COLOR CENTERS AND TOPAZ IRRADIATION- FURTHER DESCRIPTION

The purpose of the topaz lecture is two fold - firstly to introduce topaz as a gem and - secondly to cover
the issue of how the appearance of a gem is changed by irradiation.

Gem color change by irradiation is a big business, and a very important topic in gemology! Check out the
shopping channel or the display cases in department stores for that oh-so-common pale blue topaz!!

The most important method by which the color of topaz is manipulated involves irradiation of the
gemstone. This can be done in a number of ways, perhaps the use of a linear accelerator is easiest to
understand.

In the case of irradiation using a linear accelerator, the gemstone is bombarded with electrons that are
travelling really fast. The electrons penetrate the crystal and at some point hit an atom or displace an
electron from an atom or create some other kind of damage. Electrons are really small (much smaller than
an atom), so the damage that they do is of atomic proportions.

A simple example of the result of such damage is that an atom is displaced from its regular site and an
electron is trapped in the resulting "hole". This electron can absorb light energy, which causes it to
"jiggle". The energy is dissipated through the motion of the electron, so a subset of the light wavelengths
with appropriate energies is used up.

In most cases, only a small range of wavelengths = energies can be absorbed by an electron trapped on
one specific type of site, and so the visible spectrum only looses that set of wavelengths = colors. We see
the color of the remaining light (the principles of absorption and transmission should now be familiar). If
the irradiated stone has two or more types of color centers (e.g., involving electrons trapped in two or
more different types of sites) then the color will be the net result of all color centers.

In the specific case of topaz, two types of color centers (e.g., trapped electrons) are created by irradiation.
The first absorbs energy at the blue end of the spectrum, giving a yellowish / brownish color. The second
type absorbs at the red end, giving a blue color. The result = yellow-brown + blue = yakky green. This is
not popular.

It so happens that the yellow-brown color centers are much less stable than the blue color centers. In other
words, if the topaz is heated up a bit, the electrons, (displaced atom, or whatever other damage is
involved) can relocate themselves, "healing" the crystal (repairing the color-forming defect). We see the
color of the remaining light (the principles of absorption and transmission should now be familiar).

In this case: yakky green -minus- yellow-brown => blue.

That is it. end of story. If a mistake is made and the stone is heated too hot, it will become colorless
(assuming that all color was due to color centers)! But this is no problem! The stone can simply be
irradiated again and it will turn yakky green!

COMPOSITION Al2SiO4(F,OH)2
HARDNESS 8
CRYSTAL SYSTEM ORTHORHOMBIC
COLOR Various (see below)
PLEOCHROISM Light yellow or pink
CLEAVAGE Basal
HABIT Prismatic
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 3.53

Level of Radioactivity Detectible in Various Gemstones with a

Geiger Counter
This is not required for students of EPS2

GEMSTONE WEIGHT RADIONUCLIDES DIRECT READINGS

(ct.) PRESENT (cpm)

Green zircon 2.2 U-238 300
Green zircon 3.7 U-238 200
Ekanite 3.9 U-238 5500
Th-232
Blue topaz 4.6 Sc-46 75
(neutron irradiated)
Blue topaz 4.7 Ta-182 110
(neutron irradiated)

Residual radioactivity: is it a problem?

Although irradiation by an electron beam or nuclear reactor can result in creation of radioactive isotopes,
this can be easily overcome by storing stones for a sufficient amount of time to allow residual
radioactivity to decay.

Linac (linear accelerators) are the most common tool: higher E -> darker color (+ HEAT to remove brown
tint). In the creation of "Sky blue" topaz, iradiation involves an electron beam with an energy below the
activation threshold for all impurities except sodium (half life is about 15 hours). Thus, the small
quantities of radioactive isotopes that form during electron irradiation decay away before the stones are
released from the accelerator.

Performance of Pellets and Composites of Natural Colourless

Topaz as Radiation Dosemeters
D. N. Souza, J. F. Lima, M. E. G. Valerio and L. V. E. Caldas

The aim of the present work is to investigate the possibility of using the properties of the
thermoluminescent emission (TL) of Brazilian natural topaz for dosimetric applications. Topaz is an
aluminium fluorsilicate with general composition of Al2(SiO4)(F,OH)2 found with relative abundance in
Brazil and in other parts of the world. Topaz from Santo Antonio do Jacinto, Minas Gerais, Brazil, was
used in this work, in the form of pellets of topaz mixed with Teflon and composites made with topaz
embedded in a glass matrix. The TL sensitivity was tested between 10-4 and 104 Gy. The TL peak intensity
increases with the dose before saturation, which occurs around 2 kGy. The peak intensity showed a strong
dependence with radiation energy. The effect of visible light and the behaviour of the TL signals after
successive irradiation-reading-annealing cycles are presented and discussed.

TOURMALINE
White to Pink: Cobalt 60 Irradiation will generally push White and Pastel Pink Tourmaline to a range of
Pinks, Reds and Brownish Reds. The actual dosage will vary by locality and type of Tourmaline; however,
dosage is generally between 20-150 Megarads. Heating Reds & Pinks will cause the opposite effect and
have them go White. Carefully calibrated heating can help remove the Brown overtones in Red and Pink
Tourmaline; however, a miscalculation will have you end up with Achroite. You can always hit the
Tourmaline with Cobalt 60 but that gets costly.

EFFECTS OF ORIGIN

Afghanistan: Generally speaking, Afghan Tourmaline requires a relatively low dose to have it hit the reds
in comparison to African and Brazilian Tourmaline. I have had Afghan Tourmaline hit with 60-120
Megarads and had it go to a Brownish Red.

Lighten Dark Stones: Tourmaline generally lightens up with heat treatment. Dosages vary by locality with
certain localities producing Tourmaline unresponsive to heat treatment. Dosages vary by locality as well
as results; however, Darker blues will generally get lighter and Reds & Pinks will lighten or go to White.
Grays and Steel colored stones will generally go to a Minty Greens or Neon Blues.

Blue Topaz, a Hot Topic?

So, Christmas is a coming and many of you will be thinking of a nice piece of Jewellery. Wives and Girlfriends will be starting
the hint dropping and the word on the streets is that a colour, especially blue, is the new black.
Just before you spend your hard earned cash on a nice Blue Topaz however, can I throw a spanner in the works.
The blue topaz that you see in the shops and especially on the internet and TV Shopping Channels is not naturally blue. It is
sometimes first irradiated and then heat treated or it can be treated in an electron beam to alter its state from colourless or
brown.
Although electron beam linac irradiated topaz presents no danger to the general public, neutron-irradiated topaz treated in a
nuclear reactor facility can present a potential health hazard, if not properly controlled. This differentiation between treatment
technologies is fundamental and important. The impurities (i.e. elements) in topaz become quite radioactive when bombarded
by neutrons in a nuclear reactor; and must be monitored carefully. Typical topaz impurities which result in activation products
with longer half-lives include tantalum, scandium and manganese. Depending on the length of time the topaz was bombarded
by neutrons, it might be several months to several years before such material reaches a releasable level of activity. The bright
blue topaz referred to as "Swiss Blue" is created by first bombarding the topaz with neutrons in a nuclear reactor, then
irradiating the same topaz with electrons using an rf linac, and then heat treating the topaz in ovens.
Now in America , it turns out that all irradiated blue topaz must be supplied from Licensed Sources, it also turns out that there
are no licensed sources currently operating in America , so Jewellers there have suddenly discovered that technically they are
selling a stone that they legally shouldn't be.
Authorities there have tested parcels and in 9 large parcels only found one that had twice the background radioactivity and say
no danger to the public has been noticed.
However, the neutron irradiation "activates" some of the impurities in the topaz. By activates we mean transmutes them into a
different isotope of the element or a different element.
These new isotopes or new elements are often exceedingly radioactive. Radioactive materials are described by a half life, which
is the time that it takes half of the material to decay away (and the radiation level to decrease by half). Half lives can range from
fractions of seconds to thousands of years. In the case of the colourless topaz irradiation it was found that the impurities that
activated varied greatly from deposit to deposit. Thus some material was safe by NRC criterion for release after a few weeks,
while other material could not be released for years. Such irradiation was performed in the United States , but was found to be
impractical
Below is discussed the experience of the University of Missouri , which performed neutron irradiation of topaz under NRC
license.
A lot of neutron irradiation of topaz was done at the University of Missouri. They developed equipment to carefully measure
the radiation level of each stone individually. What they found is that a lot of material could be released in a few weeks or
months but a lot of material would have to be stored for many years. The dealers who owned the hot material abandoned it and
the school was faced having to maintain storage or pay the large costs of radioactive material disposal. As a result they
abandoned the program of topaz irradiation for release in the US.
So, generally, the gemstone material of concern is neutron-irradiated blue topaz and not, for instance, linac-treated kunzite.

Recently, a major American jewellery manufacturer who imported blue topaz checked the radioactivity levels of a rough
shipment from overseas. A good deal of the material was radioactive. "I went ballistic," he says. "This was stuff that I would
have sent to China for cutting. The cutters there already face enough danger from silicosis by breathing in quartz dust. Now I
would have added a new danger, cancer caused by radioactive topaz dust. What kind of person would put people at such risk?"

There's a possibility that the marketplace itself may settle the question of whether irradiated stones get past the gatekeepers, at
least in the case of blue topaz. If non-neutron-irradiated alternatives become available, and are marketed as safe and eco-
friendly, the irradiated product could be marginalized. Given a clear choice, the educated dealer/consumer might opt for
substitutes to neutron-irradiated stones.
I hope I haven't put you off.
All you have to do is ask, has the Blue Topaz being offered for sale been tested or is it either electron beam irradiated or
neutron bombardment irradiated, simple eh?
Just to add some fuel to the fire, how do you feel about this?

It is probably just as safe to say that most blue topaz sold in this country ( America ) has been tested and certified for safety, but
using less stringent international standards in effect in the countries where they are cut and mounted in jewellery. As one
American maker of blue topaz jewellery said: "Every piece of blue topaz jewellery in my inventory would be deemed safe for
sale throughout Europe ." How does he know? Because he has his topaz tested to meet those standards.

Okay, if stones are legally safe for sale in England or Germany , why not test them to see if they are legally safe for sale in the
United States ? His answer: "Because it is possible that stones which might be judged safe for sale in those countries might
need years of quarantine in this country before they were judged safe for sale."

So in the UK we have less stringent controls over potentially radioactive materials than America , doesn't that make you feel all
warm and fuzzy?

My suggestion, if you want Blue Topaz, buy from a trusted Source, a shop where you can discuss with well trained and
knowledgeable staff all aspects of the options available. If you want to buy from mail order, the Internet or cheap shopping
Channels then don't blame me if you can read at night with the light off.

Sleep Well

Jewellery Valuer

Color centers in topaz: comparison between neutron and gamma irradiation

K. Krambrock1 , L. G. M. Ribeiro1, M. V. B. Pinheiro1, A. S. Leal2, M. Â. de

B. C. Menezes2 and J. -M. Spaeth3

(1) Departamento de Física, ICEx, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, CP. 702, 30.123-970 Belo Horizonte,
Minas Gerais, Brazil
(2) Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear (CDTN), Comissão Nacional de Energia Nuclear (CNEN),
Serviço de Reator e Irradiações - TR3, CP. 941, 30.123-970 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
(3) Universität Paderborn, 33098 Paderborn, Germany

Received: 1 March 2007 Accepted: 4 April 2007 Published online: 9 May 2007

Abstract Neutron- and gamma irradiation-induced paramagnetic centers in natural

colorless topaz from four different Brazilian localities were studied by electron paramagnetic
resonance (EPR) and optical absorption as a function of irradiation dose and thermal
treatment. Gamma irradiation doses were applied up to 1,000 kGy with a dose rate of
15 kGy h−1. For the neutron irradiation experiments, a neutron flux of 4 × 1012 cm−2 s−1 was
used with an integrated flux of up to 1 × 1018 cm−2. From the experiments, it is concluded
that brownish colors are induced by gamma-rays and may be associated with a single broad
isotropic EPR line with g = 2.015(2). Both the EPR line and the related optical absorption
band at 460 nm (2.7 eV) are lost during thermal treatments between 150 and 200°C. Fast
neutrons create the paramagnetic peroxyl radicals O2 − and the paramagnetic O− hole
centers. The O− centers have the same thermal stability as the optical absorption band at
620 nm (2.0 eV). It is confirmed that the absorption due to the O− center is responsible for
the blue color in topaz. Both color centers and their absorption bands are discussed in the
context of O− bound small polarons.

Keywords Topaz - Color - Color enhancement - Color centers - EPR - Irradiation - Small
polaron