MENC: The National Association for Music Education

A Pilot Study of Performance Practices of Twentieth-Century Musicians

Author(s): George Papich and Edward Rainbow
Source: Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring, 1974), pp. 24-34
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. on behalf of MENC: The National Association for
Music Education
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/3344615
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24/JR ME

A PILOT STUDY OF
PERFORMANCE PRACTICES
OF TWENTIETH-CENTURY
MUSICIANS

George Papich
Edward Rainbow

This study was the initial phase of a continuing project to investigate the per-
formance practices of twentieth-century musicians. The purpose of the study
was to test and refine data-gathering techniques and to use these techniques
in a preliminary investigation of the characteristics of intonation and pitch
vibrato of performers of stringed instruments. Services of a number of string
instrumentalists were obtained. The performers were gathered in groups of
like instruments. Each performer was asked to perform, for recording pur-
poses, a selected musical passage-initially as a solo performer and then as
a member of an ensemble. The recordings of each solo performance and each
musician's contribution to the ensemble performance were analyzed with the
aid of electronic equipment that converted the musical stimuli into a graphic
representation of the performance.
The results and findings of the pilot study were as follows: (1) Pitch vibrato
is present in the initial attack at all tones. (2) When each performer uses
vibrato, the speed of the vibrato and pitch width are the same in solo playing
as in ensemble playing. (3) The pitch vibrato does not appear to be an oscilla-
tion above and below conceived pitch but appears to be an oscillation in an
upward direction from conceived pitch. The conclusions offered in the pilot
study require the support of additional investigations using other performers
and additional musical passages.

Key Words: aural discrimination, performance ability, performance organiza-

tion, solo, string instruments.

Musical performance and performance practices rarely have been

subjected to scientific investigation. Small, Greene, and Seashore in-
vestigated intonation and pitch vibrato characteristics of solo violin
and solo voice performance.1 Nickerson investigated characteristics
1 Arnold M. Small, "An Objective Analysis of Artistic Violin Performance,"
Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music, Vol. 4 (1937), pp. 172-231; Paul C.
Greene, "Violin Intonation," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 9

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 Papich-Rainbow/25

of intonation in string quartet performance.2 Mason investigated the

intonation characteristics of woodwind performers.3 There is a need to
update and expand the parameters of these studies and to carry the
scientific investigation of musical performance into areas that have not
been studied objectively. Heller demonstrated the value of using new
electronic equipment to graph musical performance.4 These graphing
techniques, along with improved recording techniques, make possible a
more exhaustive investigation of musical performance. A thorough, ob-
jective investigation could provide a clearer insight into the performance
practices of twentieth-century musicians and also might serve as a founda-
tion for development of new pedagogical techniques.
This pilot study was an initial step of a continuing project aimed at
investigating performance practices of twentieth-century musicians. Data-
gathering techniques were tested and refined and used in a preliminary
investigation of the characteristics of intonation and pitch vibrato used
by string performers. Specific problems related to the investigation were
the comparison of the pitch vibrato characteristics of differential string
performers and of solo and ensemble performance, as well as the com-
parison of intonation characteristics of differential string performers and
of solo and ensemble performance.

Method of Investigation
The study subjects were four violinists, four violists, four cellists,
and five double bassists. All were students majoring in their respective
instruments at North Texas State University, and most had professional
performing experience. The performers were gathered in groups of like
instruments in the electronic music laboratory and were asked to perform
passages selected from the standard lifterature for their instrument. To
ensure consistency of performance, each musician was asked to perform
the selected passage three times as a solo performer. Following the solo
performances the musicians, as a section of like instruments, performed
the same passage three times in ensemble.
For recording purposes a contact microphone was attached to each
(1937), pp. 43-44 and "Violin Performance with Reference to Tempered, Natural and
Pythagorean Intonation," Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music, Vol. 4 (1937),
pp. 232-251; Carl E. Seashore, "Psychology of the Vibrato in Voice and Instrument,"
Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music, Vol. 3 (1935), p. 159.
2J. F. Nickerson, "Intonation of Solo and Ensemble Performance of the Same
Melody," Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol. 21 (1949), pp. 591-601.
3James Mason, "Comparison of Solo and Ensemble Performances with Reference
to Pythagorean, Just and Equi-Tempered Intonation," Journal of Research in Music
Education, Vol. 8 (Spring 1960), p. 31.
4 Jack Heller, "Electronic Graphs of Musical Performance," Journal of Research in
Music Education, Vol. 17 (Spring 1969), p. 69; "Electronic Graphs of Musical Per-
formance, A Pilot Study in Perception and Learning," Journal of Research in Music
Education, Vol. 17 (Summer 1969), p. 202; Heller and W. Campbell, "Music Perform-
ance Analysis," Council for Research in Music Education Bulletin, No. 24 (Spring 1971),
p. 1.

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26/J R ME

instrument (bass and cello: De Armond model 900; violin and viola:
De Armond model 700), and all performances were recorded on two
Ampex model 354 four-track tape recorders. In a prior investigation of
recording techniques, the researchers had determined that use of con-
tact microphones and multitrack tape recorders would enable the re-
cording technician to isolate and record, within ithe context of a group
performance, the contribution of each musician to the group perfor-
mance. Evidence from experimentation also indicated that two multitrack
recorders were needed. The use of one four-track recorder enabled the
researchers to record simultaneously from four microphone sources on
separate tracks; however, leakage between tracks occurred. Use of two
multitrack recorders enabled greater channel separation during th
recording and, thus, eliminated the track leakage during the recording
process. A diagram of a typical recording session is presented in Figure 1

Recorder Recorder
I II

Track I - - Track III Track I - - Track III

Track II - - Track IV Track II -- Track IV

Violin A Violin B Violin C Violin C

Figure 1. Diagram of Recording Inp

After each recording session, the reco

solo and ensemble recordings onto a s
the following manner: performer A:
ensemble performance A1, A2, A3; pe
B2, B3, and so forth. The recordings of
and his contribution to the ensemble
the aid of the following electronic
universal filter; Electro Mechanical Re
287 A-02 subcarrier discriminator, rev
S-601-S Speed Servo multi-range grap
200A tape recorder.
Initially the tape recordings were played
the strong upper partials present in m
stimulus, representing the fundamenta
verted by the subcarrier discriminato
impulses were in turn transferred by
time graphic representation of the per
tions became the basis for the compar

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 Papich-Rainbow/27

formances. Figure 2 is a diagram of the graphing procedure. Figure 3

is a portion of a graph of a solo performance.

I_- tor ,
Recorder / Filter Discrimina- R
Subcarrier Graphic

Figure 2. Schematic Diagram of Graphing Procedure

Violists

The violists were the first group of instrumentalists -to be subjected to

study. The four performers gathered in the electronic music laboratory
and, after a period of warm-up, were requested to play a selected musical
passage. The recording engineer assigned to this project made some
serious errors in recording these performances and rendered the tapes
useless for electronic analysis. A new recording engineer was employed for
the remainder of the investigation. New recordings will be made of the
viola performances and will be included in a future project report.

Double Bassists

Each double bassist was asked to tune his instrument to A=440 Hz.
After a brief warm-up period, the five bassists were asked to perform
passage (see Figure 4) three times as a soloist. Four bassists were aske
to perform the passage in ensemble (bass E was excused from t
ensemble recording). The performance characteristics of each of the f
solo double bassists were analyzed electronically as described abo
Table 1 presents the mean pitch vibrato characteristics of each s
performer.
The speed and width of the pitch vibrato used by each performer were
consistent with that used in all three solo performances. Performers A,
B, C, and D also performed as a section of double basses; the speed and
width of the vibrato observed in each ensemble performance were
consistent with that observed in solo performance. Pitch vibrato was
noted in the attack of all tones and appeared initially as a sharping
surge. It was observed, however, that vibrato was not always used to sus-
tain a tone after the initial attack and that use of vibrato to sustain a
tone was observed more often in solo performance than in ensem
performance. In cases where vibrato was observed in the initial porti
of the tone but was not maintained throughout the tone, the pitch o
that portion sustained without vibrato corresponded with or was nea
to the lowest point of the vibrato cycle.
Intonation in all observed cases of solo performance was general
consistent from performance to performance. In the cases of observab
pitch errors, the errors appeared to be on the sharp side of the frequen
in Hz associated with both equal temperament and pythagorean tunin

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28/J RME

- !.. ... .... T.................

Figure 3. Example of Cello Performance of Measures 7, 8, 9

The D in measures one through five (see Figure 4) was performed at

148 Hz in all solo examples analyzed. In measure thirteen the D was
performed again after a shift in hand position. In four out of the five
cases of observed solo performance, the D reappeared at a pitch frequency
of 150 Hz (approximately one-eighth step higher). However, the dis-
crepancy was not noted in the ensemble performances. In all observed
ensemble performances, the D in measure thirteen reappeared at a pitch
frequency of 148 Hz.
Once a note was produced in solo performance, the note was main-
tained at the initial pitch frequency with little or no adjustment. In
section performance the musicians consistently adjusted their notes to
reach a consensus of pitch. Errors of pitch that were noted in ensemble

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 Papich-Rai nbow/29

A 4, LL A: '

I 11

.. ..a......
A,
.I,-
L w
m I U o

Figure 4. Double Bass Passage: Sc

performance generally app

frequency normally associate
gorean tuning.

Cellists

Each cellist was asked to tune his instrument to A=440 Hz. After a
free warm-up period, each cellist was asked to perform the passag
shown in Figure 5 three times as a solo instrumentalist and three time
as a member of a cello section. Recordings of all performances wer
reorganized and analyzed electronically as discussed previously. Table 2
presents a summary of the pitch vibrato characteristics of each sol
performer.

Table 1
Mean Pitch Vibrato Characteristics of
Solo Double Bass Performers

Double Brass Mean Vibrato Cycles Mean Width of Vibrato

Performer per Second in Hz*

A 4 2.5
B 5 2
C 4.5 2
D 4.5, but irregular 1
E 4 2.5
Group Mean 4 2

*The width of the pitch v

oscillation to the lowest poin
Y8 step.

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30/J RME

The speed and width of the pitch vibrato used by each solo cellist were
consistent from performance to performance. The speed and width of the
vibrato used in section performance were consistent with that exhibited
in solo performance. Vibrato was observed in the attack of all notes.
Initial use of vibrato appears as a sharping surge. In contrast to the
double bassists, the cellists evidenced a greater use of vibrato in sustain-
ing a tone. During the course of a sustained tone, however, the width of
the vibrato was observed to narrow. Upon attack, the width of the vibrato
(measures one, four, eight, and nine in Figure 5) was observed to be
greater than one-fourth step, and at the end of the held tone the width
was observed to be less than one-eighth tone.

f i, "ei

Figure 5. Cello Passage: Beethoven, Quartet, D Major, Op. 18, No. 3, 2nd Movemen

It was observed that cellists use vibrato less often in section performance
than in solo performance. The vibrato appeared to be an oscillation from
a conceived pitch to above pitch. The low point of the vibrato oscillatio
in most examples approximated the pitch in Hz, associated with pytha-
gorean tuning or equal temperament. The high point of the oscillatio
represented a pitch approximately one-fourth step higher than the pitc
normally associated with pythagorean tuning or equal temperament. A
in the case of the double bass performances, when cellists initiate
vibrato at the beginning of a tone but did not maintain the vibra
throughout the entire tone, the pitch of that portion of the tone sustained
without vibrato was observed to be at approximately the lowest poin
of the vibrato cycle.
Intonation in all cases of solo cellists appeared consistent from perfor
ance to performance. It was noted that solo performers did not attemp
to adjust pitch. For example, in measure one ithe F played in solo per
formance by cellists B and C was approximately 3 Hz sharper than th
same F performed as members of a section. The cellists used their vibra
to help them reach a consensus pitch in ensemble performance. When

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 Papich-Rainbow/31

Table 2
Mean Pitch Vibrato Characteristics of
Solo Cello Performers

Mean Vibrato Cycles Mean Width of Vibrato

Cello Performer per Second in Hz*
A 5 5
B 5.5 3.5
C 4.5 3
D 5 4.5
Group Mean 5 4

*The width of the pitch vi

oscillation to the lowest poin
Y1 step.

a performer perceived that his note was lower in pitch than that played
by the section, a wider vibrato was used to bring the initially conceived
note into closer agreement with the note played by the section.
In all observed ensemble and solo performances, cellists exhibited a
tendency to play sharp when performing on the C string. The low F in
measures two, three, six, seven, and eleven was consistently performed
sharper than the frequency in Hz normally associated with the pitch of
that particular note. All observed solo and section performers played
the Bb in measure five at a lower pitch level than the Bb in measure one.
This finding lends some tentative support to the theory that the melodic
line influences the level of pitch.

Violinists

The four violinists were assembled in the electronic music laboratory

and after a warm-up period were asked to tune their instruments to
A=440 Hz. Each performer was asked to play the passage shown in
Figure 6 three times as a soloist and then to join in performing the
passage three times in ensemble. Recordings of these performances were
analyzed electronically as described above. The pitch vibrato characteris-
tics are noted for each performer in Table 3.

+ ,o!
IAOI I t A ?w ff.

Figure 6. Violin

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32/J RME

Each solo violinist exhibited a consistent vibrato pattern from per-

formance to performance. Vibrato was present in the initial attack of
the tone and was represented on the chart as a sharping surge. In the
initial portion of the tone, the vibrato appeared to be widest and tended
to taper to a narrower vibrato toward the end of the sustained tone. Some
violinists tended to speed up their vibrato in the middle of a sustained
note; however, this trait did not appear to be consistent.
In both solo and ensemble performance the violinists tended to use a
wider vibrato when playing in third position than when playing in first
position. Violinists in both solo and ensemble performances tended to
use vibrato to adjust pitch. It was observed that if the pitch was sharp, the
top of the vibrato oscillation modulated downward toward the bottom of

Table 3
Mean Pitch Vibrato Characteristics of
Solo Violin Performers

Vibrato Cycles Width of Vibrato

Violin Performer per Second in Hz*
A 6 12
B 6.5 13
C 7 13
D 6.5 20
Group Mean 6.5 14.5

*In the pitch range under study, 1

the oscillation. If the pitch w

oscillation modulated upward
middle of a tone, the rema
associated closely with the lo
appeared in the initial produ
vibrato was used to sustain
ensemble performance.
Intonation patterns were co
performances. The graphs in
from a lower note to a higher
was used to adjust the pitch.
had greater tendency to adju
solo performance.

Conclusions

The study results indicate that the data-gathering techniques employed

were appropriate for an investigation of the characteristics of pitch
vibrato and intonation of stringed instrument performers in both solo
and ensemble playing situations. Results of the graphic analyses of the

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 Papich-Rainbow/33

recordings of the violin, cello, and double bass performers support the
following conclusions.

1. Pitch vibrato is present in the initial attack of all tones. The vibrato
appears initially as a surge upward in pitch. After the initial surge, the
vibrato is subjected to modification or, on occasion, is discontinued.
2. When each performer uses vibrato, the speed of the vibrato and
pitch width are the same in solo playing as in ensemble playing. The
performers tend to use vibrato less often when performing in ensemble
than when performing solo.
3. The pitch vibrato does not appear to be an oscillation above and
below conceived pitch but appears to be an oscillation in an upward
direction from conceived pitch.
4. The mean speeds of the vibratos used in the study were as follows:
violin, 6.5 vibrato cycles per second; cello, 5 v.c.p.s.; and double bass,
4 v.c.p.s.
5. The mean pitch width of the vibrato was as follows: violin, slightly
greater than one-eighth step; cello, slightly less than one-fourth step;
and double bass, slightly less than one-eighth step.
6. In general when a performer errs going from a lower pitch note to
a higher note, the error will tend to be an overestimation of the interval.
7. Comparison of the solo performances of each musician with his
ensemble performances indicate that solos tend to be slightly sharper in
pitch, and pitch adjustments in ensemble performance tend to be in a
downward pitch direction.
The number of performers and recorded musical examples involved in
this investigation were limited. Therefore, the conclusions cannot be
generalized to apply to a broad population of string performers. The
conclusions offered in the pilot study require the support of additional
investigations using other performers and additional musical passages.
Conclusion number three appears to contradict the assumptions of most
string pedagogues and, to an extent, the observations of Seashore. Further
research on this question is being pursued. Conclusion number six sup-
ports some of the findings of Nickerson, whereas conclusions one, four,
and five are somewhat consistent with the studies of Small and Greene.
The teaching of vibrato is one of the least standardized techniques in
string pedagogy. There are almost as many systems of teaching vibrato
as there are teachers who try to teach it. Many teachers ignore vibrato a
the best possible technique in the belief that if one does not teach vibrato
something natural and good will develop. The fact that a student teaches
himself vibrato ensures neither goodness nor naturalness. Analysis of
performance practices of successful musicians, based on controlled scien-
tific inquiry and not emotional speculation, may offer insight into thi
pedagogical problem and hopefully lead to a standardized techniqu
to solve the problem.
* North Texas State University
Denton, Texas

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34/J RME

References

Cheslock, Louis, "An Introductory Study of the Violin Vibrato," Research

Studies in Music No. 1 (Baltimore: Peabody Conservatory, 1931).
Hattwick, Melvin, "The Vibrato in Wind Instruments," Iowa Studies in the
Psychology of Music, Vol. 1 (1932), pp. 276-280.
Hirose, K., "An Experimental Study of the Principal Pitch in the Vibrato,"
Japanese Journal of Psychology, Vol. 9 (1934), pp. 793-845.
Linder, Forrest, "Measurement of the Pitch Extent of the Vibrato on Attack,
Release and Transition Tones," Iowa Studies in the Psychology of Music,
Vol. 1. (1932), pp. 245-249.
Metfessel, Milton, "The Vibrato in Artistic Voices," Iowa Studies in the
Psychology of Music, Vol. 1 (1932), pp. 14-117.
Reger, Scott N., "The String Instrument Vibrato," Iowa Studies in the
Psychology of Music, Vol. 1 (1932), pp. 305-338.
Seashore, Harold G., "An Objective Analysis of Artistic Singing," Iowa
Studies in the Psychology of Music, Vol. 4 (1935), pp. 12-157.

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