AC TRANSMISSION

Copyright © P. Kundur
This material should not be used without the author's consent
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Performance Equations and Parameters
of Transmission Lines

A transmission line is characterized by four

parameters:
 series resistance (R) due to conductor resistivity
 shunt conductance (G) due to currents along
insulator strings and corona; effect is small and
usually neglected
 series inductance (L) due to magnetic field
surrounding the conductor
 shunt capacitance (C) due to the electric field
between the conductors

These are distributed parameters.

The parameters and hence the characteristics of

cables differ significantly from those of overhead
lines because the conductors in a cable are
 much closer to each other
 surrounded by metallic bodies such as shields,
lead or aluminum sheets, and steel pipes
 separated by insulating material such as
impregnated paper, oil, or inert gas

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For balanced steady-state operation, the performance of
transmission lines may be analyzed in terms of single-
phase equivalents.

Fig. 6.1 Voltage and current relationship of a distributed

parameter line

The general solution for voltage and current at a

distance x from the receiving end (see book: page 202)
is:
~ ~ ~ ~
~ VR + ZC I R γx VR − Z C I R −γx
V= e + e (6.8)
2 2
~ ~
VR ~ VR ~
+ IR −IR (6.9)
~ ZC ZC
I = e γx − e − γx
2 2

where z
ZC =
y

γ = zy = α + jβ

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 The constant ZC is called the characteristic
impedance and γ is called the propagation constant.

The constants γ and ZC are complex quantities. The

real part of the propagation constant γ is called the
attenuation constant α, and the imaginary part the
phase constant β.

If losses are completely neglected,

L
ZC = = Real Number
C
(pure resistance)

γ = jβ = Imaginary number

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For a lossless line, Equations 6.8 and 6.9 simplify to

~ ~
V = VR cos βx + jZC IR sin βx (6.17)

~ ~ V~R 
I = I R cos βx + j   sin βx (6.18)
ZC 
 
When dealing with lightening/switching surges, HV
lines are assumed to be lossless. Hence, ZC with
losses neglected is commonly referred to as the surge
impedance.

The power delivered by a line when terminated by its

surge impedance is known as the natural load or surge
impedance load.

V02
SIL = watts
ZC

where V0 is the rated voltage

At SIL, Equations 6.17 and 6.18 further simplify to

~ ~
V = VR eγx (6.20)

~
I = I R e γx (6.21)

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Hence, for a lossless line at SIL,
 V and I have constant amplitude along the line
 V and I are in phase throughout the length of the line
 The line neither generates nor absorbs VARS

As we will see later, the SIL serves as a convenient

reference quantity for evaluating and expressing line
performance

Typical values of SIL for overhead lines:

nominal (kV): 230 345 500 765

SIL (MW): 140 420 1000 2300

Underground cables have higher shunt capacitance;

hence, ZC is much smaller and SIL is much higher than
those for overhead lines.
 for example, the SIL of a 230 kV cable is about
1400 MW
 generate VARs at all loads

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 Typical Parameters

Table 6.1 Typical overhead transmission line parameters

Note: 1. Rated frequency is assumed to be 60 Hz

2. Bundled conductors used for all lines listed, except for the 230 kV line.
3. R, xL, and bC are per-phase values.
4. SIL and charging MVA are three-phase values.

Table 6.2 Typical cable parameters

* direct buried paper insulated lead covered (PILC) and high pressure pipe
type (PIPE)
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Voltage Profile of a Radial Line at No-
No-Load

With receiving end open, IR = 0. Assuming a

lossless line from Equations 6.17 and 6.18, we have
~ ~
V = VR cos (βx ) (6.31)
~
(
~
)
I = j VR ZC sin (βx ) (6.32)

At the sending end (x = l),

~ ~
ES = VR cos βl
(6.33)
~
= VR cos θ

where θ = βl. The angle θ is referred to as the

electrical length or the line angle, and is expressed
in radians.

From Equations 6.31, 6.32, and 6.33

~ ~ cos βx
V = ES (6.35)
cos θ

ES sin βx (6.36)
I= j
Z C cos θ

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As an example, consider a 300 km, 500 kV line with
β = 0.0013 rads/km, ZC = 250 ohms, and ES = 1.0 pu:

θ = 300 x 0.0013 = 0.39 rads

= 22.3 o
VR = 1.081 pu
IS = 0.411 pu
Base current is equal to that corresponding to SIL.

Voltage and current profiles are shown in Figure 6.5.

The only line parameter, other than line length, that

affects the results of Figure 6.5 is β. Since β is
practically the same for overhead lines of all voltage
levels (see Table 6.1), the results are universally
applicable, not just for a 500 kV line.

The receiving end voltage for different line lengths:

- for l = 300 km, VR = 1.081 pu

- for l = 600 km, VR = 1.407 pu
- for l = 1200 km, VR = infinity

Rise in voltage at the receiving end is because of

capacitive charging current flowing through line
inductance.
 known as the "Ferranti effect".

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 (a) Schematic Diagram

(b) Voltage Profile

(c) Current Profile

Figure 6.5 Voltage and current profiles for a 300 km lossless

line with receiving end open-circuited
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 Voltage - Power Characteristics
of a Radial Line

Corresponding to a load of PR+jQR at the receiving end, we

have

~ PR − jQR
IR = ~
VR*

Assuming the line to be lossless, from Equation 6.17
with x = l

~ ~  P − jQ 
ES = VR cos θ + jZC sinθ  R ~* R 
 V 
 R 

Fig. 6.7 shows the relationship between VR and PR for a
300 km line with different loads and power factors.
The load is normalized by dividing PR by P0, the natural
load (SIL), so that the results are applicable to overhead
lines of all voltage ratings.

From Figure 6.7 the following fundamental properties of ac

transmission are evident:
a) There is an inherent maximum limit of power that can be
transmitted at any load power factor. Obviously, there
has to be such a limit, since, with ES constant, the only
way to increase power is by lowering the load
impedance. This will result in increased current, but
decreased VR and large line losses. Up to a certain point
the increase of current dominates the decrease of VR,
thereby resulting in an increased PR. Finally, the
decrease in VR is such that the trend reverses.

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Figure 6.7 Voltage-power characteristics of a 300 km
lossless radial line

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 Voltage - Power Characteristics
of a Radial Line (cont'd)

b) Any value of power below the maximum can be

transmitted at two different values of VR. The
normal operation is at the upper value, within
narrow limits around 1.0 pu. At the lower voltage,
the current is higher and may exceed thermal
limits. The feasibility of operation at the lower
voltage also depends on load characteristics, and
may lead to voltage instability.

c) The load power factor has a significant influence

on VR and the maximum power that can be
transmitted. This means that the receiving end
voltage can be regulated by the addition of shunt
capacitive compensation.

Fig. 6.8 depicts the effect of line length:

 For longer lines, VR is very sensitive to variations
in PR.
 For lines longer than 600 km (θ > 45°), VR at
natural load is the lower of the two values which
satisfies Equation 6.46. Such operation is likely
to be unstable.

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Figure 6.8 Relationship between receiving end voltage,
line length, and load of a lossless radial line

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 Voltage-Power Characteristic of a Line
Voltage-
Connected to Sources at Both Ends

With ES and ER assumed to be equal, the following

conditions exist:
 the midpoint voltage is midway in phase between
ES and ER
 the power factor at midpoint is unity
 with PR>P0, both ends supply reactive power to the
line; with PR<P0, both ends absorb reactive power
from the line.

Fig. 6.9 Voltage and current phase relationships with ES

equal to ER, and PR less than Po

Fig. 6.8 (developed for a radial line) may be used to

analyze how Vm varies with PR.
 with the length equal to half that of the actual line,
plots of VR shown in Figure 6.8 give Vm.

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 Power Transfer and Stability
Considerations

Assuming a lossless line, from Equation 6.17 with

x = l, we can show that
ES ER
PR = sin δ (6.51)
ZC sinθ

where θ = βl is the electrical length of line and is the

angle by which ES leads ER, i.e. the load angle.

If ES = ER = rated voltage, then the natural load is

ES ER
PO =
ZC

and Equation 6.51 becomes

PO
PR = sin δ
sinθ

The above is valid for synchronous as well as

asynchronous load at the receiving end.

Fig. 6.10(a) shows the δ - PR relationship for a 400 km

line.

For comparison, the Vm - PR characteristic of the line is

shown in Fig. 6.10(b).

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Figure 6.10 PR-δ and Vm-PR characteristics of 400 km lossless
line transmitting power between two large systems

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 Reactive Power Requirements

From Equation 6.17, with x = l and ES = ER = 1.0, we can

show that
QR = −QS

ES2 (cos δ − cos θ )

=
ZC sinθ

Fig. 6.11 shows the terminal reactive power
requirements of lines of different lengths as a function
of PR.
 Adequate VAR sources must be available at the two
ends to operate with varying load and nearly
constant voltage.

General Comments

Analysis of transmission line performance

characteristics presented above represents a highly
idealized situation
 useful in developing a conceptual understanding of
the phenomenon
 dynamics of the sending-end and receiving-end
systems need to be considered for accurate
analysis.

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Figure 6.11 Terminal reactive power as a function of power
transmitted for different line lengths

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 Loadability Characteristics

The concept of "line loadability" was introduced by

H.P. St. Clair in 1953

Fig. 6.13 shows the universal loadability curve for
overhead uncompensated lines applicable to all
voltage ratings

Three factors influence power transfer limits:
 thermal limit (annealing and increased sag)
 voltage drop limit (maximum 5% drop)
 steady-state stability limit (steady-state stability
margin of 30% as shown in Fig. 6.14)

The "St. Clair Curve" provides a simple means of

visualizing power transfer capabilities of transmission
lines.
 useful for developing conceptual guides to
preliminary planning of transmission systems
 must be used with some caution

Large complex systems require detailed assessment

of their performance and consideration of additional
factors

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 "St. Clair Curve"

Figure 6.13 Transmission line loadability curve

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 Stability Limit Calculation for Line
Loadability

Figure 6.14 Steady state stability margin calculation

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 Factors Influencing Transfer of Active
and Reactive Power

Consider two sources connected by an inductive

reactance as shown in Figure 6.21.
 representation of two sections of a power system
interconnected by a transmission system
 a purely inductive reactance is considered
because impedances of transmission elements
are predominately inductive
 effects of shunt capacitances do not appear
explicitly

(a) Equivalent system diagram

δ = load angle
Φ = power factor angle

(b) Phasor diagram

Figure 6.21 Power transfer between two sources

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The complex power at the receiving end is
~ ~
~ ~ ~* ~  ES − ER 
SR = PR + jQ R = ER I = ER  
 jX 
 E cos δ + jES sin δ − ER 
= ER  S 
 jX 

Hence,
ES ER (6.79)
PR = sin δ
X
ES ER cos δ − ER2 (6.80)
QR =
X

Similarly,

ES ER (6.81)
PS = sin δ
X
ES2 − ES ER cos δ (6.82)
QS =
X

Equations 6.79 to 6.82 describe the way in which

active and reactive power are transferred

Let us examine the dependence of P and Q transfer
on the source voltages, by considering separately
the effects of differences in voltage magnitudes and
angles

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(a) Condition with δ = 0:

From Equations 6.79 to 6.82, we have
PR = PS = 0

ER (ES − ER ) ES (ES − ER )
QR = , QS =
X X

With ES > ER, QS and QR are positive

With ES < ER, QS and QR are negative

As shown in Fig. 6.22,

 transmission of lagging current through an
inductive reactance causes a drop in receiving
end voltage
 transmission of leading current through an
inductive reactance causes a rise in receiving
end voltage

Reactive power "consumed" in each case is

QS − QR =
(E S − ER )
2

= XI 2
X

(a) ES>ER (b) ER>ES

Figure 6.22 Phasor diagrams with δ = 0

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(b) Condition with ES = ER and δ ≠ 0

From Equations 6.79 to 6.82, we now have

E2
PR = PS = sin δ
X
E2
QS = −QR = (1 − cosδ )
X
1
= XI2
2

With δ positive, PS and PR are positive, i.e., active

power flows from sending to receiving end

In each case, there is no reactive power transferred

from one end to the other; instead, each end
supplies half of Q consumed by X.

(a) δ > 0 (b) δ < 0

Figure 6.23 Phasor diagram with ES = ER

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(c) General case applicable to any condition:

We now have

ES cos δ + jES sin δ − ER (6.83)

I =
jX
ES2 + ER2 − 2ES ER cos δ
QS − QR =
X
(6.84)
=
(XI ) = XI 2
2

If, in addition to X, we consider series resistance R

of the network, then

P R2 + Q R2
Qloss = XI = X
2
(6.85)
ER2
P R2 + Q R2
Ploss = RI = R
2
(6.86)
E R2

The reactive power "absorbed" by X for all

conditions is X I 2. This leads to the concept of
"reactive power loss", a companion term to active
power loss.

An increase in reactive power transmitted increases

active as well as reactive power losses. This has an
impact on efficiency and voltage regulation.

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Conclusions Regarding Transfer of Active and
Reactive Power

The active power transferred (PR) is a function of

voltage magnitudes and δ. However, for satisfactory
operation of the power system, the voltage magnitude
at any bus cannot deviate significantly from the
nominal value. Therefore, control of active power
transfer is achieved primarily through variations in
angle δ.

Reactive power transfer depends mainly on voltage

magnitudes. It is transmitted from the side with higher
voltage magnitude to the side with lower voltage
magnitude.

Reactive power cannot be transmitted over long

distances, since it would require a large voltage
gradient to do so.

An increase in reactive power transfer causes an

increase in active as well as reactive power losses.

Although we have considered a simple system, the general

conclusions are applicable to any practical system, In fact, the basic
characteristics of ac transmission reflected in these conclusions
have a dominant effect on the way in which we operate and control
the power system.

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Appendix to Section on AC Transmission

1. Copy of Section 6.4 from the book “Power System

Stability and Control”
 provides background information related to
power flow analysis techniques

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