Running head: Cultural Psychology 1

Cultural Psychology: A Journey In History

Thomas Flunker

Walden University
Cultural Psychology 2
Abstract

The study of culture as a part of psychology has brought about significant changes

between the years of 1975 and today. These changes have been the result of differences in the

way culture is perceived in our contemporary society. In the 19th century, during the period of

Enlightenment when the link between humanity, cultural diversity, and psychology first began

(Berry, Poortinga, & Pandey, 1997), the concepts generally associated with culture (beliefs,

customs, language, morals, etc.) were invariable in nature. As the social approach to psychology

increased, and the cognition regarding this issue improved, the same was true of the awareness

of culture. The topic began to be viewed as an active and vital part of society and the field of

psychology, as opposed to the static perception in preliminary studies.

This paper catches glimpses of early links between culture and psychology, in part

brought about by the efforts and contributions of Auguste Comte with his science of morale,

John Stuart Mill’s science of ethology, and Willhelm Wundt (Cahan & White, 1992) through his

10-volume work titled, Cultural Psychology (Schultz & Schultz, 2008). Their impact, in

addition to the prodding of several others, were instrumental in bringing about the realization of

a second psychology in the 1990s. This realization was accompanied by two new additions to

the history of the science, the experimental and the social. With those early efforts and

influences beginning to change perceptions about society and culture, science began to see

concentrated changes in the field of psychology, as a new focus on ethnicity developed. In light

of those changes, a brief overview of some the struggles, successes, and advancements in the

area of ethnic or cultural psychology has been included, specifically pertaining to Latino,

African American, and Asian American groups.

Cultural Psychology: A Journey In History

Cultural Psychology 3
Introduction

Up until the 19th century, psychology had assumed a laboratory-based school of thought.

Several key individuals had visions of a type of psychology which dealt less with lab studies and

experimentation, and focused on a more social realm of science. Auguste Comte (Cahan &

White, 1992) emphasized a push for the empirical notion of positivism. His argument focused

on a need for morale, and a social science. His views toward this were later challenged by

several individuals including John Stuart Mill, and Wilhelm Wundt, both who proclaimed a

psychology that dealt with slightly different characteristics of human culture. While none of

these individuals truly realized their pursuit of a second psychology, they were instrumental in

providing the framework for others. Eventually, there would be a realization to this new

science, and the focus on questions of society, human relations, and culture, would soon become

an integral part of psychological discourse. At a time when society was still quite segregated,

shown in part by the types of jobs individuals could obtain, and the narrow-mined approach that

most had toward psychology, this slow shift from a focus on introspection, mental processes, or

on animals, towards a study on people’s behavior in relationship to their surroundings,

environment and culture, would also open future doors for ethnic minorities in the field

(Franklin, 2009).

A Brief History of Laboratory-based Psychology

The primary focus of this new psychology was the experimental method of the mind. In

the 19th century, most of Western Europe was taking part in the development of modern science.

No specific country was celebrated for being the front runner in the advancement of the

sciences. Of the European countries, France, Germany, and England all welcomed and

encouraged scientific developments. It was Germany, however, who opened its doors to this
Cultural Psychology 4
emerging psychology, with its new found attention to experimental science (Schultz & Schultz,

2008). Germany had already fully established, and accepted experimental physiology in a way

other European countries weren’t willing to give into yet. Germany also had the disposition that

lended itself to details, systemization, and classification, all approaches that were not favored by

other European countries in their research. Because of Germany’s approach to science, they

were willing to embrace a wider range of sciences such as: biology, zoology, and physiology

(Ash, 1980). They also displayed a complete willingness to apply science to the cognitive

realm, something other European countries were very skeptical about doing.

German universities offered greater opportunities for this new psychology to expand and

flourish, since it was made up of well-financed institutions within autonomous nation-like

kingdoms, each providing the ultimate opportunity for scientific inquiry (Ash, 1980). Not only

did the highly paid professors have the freedom to lecture on whatever interested them, but

students in these institutions had the benefit of conducting experiments in laboratories which by

no means were not lacking in the area of equipment. No other country had the well-established

universities to be able keep up with Germany in the area of experimental, laboratory psychology,

nor did they encourage the move to do so. As this new psychology progressed, Germany

became the hub not only for those interested in the pursuit of laboratory psychology, but also for

those interested in gain specific insight to be used back in their own countries.

The Initial Call For a Second Psychology

This new psychology became the standard for hundreds of years. Its focus varied due to

differing schools of thought which included laboratory experimentation, as well as animal

Cultural Psychology 5
th th
research. During the 17 and 18 centuries philosophers hoped that psychology would begin to

lend attention to the feasibility of a more practical recreation of the human society. There was a

push by several individuals, including the philosophers of the Enlightenment (Berry, Poortinga,

& Pandey, 1997) , to see a science that would be broad in nature, and would include a variety of

human systems such as: education, government, politics, and social welfare (Cahan & White,

1992). This reform became known as the second psychology. It wasn’t meant to eliminate

laboratory and experimental psychology, rather it was to be a complimentary science. While

unable to experience the acceptance of this type of psychology during their lifetime, Auguste

Comte, John Stuart Mill, and Wilhelm Wundt became champions, in the promotion of new

systematic designs for this second psychology.

Auguste Comte’s positivism and push for social reform. Auguste Comte was one of

the first 19th century individuals to strive for social reform. He limited his work to that which

was soley empirical (Schutz & Schultz, 2008). To be considered worthy of this category, he

expected there to be a disconnect from being dependant on unobservable forces, and abstract

reasoning. He crafted an outline that would provide an empirically based, positivistic, social

reform. Comte pointed out that all of the other sciences had already become positive, or

empirically based. He argued that social physics had since become empirical enough that it

should be used in the construction of a scientifically based government (Cahan & White, 1992).

In his new science of morale, Comte resolved that there should be a division of duties. In his

original plan, he had left psychology out, however in his four-volume, System of Positive Polity,

his social science plan included sociology and a psychology which was further broken into two

categories. Esentially, the new science of morale would unite biological science and sociology
Cultural Psychology 6
and combine them so that as a collective system, the true individual nature of man might be

better understood.

John Stuart Mill’s introduction to the science of ethology. John Stuart Mill was

another major contributor to the new science of psychology. Unlike his father’s view, he

believed that the mind is quite active in its role of connecting ideas (Schultz & Schultz, 2008).

He also felt that it was possible to acheive a scientific study of the mind. This fact led to his

dialogue with Auguste Comte, since this concept had been something that Comte had not

believed possible (White, 1992). In his sixth book, On the Logic of the Moral Sciences, Mill

insisted upon a science of character formation, or ethology. As for science, Mill was concerned

with the empirical observations of habits, tendencies, or conduct which were viewed as the

justification for any judgements on one’s character (White, 1992). The foundations for his

beliefs would emerge out of careful study, and monitoring, of the discrepancies that could be

found among diverse populations and different circumstances around the world. Unfortunately

for Mill, his proposals did not fair well. The impact of his work was minor in respect to seeing

any direct changes in the belief system of the time.

Wilhelm Wundt’s proposal for volksseele (mind of the folk). Wilhelm Wundt was

content with how laboratory psychology had progressed, with the research that was taking place,

and the content of his journal. He felt it was a good time to delve into another area. His new

endeavor had been forshadowed upon the release of his first book. Comparable to others in the

mid to late 1800s, he also had an interest in the creation of a second psychology, one that would

focus on the creation of a social science (Schultz & Schultz, 2008). In 1860, Wundt began

writing about a legitimate development of higher cognitive processes through cultural

involvement. He felt strongly about this addition to science, even though previously he had only
Cultural Psychology 7
critiqued what others had written on the matter. In the early 1900s he wrote a 10-volume

survey which included ethnographic data on the language and customs of diverse human cultures

(Cahan & White, 1992). In it he proposed replacing most of what had been previously written

by philologists, Moritz Lazarus and Heymann Steinthal (Berry, Poortinga, & Pandey, 1997).

Their focus had been on the human spirit which included aspects such as imagination, feeling

and will. Wundt’s concept focused more on the mind of the folk. Unlike in previously

attempted circumstances in which the concept of a Volkerpsychologie had dissipated, Wundt was

able to take his ideas regarding this second, complimentary science, much further than those who

preceeded him.

American Attempts at a Second Psychology

In the mid to latter half of the 19th century, approximately 45 years after Wundt’s attempt

to construct a second psychology with a focus on diverse, social, and cultural realms, American

philosophers and psychologists were busy in their own attempts to make psychology a more

“humane” field of study (Cahan & White, 1992). Williams College professor, John Bascom,

was a proponent of the use of philosophy to provide this added view to an already scientifically

heavy psychology. In his Principles of Psychology, he insisted on a “top-down” system of

psychology to provide more equity to the field, and promote a heightened sense of self-worth

within humans. Another proponent, John Dewey, also saw the benefit of incorporating

philosophy into psychology. He recognized the usefulness of having a psychology that had its

focus on the science of human affairs. Unfortunately, despite the persisitent quest for this

second type of psychology, most paid no attention to these proposals. The methods needed to

realize these new concepts simply did not exist. Hence, all efforts to better understand humans
Cultural Psychology 8
and their relationship to what occurs in their surrounding environment, remained an

afterthought roughly until the turn of the century (Cahan & White, 1992).

Realizing A Second Psychology

The 1900s brought about a definite change in a type of psychological methods

experienced within American Universities. Research was common place, but the focus of

attention saw quite a deviation. Missing from this new realm was previous attention to

consciousness, behavior, stimulus response, or introspection. The types of disciplines being

discussed, or addressed by professions, varied considerably in nature. On top of that was an

apparent growth in the organizational make-up of corporations (Cahan & White, 1992), as well

as a change in the mindset of the population. Individuals became quite adept in being receptive

to this new world, and were quite capable of making it work. Even though experimental

psychology had been the norm, it was not unheard of for psychologists to be brought in to solve

issues of society. All of this would eventually lead toward a psychology that also addressed

concerns within schools, mental health clinics, and even the court system. As these activities

increased, the American mindset seemed to have actually found a nich for a second psychology.

Revisions to Mainstream Psychological Research

After the completion of World War II, a new type of psychological research organization

began to appear. These new establishments were considered multi-disciplinary institutes, by

which many of the concepts brought about by proponents of a new science would be

incorporated. While they may have had connections or alliances with the universities, they were

actually established separately. In 1984 it was estimated that approximately 400 to 500 of these

types of institutes were in existence (Cahan & White, 1992). Over the years these institutes have

made a great deal of progress in the area of applied psychology, and continued to be of great
Cultural Psychology 9
value for professional agencies and institutions in society. As such, these institutions could

receive guidance in providing a better structural design for their organizations, as well as the

services they provide their employees to helping live better and more productive lives.

The Rise of Cultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology

The crusade for second psychology remained one that brought an emphasis on social

science that could address and identify issues within society, as well as promote an emphasis on

culture. These concepts were highlighted during the years of the Civil Rights movement

(Pickren, 2009). The call for Black psychology, and a stream of immigrants of color from Asia,

as well as South and Central America following a change in policy in 1964, were amongst the

major contributors to a new psychology. Additionally, a second wave of feminism developed in

the late 60s and early 70s, initiated a weighty challenge which was brought to the face of

American psychology. Those opposing views were added to the ones brought about by

psychologists and social scientists of color, who were concerned with the use of intelligence tests

that had not taken into account the background and cultural differences of any minorities or

students of color. It was inevitable that culture was not just discussed in a broad social sense

anymore, it would include individual identity and ethnicity.

A New Plan for Investigating Cultural Psychology

Despite the varied influences on psychology throughout its development, as a science it

remained a predominantly unicultural one for many years. Psychology has had a long track

record of ignoring “culture” as it has tended to dwell in its Euro-American traditions (Segall,

Lonner & Berry, 1998). During its early years there was resistance toward allowing women to

advance within the field of psychology. Even when they were allowed, it was typically at lesser-

known undergraduate institutions. Additionally, they were typically hindered from pursuing
Cultural Psychology 10
doctorates degrees in a male dominant field. The few minorities, who had gained the

capabilities, understanding, and education in the field, ordinarily found themselves having to

search out other vocations, as they generally were not able to acquire professorships at colleges

and universities (Schultz & Schultz, 2008). As for the study of culture itself, a plethora of

individuals including Wundt, and Comte, attempted to provide the psychological world with the

motive and means to study society in terms of diversity, culture, and social values. Their work,

along with that of others who strived toward changes in perspective, often fell on deaf ears.

America had already embraced laboratory or experimental psychology (Cahan & White, 1992).

Therefore social psychology often got pushed to the back burner. It wasn’t until national

societies began to see increases in diversity, and communication with international groups began

reflecting a recurring theme, that it became more apparent that it would not be prudent to

continue to follow the largely unicultural, and white Euro-American mindset.

Focusing On Diversity, Community and Other Cultural Forms

The movements that occurred in response to earlier establishments in the field by

individuals of color, had significant ramifications for other ethnic and international groups. The

formation of the ABPsi by African American psychologists was followed by the development of

the Asian American Psychological Association. The ABPsi’s birth resulted almost immediately

in the culmination of the establishing of the Association of Psychologists por la Rasa (Pickren,

2009). These new establishments were often viewed as opportunities to pose attacks and

challenges to predominantly white driven psychology in hopes of toppling the status quo.

However, these organizations had in mind the improvements and advancements of their own

communities. Each ethnic psychological association may have motivated by a variety of

Cultural Psychology 11
journeys to reach fulfillment, the primary objective none-the-less, was to answer to the

demands and needs of their communities (Franklin, 2009).

The Effect of American Cultural Reform on International Psychology

The period after World War II was viewed as a time of decolonization around the world.

The work being done in Cultural and Cross-cultural psychology had begun to demonstrate

parallels between cultures and ethnic groups within the USA, and those from Third World

countries (Pickren, 2009). It also provided a road map for ethnic and minority psychologists

from a variety of countries, to develop psychology that centered less on Western views, and

more on the communities and societies that surrounded them.

The Challenges and Accomplishments in Minority Psychology

I is quite evident that major changes occurred in the field of psychology with respect to

culture. During the final three decades of the 1900s, cultural and cross-cultural research

received a major boost mainly due to enthusiastic scholars and researchers who understood the

importance of the topic. This surge also led to a growing number of textbooks, handbooks, and

scholarly journals, which only enhanced cultural themes (Segall, Lonner & Berry, 1998). All of

these accomplishments and advances had been necessary to further reform many of the methods,

views, and opportunities within psychology. It is important to remember that at the time, North

America was still filled with racism, prejudices, other forms of oppression (Pickeren, 2009).

There were many significant contributions ethnic minorities such as, Latinos, Asian Americans,

and African Americans began to share within the field of psychology. While being able

appreciate the growth, advancements, and the various individual and accomplishments, it is

imperative to consider the journey, which by no means was devoid of challenges.

Acknowledging Key Minority Individuals, Groups, and Events

Cultural Psychology 12
Throughout the history of psychology, many individuals have attempted to introduce

the concept of culture. However, this idea of culture did not specifically entail the various ethnic

groups that are discussed in this section. It wasn’t until the early to mid 1900s when key

individuals, born of ethnic descent, began to bring to light some of the injustices that had been

present within the narrow-minded Western setting. These individuals were the minority not only

in society, but also within the field of psychology. Their endeavors and contributions spurred on

many changes ranging from the universal use of a standard Anglo American based IQ test on

children from different cultures, to the founding of ethnic specific psychological organizations

(Franklin, 2009). They also offered the encouragement that new, young psychologists needed to

become the first person within their particular communities to move up the ranks within the field

of psychology (Pickren, 2009).

A brief history of latino feats in psychology. 1930 marked a significant period of

development in Latino psychology. Their struggles and contributions alike, allowed

for others to be able to continue the tradition of Latino psychology, and served as the foundation

for continued Latino existence in the field (Padilla & Olmedo, 2009)

George I. Sanchez has been called the father of Chicano psychology. He was a professor

of Latin American education and an advocate of social justice. He argued that the standard IQ

tests of the time did not portray accurate data when used for testing Mexican American children

(Pickren, 2009), as the tests were based off of the standard majority group of children, and did

not take into account the different life experiences or English language proficiency of those from

Mexican American descent (Padilla & Olmedo, 2009). Carlos Albizu, born, raised and educated

in Puerto Rico, founded the Instituto Psicologico de Puerto Rico in 1966. The main goal of the

institute was to open the doors of psychology to students of Hispanic and Latino descent, and
Cultural Psychology 13
avoid the alienation students might have received due to their culture, language, or skin color.

Martha Bernal was the first Latina to receive a doctorate degree in psychology. Her work

focused on children with behavioral issues, as well as children with autism. She was a role

model who exemplified the drive to overcome sexism and racism within the field. Edward

Casavantes’ studies resulted in the multivolume series titled, Education of the Mexican

American. He founded the Association of Psychologists por La Rasa in 1969. His book, El

Tecato, was the first contribution to clinical literature regarding the issues of substance abuse

and treatment amongst Latinos (Padilla & Oldmedo, 2009).

A brief history and vision of african american psychology. Building a tradition in this

field of study required trend setters, pioneers, support, and opportunities, among other factors.

There were very few African Americans in the field of psychology prior to 1960. Even after the

Civil War, and the emancipation of African Americans, it took time see opportunities open up

socially, educationally, and economically, due to social norms and the inception of what could

been considered an apartheid-like system during the Jim Crow era. During the 1900s, African

American colleges became an essential base for African American psychology to develop. The

effects of the Great Depression and President Roosevelt’s New Deal policy were seen as

opportunities for the small cohort of African American psychologists present at the time

(Holliday, 2009). Unemployment was high, and the rise of despair and anxiety among the

population, created a temporary perspective of antiracism. In addition, with African American

communities being hit so hard by the havoc created during the Depression, there seemed to have

been a small window of opportunity for social scientists and psychologists of color to become

employed, thanks once again, to several New Deal programs. Some of the most significant

periods of growth and development for African Americans in psychology, emerged when the
Cultural Psychology 14
over-all social climate was suffering. African American colleges saw an increase in the

number of psychologists present on their facultys, which by 1936 totalled 88. The all-Black

American Teachers Association (ATA) organized a division for members who wanted to pursuit

teaching and research in psychologically related fields of science.

Arguably one of the more significant events in African American history, or psychology

in general, was the Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education decision of 1954. The decision led to

the breaking down of the segregated public education system in the USA. This decision not only

involved use of psychologically cited data, but the main agent in compiling this data was African

American psychologist, Kenneth B. Clark. This event did not eliminate the struggles that

African Americans faced, however it was viewed as the start to the Civil Rights era (Holliday,

2009). The age that followed saw significant increase in African American psychology graduate

students, and Black colleges as well as other community organizations began to develop strategic

plans for progress. In protest of the APA’s lack of interest in African American matters, the

Association of Black Psychologists was established. These events provided needed

encouragement and momentum for African Americans to assume leadership in the years that

would follow.

A brief history of fulfillment in asian american psychology. The overall

history of Asian American psychology is somewhat abbreviated. Most of what transpired in the

development of Asian American psychology can be summarized from 1972 through 2008

(Leong & Okazaki, 2009). The fact that this history begins so recently, means that very few

publications have been produced in comparison to other minority groups in psychology. To put

things into perspective, according to the 2000 U.S. census, residents of Asian descent accounted

for 1% of the population in 1960. This percentage changed to 5% in 2005. As the number of
Cultural Psychology 15
Asian Americans has grown, so have the opportunities to develop its nich within the field of

psychology. The most notable stages of early development began during the era of the Civil

Rights movement (Leong & Ozakaki, 2009). Shortly after its emergence, a group of Asian

American psychologists, including Derald Wing Sue and Stanley Sue, cofounded the Asian

American Psychological Association (AAPA) in 1972. The membership of the organization

rose to 185 members in 1979, and by 2005 it boasted a membership of approximately 500. Over

the course of its existence, the AAPA has involved itself in activites such as, census advisory

regarding the classification of Asian groups, pressuring the APA to fight against proposals to

make California an English only state, and serving as an advocate on behalf of the needs of

Asian Americans in general. In addition, Stanley Sue also established the National Research

Center on Asian American Mental Health in 1980. This was an important addition to the Asian

American field of psychology, considering that along with the education and training of Asian

American psychologists, improving the conditions and services in the area of mental health was

one of the associations main focuses.

Observations on Ethnic Minority in Psychology

When perusing through history of psychology, one can see that it is full of conflicting

theories and parallel accounts. While examining the beginnings of ethnicity within this science,

it is relevant to the overall field of psychology, to understand the similarities and differences by

which various groups established their roots, as well as what the longstanding effects have been

to its development. Although the field of psychology rested on being monolithic, the

breakthroughs by early minority psychologists created a domino effect that would not only

change the face of psychology within many American minority and ethnic groups, but also those

in other parts of the world (Pickren, 2009).

Cultural Psychology 16
Reflecting on Progress

According Franklin (2009), there has been a centrality to the history of minority groups

that have battled their way through repression, struggles, and the status quo, on their way to

establishing a legitimate presence in the field of psychology. By developing professional

associations and strategies for improving the racial identity of their communities, the individuals

made it clear that despite opposition, changes needed to take place. Their contributions not only

were important to the progress of their communities, but also just as important for opening doors

to the many issues that needed to be addressed with ethnic psychology and diversity. The doors

of change have been opened, not just to the three ethnic groups discussed earlier, but also as

prompted by changes to the American Indian, Alaskan Native, and Native Hawaiian cultures.

The domino effect was a direct result of individuals such as Padilla, Attneave, and Sanchez

understanding the similarities between their respective populations, as well as grasping the

nature of the interventions that had taken place with previous groups, in order to begin to

remove those barriers. While America has progressed dramatically since the era of the Civil

Rights movement, quality of life issues still permeate the country, and ethnic minorites still

maintain a status disproportionate to that of the privileged majority. In order to see a continued

growth and progress in equality in ethnic psychology, and in turn, within the ethnic minority

groups in society, Franklin (2009) suggests that a better start would be to gain a more thorough

understanding of the history of each of these ethnically varied movements, from the Civil Rights

movement beginning in 1965, to the establishment of the ABPsi in 1968, or even the NAACP in

1909 (Pickren, 2009). It is with this information that future direction can be established from

building on previous knowledge, strengths and resilience.

Summary of the Historical Journey

Cultural Psychology 17
During the 19th century, laboratory based science had positioned itself as the norm

within the field of psychology and did not give much consideration to aspects of the mind, social

behavior, or a cultural society (Cahan & White, 1992). Several pioneers pushed to develop

empirical methods that would address these ignored concepts. The foresight these individuals

had, paved the way for continued study on human interactions and culture. Despite the

reluctance to recognize it, its importance within psychology had been seen throughout history

(Segall, Lonner & Berry, 1998). A growth spurt in the late 1900s provided a surge in the subject

matter of culture, which stimulated new research, and the addition of scholarly organizations and

literature. As a by-product of this boost, and the influence of post-World War II International

decolonization, several groups such as the ABPsi (Pickren, 2009) or AAPA (Leong & Ozakaki,

2009) were established. These was attacks on the status quo, and new forms of resistance

against the long standing mindset that had dominated psychology. For decades, the field had

slighted ethnic minorities in the United States, and the field of psychology was no exception

(Franklin, 2009). African American influence in psychology continued beyond the

establishment of ABPsi in 1968. Four major "intellectual traditions" came about that delineated

the strategies of inclusion and further enlightened on the major efforts derived from African

American psychologists. In addition, these strategies for inclusion and empowerment became

recognized within the American Counseling Association, the American Psychological

Association, the Association of Black Psychologists, and the Society for Research in Child

Development (Holliday, 2009). Issues in psychology didn't only focus on the cultural content of

various groups in society, but also on ethnicity and race, or lack thereof, of individuals in the

field. These influences had a significant effect on the growth of psychology within other new

ethnic groups as well (Pickren, 2009). Other notable ethnic groups that began to see visibility
Cultural Psychology 18
and an increased voice in Psychology between the 1930s and 2008 were Latinos, and Asian

Americans. Latino psychology benefitted from the work of several influential psychologists

who laid the groundwork for the addition of research centers, and the establishing of the

National Latino/a Psychological Association in 1980 (Padilla & Olmedo, 2009). The History of

Asian Americans in Psychology isn't as storied, but since the founding of the Asian American

Psychological Association, significant involvement in mental health policies and activities have

been noted (Leong & Okazaki).

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Cultural Psychology 19
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