and boxed-up ready for real transmitting experiments. A fourth
piece of foam surrounds the circuit for insulation once the top is closed,
the open ends of this "oven" don't seem to hurt. Modules are (clockwise
from the microcontroller board); The ATtiny13V based controller, the fine
tuning and FSK modulator, the carrier oscillator and buffer, the amplitude
modulator (on wall), the driver amplifier, the low pass filter (on wall),
and finally the class-E power amplifier.
Carrier Oscillator
Essentially unchanged from the original circuit, except I have stripped out
the diode switched modulation trimmer and replaced it with the
frequency modulation and tuning board. Conventional Colpitts oscillator
using a 2N3904 buffered by a J310 with a low-pass filter delivering 900
uW into 50 Ohms.

That 3.1 uH inductor in the filter is implemented by 32 turns on a T37-6

toroid. The 78 pF caps are two 39 pF in parallel.
The reverse-isolation of this circuit is pretty good. It might be used as-is
for a QRPp beacon or with the driver amplifier for 14 dBm output which is
quite usable.

Frequency Modulator and Tuning

A pair of 1N4007s are used as varactor diodes. I picked 1N4007s not
because they are particularly well suited, but simply that I had some on
the bench. One of the varactors is directly coupled to the xtal circuit
through 1 nF so most of its capacitance change is seen, the other is
coupled through a small trimmer to adjust its maximum effect. This gives
two independent channels, one for relatively coarse frequency tuning, the
other for FSK modulation. Thanks to John for his suggestion around this
part of the circuit.

The varactor modulators were characterised to design the bias network in

the controller for best linearity and desired range of shift (etc).
Fine was measured with the coupling trimmer quite loose, and
subsequently tightened on final assembly to give a good maximum
modulation width.
The data looks characteristically parabolic as expected. I suspect the
oddness of the fine is measurement error. The y coordinates are in Hz
relative to 10.138000 MHz (x is reverse voltage) so it doesn't take much
error in measurement to make the fine trace look lumpy.

Driver Amplifier
The driver amp is a simple 2N3904-based feedback amplifier delivering
about 25 mW from the 800 uW output of the oscillator board. The
amplifier input impedance is about 300 ohms when loaded with 50 at the
output, this is a pretty serious mismatch for the previous stage's output
filter (Return loss of about -2.7 dB). The gain from a 50 ohm source
models at about 11 dB, but the circuit in practice measured about 15 dB
transducer gain from using the oscillator as a signal source, probably
because of the increased output of the oscillator with the lower loading
offered by the input impedance (compared to a dummy load). DC input
power is about 500 mW, so this stage is woefully inefficient, running at
its limits, and should probably be redesigned. The supply line is keyed by
the amplitude modulator to affect CW modulation.
Amplitude Modulator
The amplitude modulator is simply a BD140 PNP transistor with a 2N7000
switching its base voltage. A resistor network gives some envelope
shaping to soften the keying. In theory PWM could be used for fine-grain
power control from the microcontroller board, but I don't think I will
attempt this.

Power Amplifier
The power amplifier is a single 2N7000 running Class-E. From its 25 mW
drive it can deliver about 2 Watts output (33 dBm) through the output
filter into 50 Ohms from a 13.8 Volt supply. It barely gets warm although
it is biased very slightly on by the (selected for the device) resistor
network at the gate to give good 50% duty cycle drive and sensitivity to
the relatively small drive voltage. At the normal supply voltage
(regulated 12.0 volts) it will deliver about 1.5 Watts - note also that
optimal tuning changes noticeably with a change in supply voltage.
Impedance matching into the gate could be better but I suspect
acheiving a good return loss would reduce the drive voltage amplitude
and kill the output power, another active device would likely be required -
in any case the impedance doesn't appear to upset the oscillator buffer
LP filter even though the driver is partially "transparent" being a feedback
amplifier. The mid-stage filter is largely redundant, but was useful for
initial experiments, you might like to omit it.

I wrote a calculator to help design class-E amplifiers. The design was

based around 1 Watt out from a 12 Volt supply and a loaded Q of 5. The
result gives a load of about 75 Ohms, but empirical tests showed 50
Ohms was suitable loading giving a sightly worse efficiency and more
voltage at the drain (without changing the shunt capacitor). The shunt
capacitor value was decreased from the calculated value to match the
output capacitance of the 2N7000 (about 18 pF), experimental
measurements closely agreeing with theory. Even better efficiency is
likely achievable, but the circuit works quite well as-is.

The drain choke is 12 turns on an FT50-43, its precise value is not

critical, it just acts as a current source and could be (and perhaps should
be) much smaller - the calculator does make a (very tiny - often
ignorable) adjustment for its admittance. The series resonator is 35 turns
on an T68-6. The larger core was chosen because of the large circulating
currents, but numeric analysis was not carried out, T50 or perhaps even
T37 might be OK? The trimmer is probably not the best for higher Q
circuits, but at 5 it seems to work OK and doesn't get hot.

Low-Pass Filter
The filter is a Chebyshev with its final peak at the frequency of operation.
It has pretty good measured characteristics, the centre capacitor was
tweaked to tune out the effect of using E12 preferred values. Normal
ceramic capacitors were used with no measurable ill effects.

The 3.1 uH inductors are 28 turns on T50-6 toroids.

The Controller
An ATtiny13V is the brains of the MEPT beacon. The microcontroller code
hasn't changed since the original build. The board also contains the
resistor network for deriving the modulator and tuning signals from the
"width" and "centre" pots, in addition to the green indicating LEDs which
show the CW and FSK keying state.
There are some elements omitted from these diagrams, for example the
5 and 8 volt three-terminal regulators, some filter capacitors, decoupling,
supply filtering at entrance to the box, etc. All are extremely non-critical
and conventional so I haven't detailed them here. Please post a comment
if you want anything clarified.

Vertical Antenna
The antenna has also changed, I've built a matching network to feed my
3-metre vertical used in the 80 metre beacon on 30 metres. I hope to
eventually build a diplexer and matching network that can feed this same
chunk of metal with both beacon TXs concurrently - but much design
work remains before I can attempt that.