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W BDG
Overview
We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us... Winston Churchill (May
10, 1941)
Health care facilities encompass a wide range of types, from small and relatively simple
medical clinics to large, complex, and costly, teaching and research hospitals. Large
hospitals centers may include all the various subsidiary health care types that are often
independent facilities. The old expression, "You never get a second chance to make a
good first impression" applies to health care facilities. The facility conveys a message to
patients, visitors, volunteers, vendors, and staff. The facility also communicates a torrent
of clues about the organization and the medical care being provided there. The clues start
at the approach to the facility, the drop-off area, the parking lots, and the street signs.
Ideally, that message is one that conveys welcoming, caring, comfort, and compassion,
commitment to patient well-being and safety, where stress is relieved, refuge is provided,
respect is reciprocated, competence is symbolized, way-finding is facilitated, and families
are accommodated. The facility also influences employee service attitudes and behaviors.
Finishes, signage, and artwork must be carefully selected, well coordinated, and
integrated. Security can be balanced with some features apparent to patients/visitors,
while conveying a message of safety. Thoughtful design can help ensure the proper first
impression is created and sustained.
The design of health care facilities is governed by many regulations and technical
requirements. It is also affected by many less defined needs and pressures. The most
pressing of these are workforce shortages, reimbursements, malpractice insurance,
physician-hospital relations, capacity, care for the uninsured, patient safety, advances in
technology, and patient satisfaction per a recent American College of Healthcare
Executives survey of hospital CEOs.
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VAMC Dallas, TX
The entire health care system is under great pressure to reduce costs, and at the same
time, be more responsive to "customers". The aging are the heaviest users of health care
services, and the percentage of the aging in our population is increasing significantly. At
the same time, rapid technological advances, often involving very sophisticated
techniques and equipment, make more diagnostic and treatment procedures available.
The consequent increase in health care costs is not easily accommodated. Designers find
increasing focus on limiting both construction costs and the costs of their design services,
while compressing construction schedules and still meeting the highest quality standards.
As cost pressures increase, health care facilities find themselves in increasing competition
for both patients and staff. Architecture is often recognized as an important tool in
attracting and retaining the best doctors and nurses, the most successful HMOs and
insurance plans, and the most patients. Consumer decisions are based on cost,
accessibility, quality of service, and quality of medical care. An aesthetically pleasing
facility is a key aspect of the perceived quality of care.
Health care is a labor-intensive industry, and much of that labor is highly skilled and
highly paid. Since 60 to 75% of hospital expenses are labor costs, a design that increases
operational productivity or efficiency and reduces staffing needs can have a major impact
on the bottom line. (Don Blair, then at Perkins + Will, estimated that the cost of one full-
time staff person is equivalent to the debt service on $1 million of borrowing per
Architectural Record of May 1997.) Likewise, operations and maintenance costs over the
typical 50-year life cycle of a hospital contribute up to 80% to the equation, so anything
designers can do to facilitate maintenance and reduce total life-cycle cost will have
tremendous returns on a relatively small up-front investment. (Source: Federal Facilities
Council.)
Flexibility must be a basic feature of any new health care facility to keep it from rapid
obsolescence in the face of changing needs and technologies. Health care facility needs
are evolving rapidly, and the direction of that evolution is difficult to forecast with any
certainty. New equipment technologies, new treatment methodologies, changes in
diseases, and changes in the patient population base all impact the facilities that house
them. Inpatient care is steadily being reduced while outpatient services are growing.
There is increasing emphasis on special-care units and smaller satellite facilities rather
than large, centralized facilities.
In the past, communicable diseases were the major health problem, and sanitation or
cleanliness was the main characteristic of a healing or therapeutic environment.
Cleanliness remains extremely important, but there is increasing recognition of the value
of a pleasant, easily-understood, and non-threatening environment for patient recovery.
For example, the Planetree Hospital philosophy of "demystifying medicine" emphasizes
such a physical environment as part of its approach. Good design in the health care
setting starts by recognizing the basic functional needs, but does not end there—it must
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also meet the emotional needs of those who use such facilities at times of uncertainty,
dependency, and stress.
Emerging Issues
• The movement from hospital-based acute care to outpatient care, and toward a
more holistic, preventative, and continuous care of health and wellness.
• The new HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act) regulations
addressing security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These
regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy, and may affect
location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient
information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.
• Increasing emphasis on security, especially in large public facilities, and the need
to balance this with the desired openness to patients and visitors.
Classification
A trend towards specialization has resulted in a growing number of health care types.
Among them are hospitals, nursing homes, outpatient facilities, psychiatric facilities,
rehabilitation facilities, hospices, assisted living facilities, congregate housing, adult day
care facilities, and various specialized outpatient facilities. The WBDG currently includes
sections on the following four specific building types:
• Hospital
• Nursing Home, including Alzheimer's Related Dementia (ARD) units
• Outpatient Clinic, including the specialized diagnostic and treatment areas which
may be stand-alone facilities
• Psychiatric Facility, including psychiatric hospitals
Major Resources
Websites
Publications
Hospital
by Robert F. Carr
NIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)
Overview
"A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences, and comforts; a non-
functional design can impede activities of all types, detract from quality of care, and raise
costs to intolerable levels." ... Hardy and Lammers
Hospitals are the most complex of building types. Each hospital is comprised of a wide
range of services and functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment functions,
such as clinical laboratories, imaging, emergency rooms, and surgery; hospitality
functions, such as food service and housekeeping; and the fundamental inpatient care or
bed-related function. This diversity is reflected in the breadth and specificity of
regulations, codes, and oversight that govern hospital construction and operations. Each
of the wide-ranging and constantly evolving functions of a hospital, including highly
complicated mechanical, electrical, and telecommunications systems, requires specialized
knowledge and expertise. No one person can reasonably have complete knowledge,
which is why specialized consultants play an important role in hospital planning and
design. The functional units within the hospital can have competing needs and priorities.
Idealized scenarios and strongly-held individual preferences must be balanced against
mandatory requirements, actual functional needs (internal traffic and relationship to other
departments), and the financial status of the organization.
In addition to the wide range of services that must be accommodated, hospitals must
serve and support many different users and stakeholders. Ideally, the design process
incorporates direct input from the owner and from key hospital staff early on in the
process. The designer also has to be an advocate for the patients, visitors, support staff,
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volunteers, and suppliers who do not generally have direct input into the design. Good
hospital design integrates functional requirements with the human needs of its varied
users.
These flow diagrams show the movement and communication of people, materials, and
waste. Thus the physical configuration of a hospital and its transportation and logistic
systems are inextricably intertwined. The transportation systems are influenced by the
building configuration, and the configuration is heavily dependent on the transportation
systems. The hospital configuration is also influenced by site restraints and opportunities,
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climate, surrounding facilities, budget, and available technology. New alternatives are
generated by new medical needs and new technology.
In a large hospital, the form of the typical nursing unit, since it may be repeated many
times, is a principal element of the overall configuration. Nursing units today tend to be
more compact shapes than the elongated rectangles of the past. Compact rectangles,
modified triangles, or even circles have been used in an attempt to shorten the distance
between the nurse station and the patient's bed. The chosen solution is heavily dependent
on program issues such as organization of the nursing program, number of beds to a
nursing unit, and number of beds to a patient room. (The trend, recently reinforced by
HIPAA, is to all private rooms.)
Building Attributes
Regardless of their location, size, or budget, all hospitals should have certain common
attributes.
VAMC Albuquerque, NM
Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, hospitals should:
Therapeutic Environment
Hospital patients are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery.
Every effort should be made to make the hospital stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and
stress-free as possible. The interior designer plays a major role in this effort to create a
therapeutic environment. A hospital's interior design should be based on a comprehensive
understanding of the facility's mission and its patient profile. The characteristics of the
patient profile will determine the degree to which the interior design should address
aging, loss of visual acuity, other physical and mental disabilities, and abusiveness. (See
VA Interior Design Manual.) Some important aspects of creating a therapeutic interior
are:
• Providing views of the outdoors from every patient bed, and elsewhere wherever
possible; photo murals of nature scenes are helpful where outdoor views are not
available
• Designing a "way-finding" process into every project. Patients, visitors, and staff
all need to know where they are, what their destination is, and how to get there
and return. A patient's sense of competence is encouraged by making spaces easy
to find, identify, and use without asking for help. Building elements, color,
texture, and pattern should all give cues, as well as artwork and signage. (As an
example, see VA Signage Design Guide.)
Accessibility
• Comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with Disability Act
(ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, the Uniform Federal Accessibility
Standards (UFAS)
• In addition to meeting minimum requirements of ADA and/or UFAS, be designed
so as to be easy to use by the many patients with temporary or permanent
handicaps
• Ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalks and
corridors are wide enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily
• Ensuring entrance areas are designed to accommodate patients with slower
adaptation rates to dark and light; marking glass walls and doors to make their
presence obvious
Controlled Circulation
• Outpatients visiting diagnostic and treatment areas should not travel through
inpatient functional areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients
• Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined
• Visitors should have a simple and direct route to each patient nursing unit without
penetrating other functional areas
• Separate patients and visitors from industrial/logistical areas or floors
• Outflow of trash, recyclables, and soiled materials should be separated from
movement of food and clean supplies, and both should be separated from routes
of patients and visitors
• Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of patients
and visitors
• Dedicated service elevators for deliveries, food and building maintenance services
Aesthetics
In addition to the general safety concerns of all buildings, hospitals have several
particular security concerns:
Sustainability
Hospitals are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the environment and
economy of the surrounding community. They are heavy users of energy and water and
produce large amounts of waste. Because hospitals place such demands on community
resources they are natural candidates for sustainable design.
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Section 1.9 of VA's HVAC Design Manual is a good example of hospital energy
conservation standards that meet DOE requirements. Also see LEED's (Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System for sustainability
standards for construction projects.
Emerging Issues
Among the many new developments and trends influencing hospital design are:
• The decreasing numbers of general practitioners along with the increased use of
emergency facilities for primary care
• The increasing introduction of highly sophisticated diagnostic and treatment
technology
• Requirements to remain operational during and after disasters—see, for example,
VA's Design and Construction Procedure: Natural Disaster Non-Structural
Resistive Design
• State laws requiring earthquake resistance, both in designing new buildings and
retrofitting existing structures
• New HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations
address security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These
regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy and may affect
location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient
information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.
• Preventative care versus sickness care; designing hospitals as all-inclusive
"wellness centers"
• Use of hand-held computers and portable diagnostic equipment to allow more
mobile, decentralized patient care, and a general shift to computerized patient
information of all kinds. This might require computer alcoves and data ports in
corridors outside patient bedrooms.
• Need to balance increasing attention to building security with openness to patients
and visitors
• Emergence of palliative care as a specialty in many major medical centers
• A growing interest in more holistic, patient-centered treatment and environments
such as promoted by Planetree. This might include providing mini-medical
libraries and computer terminals so patients can research their conditions and
treatments, and locating kitchens and dining areas on inpatient units so family
members can prepare food for patients and families to eat together.
of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities, listed below as a resource, and thus that volume
often has regulatory status.
State and local codes, which in the past have frequently been based on the three regional
model codes, are now often being based on the model International Building Code (IBC).
Since hospitals treat patients who are reimbursed under Medicare, they must also meet
federal standards, and to be accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint
Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). Generally, the
federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life
Safety Code (NFPA 101).
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly
affects the design of hospitals with its general and specific accessibility requirements.
The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and federally-
funded facilities. They are not greatly different from ADA requirements.
Regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also affect
the design of hospitals, particularly in laboratory areas.
Federal agencies that build and operate hospitals have developed detailed standards for
the programming, design, and construction of their facilities. Many of these standards are
applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities as well. Among them are:
Major Resources
Websites
Publications
• Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities , ed. Stephen Kliment. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.
• Design Details for Health: Making the Most of Interior Design's Healing Potential
by Cynthia A. Leibrock. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.—Innovative
design solutions in key areas such as lighting, acoustics, color, and finishes
• Design Guide for Improving Hospital Safety in Earthquakes, Floods, and High
Winds: Providing Protection to People and Buildings. FEMA, 2007.
• Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd
Edition , by Janet Carpman, Myron Grant, and Deborah Simmons. New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
• Development Study—VA Hospital Building System by Building Systems
Development and Stone, Marraccini & Patterson. Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, rev. 1977.
• Emergency Department Design: A Practical Guide to Planning for the Future by
John Huddy and Michael T. Rapp. Irving, Texas: ACEP (American College of
Emergency Physicians) 2000.
• Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities by
AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The American
Institute of Architects, 2001.
• Healthcare Design , ed. Sarah O. Marberry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1997.
• Health Facilities Management—A monthly journal of the American Hospital
Association's Health Forum. It serves the health facility operations, maintenance,
construction, and environmental services community.
• Healthcare Facility Plannning: Thinking Strategically by Cynthia Hayward, AIA,
FAAHC, ACHA. Health Admnistration Press and the American College of
Healthcare Executives, 2005.
• Health Facilities Review 1992-1993 and subsequent by AIA Committee on
Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: AIA Press.
• Hospitals and Health Networks—A monthly journal of the American Hospital
Association covering general health care news, with occasional articles on design
and construction
• Hospitals, The Planning and Design Process, 2nd ed. by Owen B. Hardy and
Lawrence P. Lammers. Rockville, Md.: Aspen Publishers, 1996.
• Hospital Interior Architecture: Creating Healing Environments for Special Patient
Populations by Jain Malkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992.
• Healthcare Design—A quarterly magazine with design articles and presentations
of recent projects
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Tools
Nursing Home
by Robert F. Carr
NIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)
Overview
Nursing homes serve patients requiring preventive, therapeutic, and rehabilitative nursing
care services for non-acute, long-term conditions. Specialized clinical and diagnostic
services are obtained outside the nursing home. Most residents are frail and aged, but not
bedridden, although often using canes, walkers, or wheelchairs. Stays are relatively long,
the majority for life. Nursing homes also care for a smaller percentage of convalescent
patients of all ages. These patients are in long-term recovery from acute illnesses, but no
longer require hospitalization.
Nursing homes, or sections of them, are often classified into intermediate and skilled
nursing units, definitions related to Medicare/Medicaid standards. Intermediate-care
facilities have just enough nursing to qualify for Medicaid; skilled nursing facilities meet
the more demanding medical standards to qualify for Medicare as well as Medicaid
support. The cognitively impaired are frequently housed separately in Alzheimer Related
Dementia (ASD) units.
Nursing homes present special design challenges in that for most residents the nursing
home is not just a facility, but indeed their home. The reality is that in most cases the
residents will live there for the rest of their lives and, moreover, rarely leave the premises
at all. The nursing home becomes their entire world in a sense. The challenge is to design
a nursing home that is sensitive and responsive to long-term human needs and well-being,
both physical and emotional.
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Building Attributes
A nursing home operates primarily in a patient-care mode rather than a medical mode.
Consequently, its more important attributes are those focusing on the general well-being
of its residents rather than high-tech considerations. The principal attributes of a well
designed nursing home are:
Inherent in any institutional stay is the impact of environment on recovery, and the long-
term stays typical of nursing home residents greatly increase this impact. The architect
and interior designer must have a thorough understanding of the nursing home's mission
and its patient profile. It is especially important that the design address aging and its
accompanying physical and mental disabilities, including loss of visual acuity. To
achieve the appropriate nursing home environment every effort should be made to:
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• Give spaces a homelike, rather than institutional, size and scale with natural light
and views of the outdoors
• Create a warm reassuring environment by using a variety of familiar, non-
reflective finishes and cheerful, varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that
some colors are inappropriate and can disorient or agitate impaired residents
• Provide each resident a variety of spatial experiences, including access to a
garden and the outdoors in general
• Promote traditional residential qualities of privacy, choice, control, and
personalization of one's immediate surroundings
• Alleviate possible disorientation of residents by providing differences between
"residential neighborhoods" of the nursing home, and by use of clocks, calendars,
and other "reminders"
• Encourage resident autonomy by making their spaces easy to find, identify, and
use
• Provide higher lighting levels than typical for residential occupancies
Western New York State Veterans Home Batavia, NY, Kideny Architects
An odor-free environment is a very high priority in nursing homes, since many residents
are occasionally incontinent, and the pervasive odors can give an impression of
uncleanliness and poor operation to family and visitors. In addition to operational
practices and careful choice of furniture, facility design can help odor control by:
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• Adequate and highly visible toilet rooms in key locations near spaces where
residents congregate
• The use of appropriate, durable finishes for each space used by residents
• Proper detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions
to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints
• Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces
• Effective ventilation, which may need to exceed nominal design levels
Attention to Way-finding
A consistent and well thought out system of way-finding helps to maintain the residents'
dignity and avoid their disorientation. It should:
• Use multiple cues from building elements, colors, texture, pattern, and artwork, as
well as signage, to help residents understand where they are, what their
destination is, and how to get there and back.
• Identify frequently used destination spaces by architectural features and
landmarks which can be seen from a distance, as well as symbols, signage, art,
and elements such as fish tanks, birdcages, or greenery
• Avoid prominent locations and high visibility of doors to spaces which patients
should not enter
• Use simple lettering and clear contrasts in signage (See VA Signage Manual)
• Clearly identify only those rooms that residents frequent
Accessibility
Many residents may be ambulatory to varying degrees, but will require the assistance of
canes, crutches, walkers, or wheelchairs. To accommodate these residents, all spaces used
by them, both inside and out, should:
• Comply with the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities (ADA) and, if
federally funded or owned, with the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards
(UFAS)
• Be designed so that all spaces, furnishings, and equipment, including storage units
and operable windows, are easily usable by residents in wheelchairs
• Be equipped with grab bars in all appropriate locations
• Be free of tripping hazards
• Be located on one floor if feasible, preferably at grade. If residents' bedrooms
must be located on more than one floor, then dining space must be apportioned
among those floors, not centralized
Aesthetics
Emerging Issues
There is a growing recognition of the need for dementia day care. This can often be
effectively provided within or adjoining an inpatient nursing facility.
There is a need for better non-medical residential facilities for the frail but independent
elderly.
Managed care programs for the aged are being developed to prevent, or at least postpone,
institutionalization.
New HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations address
security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put new
emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy and may affect location and layout of
workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, both paper and
electronic, as well as patient accommodations.
codes, which in the past have frequently been based on the three regional model codes,
are now often being based on the model International Building Code (IBC).
Library, Missouri Veterans Home, St. James, MO, Kennedy Assoc., Inc.
To care for residents who are reimbursed under Medicare or Medicaid, facilities must
also meet federal standards, and to be accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint
Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). Generally, the
federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life
Safety Code (NFPA 101).
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly
affects the design of nursing homes with its general and specific accessibility
requirements. The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and
federally funded facilities. They do not greatly differ from ADA requirements.
Federal agencies that build and operate, or fund, nursing homes have developed detailed
standards for the programming, design, and construction of their facilities. Many of these
standards are applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities as well. Among
them are:
Major Resources
Websites
Publications
Introduction
Successful project management requires team leadership and coordination, diligent
project planning, and effective oversight of the delivery process. Recognizing the
importance of these qualities in satisfying clients' expectations, the Project Management
section offers guidance for the entire delivery team to successfully and effectively carry
out a high performance building project.
While this section is still under development, click on one of the following areas to begin
your exploration:
Note: Terminology and processes described within this section of the WBDG typically
refer to federal projects, but may be applicable to other public sector institutions with
adaptation for local standards of professional practice.
Major Resources
Federal Agency Links
Publications
Organizations
Tools
Others
Overview
Every capital project has a unique set of program goals and technical requirements that
demand assembling a specialized mix of core team members and other stakeholders (a
stakeholder is a party with a vested interest in a project). Successful project management
involves continuous leadership of the team through successful project planning and
development and through project delivery and control.
This branch of the WBDG has been developed to assist stakeholders in capital design and
construction programs in understanding how project teams are selected,
procured/contracted, and coordinated for successful project delivery.
Except for minor repair and maintenance projects that are carried out by professional
services staff internal to an agency or institution, delivery teams in federal projects will
typically consist of government delivery team members (federal government employees)
and contract delivery team members (private sector firms and their employees).
The extent of professional disciplines and technical specialists (often called Program
Advocates) represented on the government delivery team will vary depending on the
extent of the managing agency's annual capital design and construction program and
associated management/professional, support staff. Delivery team members should be
identified in the Project Management Plan (PMP) and typically will include a project
manager, contracting officer, owner/client representative, A-E designer, specialty
consultants, construction contractor, construction manager, and peer reviewer(s).
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Project Managers work closely with agency contracting officers in assembling the project
delivery team. Project Managers need to have familiarity with acquisition and contracting
regulations and procedures applicable to the managing agency, but only contracting
officers (often referred to as the "CO") are permitted to contract for professional and
construction services on behalf of the government. The selection and procurement of
contracted delivery team members on federal projects are regulated by the Office of
Management and Budget (OMB), and both professional and construction services are
advertised in FedBizOpps.
There are several types of acquisition regulations that apply to design and construction
contracts for Federal projects:
Federal budget cycle considerations will also impact the project planning process.
Depending on the scale of a project, funds for site purchase, design fees, and construction
costs may be spread over several budget cycles. Contracting for each phase of work may
only occur after funds are requested in agency budgets and appropriated/authorized.
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Project Managers develop and define roles and responsibilities of each delivery team
member through the use of Project Management Plans, agency handbooks/guidelines,
Commissioning Plans, RFPs, Scopes of Work, and Contracts. Because project
requirements and solutions evolve during the design phase (and even into the
construction phase) a high degree of continual coordination among delivery team
members is needed for an integrated team effort that will result in projects that are on
time, in budget, function properly, and meet the project owner's expectations.
Careers in Government
Federal agencies advertise all job announcements for architecture, engineering, and
construction/project management positions in USAJobs. Each agency offers programs in
professional development, internships and mentoring, promoting career advancement
opportunities. For more information on a particular agency's programs contact a
representative directly through the Participating Agencies section of the WBDG Home
Page.
Information on annual salaries (by grade and step) for federal positions can be found at
the Office of Personnel Management.
Major Resources
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Publications
Tools
Overview
This section of the WBDG Project Management Branch provides guidance on integrated
planning and development processes to establish an owner's expectations for project
scope, budget, and schedule. It also provides guidance on managing the delivery team
during the planning, design, construction, and initial occupancy phases of a project.
Project Requirements
Project inception and preliminary planning require thoughtful definition of goals and
needs (Project Scope); master planning to accommodate anticipated future needs;
evaluation of project alternatives; identification of site requirements; funding
requirements; budget authorization cycles and/or financial impacts; and project phasing.
Delivery Methods
There are many approaches to achieve successful project design and construction. These
"Delivery Methods", which are driven by the project's scope, budget, and schedule,
include Traditional (Design/Bid/Build), CM (also called CMc, or Construction Manager
as Constructor), Design-Build, Bridging, and Lease/Build. The selection of a delivery
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method will in turn influence the Delivery Team composition, schedule, budget, and
management plan.
Once a design team has been assembled (procured), a high level of owner coordination is
needed to manage the entire delivery team through the project's design phases. Design
management requires oversight of schedules and budgets; review of key submissions and
deliverables for compliance with program goals and design objectives; verification of
incorporation of stakeholder review input; verification of incorporation of construction
phase functional testing requirements; and appropriate application of the owner's design
standards and criteria.
• Project coordination/communication
o RFIs
o Change order management
o Conflict resolution
• Inspections
• Submittal reviews
• Schedules
• Payments
Building Commissioning
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Major Resources
Publications
Organizations
Scheduling Software
Tools
Building Commissioning
by the WBDG Project Management Committee
Introduction
Building Commissioning is a rapidly emerging A-E-C project management practice that
is being embraced by public and private organizations because of its benefits in improved
project delivery results.
This WBDG page provides an overview of commissioning drivers, benefits, goals, and
principles and general commissioning guides, standards, and resources.
Definition
Benefits
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Commissioning assists in the delivery of a project that provides a safe and healthful
facility; improves energy performance; optimize energy use; reduces operating costs;
ensures adequate O&M staff orientation and training; and improves installed building
systems documentation.
Drivers
Green design helps reduce building costs while providing for a more comfortable indoor
environment, research indicates. Investing in green construction pays for itself 10 times
over, according to an October 2003 study prepared for a group of more than 40 California
government agencies. The study, conducted by the Capital E Group at Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory with input from a number of state agencies, reflects the
most definitive cost-benefit analysis of green building to date.
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Commissioning Goals
Commissioning is often misinterpreted to focus solely on testing during the end of the
construction phase. But commissioning is actually a collaborative process for planning,
delivering, and operating buildings that work as intended. ASHRAE (The American
Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers) defines
commissioning as "…the process of ensuring that systems are designed, installed,
functionally tested, and capable of being operated and maintained to perform in
conformity with the design intent… Commissioning begins with planning and includes
design, construction, start-up, acceptance and training, and can be applied throughout the
life of the building." This definition accurately depicts commissioning as a holistic
process that spans from pre-design planning to post-construction operation and can be
thought of as a checks-and-balances system. Accordingly, the goals of commissioning are
to:
1. Define and document requirements clearly at the outset of each phase and update
through the process
2. Verify and document compliance at each completion level
3. Establish and document commissioning process tasks for subsequent phase
delivery team members
4. Deliver buildings and construction projects that meet the owner's needs, at the
time of completion
5. Verify that operation and maintenance personnel and occupants are properly
trained
6. Maintain facility performance across its life cycle
Commissioning Principles
Every project goes through Pre-Design and Design Stages that establish an owner's
needs, goals, scope, and design solutions for a proposed project. Proposed designs and
constructed work can only be evaluated against objective criteria and measures that are
embodied in well-documented project requirements. Project development is an "iterative"
process where building performance decisions are refined to successive levels of detail
over the course of project delivery. Key commissioning activities supporting this
principle include:
Commissioning involves the systematic process of planning delivery team member roles
and responsibilities and tasks for all project phases and activities, including review and
acceptance procedures, documentation requirements, development and approval of
Commissioning Plans, Commissioning Schedules, and Testing and Inspection plans.
Planning the Commissioning Process includes identification of special testing needs for
unique or innovative assemblies and measures that will assure adequate O&M Training.
Key commissioning activities supporting this principle include:
Application
Currently, no building code requirements exist at a national level for Building
Commissioning. However, all new or renovation building programs can benefit from
some level of commissioning, depending on mission and systems criticality. Recent case
studies conducted in private sector facilities have shown that the Building
Commissioning Process can improve new building energy performance by 8% to 30%.
Similar results can be expected in other facilities. For complex building types with highly
40
integrated building systems, formal Building Commissioning Processes will prove most
valuable. Mission Critical Facilities have special needs for protecting their mission
continuity and occupants.
Some governmental agencies, including GSA, NAVFAC, and USACE have adopted
formal requirements, standards or criteria for commissioning of their capital construction
projects. However, the extent of commissioning utilized will depend on project funds
available.
Industry Guidelines
This section of the Whole Building Design Guide is based primarily on the
Commissioning Process recommended in ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005. It is highly
recommended that project teams who employ the Building Commissioning Process
should follow the process outlined in ASHRAE Guideline 0. Guideline 0 has been
adopted by both ASHRAE and NIBS and does not focus upon specific systems or
assemblies, but presents a standard process that can be followed to commission any
building system that may be critical to the function of a project. The NIBS Total Building
Commissioning Program is currently working with industry organizations to develop
commissioning guidelines for various systems and assemblies.
Conclusion
Additional Resources
Agencies
Organizations
Publications
Tools
Introduction
A proposed building's scope, schedule, and budget are developed in Pre-Design Stage
programming documents. In this stage, the level of project and/or systems criticality must
also be determined, based on an owner's requirements and risk management strategy for
the activities and mission housed in a building. It is essential that the Pre-Design Stage
programming documents also include Quality Assurance strategies and budgets to verify
that delivered systems and assemblies meet performance expectations. The
Commissioning Process involves a systematic means of verifying that the critical systems
are installed, functioning, and maintained in optimal condition. In organizations with in-
house planning staffs, the commissioning program is initially scoped at the same time
that the owner's team determines initial project performance requirements. In
organizations without an in-house planning staff, a commissioning provider with
experience in the building type can be instrumental in determining initial requirements
and performance objectives.
This WBDG page provides guidance and resources on determining commissioning needs
and requirements.
Recommendations
Understand Needs of Special Building Types
The focus for commissioning varies based on the purpose of the building. Health care
facilities are highly sensitive to temperature and relative humidity, as are museums.
Laboratories require fume hoods to operate correctly, while data centers demand reliable
power. Governmental facilities have special requirements for access control, internal
security, and communication technology that are essential to their function. Sustainable
buildings with highly energy efficient mechanical systems must be designed, constructed,
and operated properly to achieve their projected energy savings.
44
Virtually any building project will have building systems; assemblies or features that
could benefit from commissioning. To date, commissioning has been used most often on
the following building types:
• Auditoriums
• Call centers
• Classified sites
• Colleges and universities
• Co-location sites
• Command and control centers
• Data centers/computer rooms
• Health care facilities
• High rises
• Laboratories
• Libraries
• Mail processing centers
• Munitions plants and storage
• Museums
• Network operation centers
• Optic transport facilities
• Process manufacturing facilities
• Large retail facilities
• Storage and distribution centers
• Switch facilities
• Telecommunications and Microwave/radio tower facilities
• Trading floors
• Web-hosting telecom sites
• Zero/Low energy building
• Accessibility
• 24x7 facility reliability
• Adaptability
• Building pressurization control
• Energy efficiency goals
• Flexibility in audio visual systems
• Functionality
45
• Maintainability
• Redundant and resilient HVAC systems for climate control
• Reliability
• Scalability
• Security/Safety
• Serviceability
• Sophisticated detection and fire suppression systems
• Space and organizational process functionality
• Structured raceways for flexible cabling installations
• Sustainability
• Survivability
In order to determine performance expectations and measures, the project team must have
a clear understanding of overall key business objectives. The project owner must guide
the project team in establishing priorities by which project success will be measured. It is
important for the owner, or qualified experts to define business risks, occupant threats
and risks, hazards, and consequences and impacts that a system failure may have on the
overall mission performance of a facility.
System criticality, and the need for its performance verification through commissioning,
is determined by examining how each system, assembly, or building feature supports key
program goals and facility mission. For example, buildings with a high risk of airborne
contamination must be designed for enhanced occupant safety measures. This may
necessitate high-performance HVAC system design that provides constant airflow
direction and pressure differentials between interior spaces—under all operating
conditions. This type of building functionality can only be achieved through systems
based planning, design, construction quality assurance, and testing and verification of the
operating systems under various conditions.
46
The GSA Program Goals Matrix in Facilities Standards for Public Buildings, P-100
indicates critical Program-System relationships that must be addressed within Building
Systems Programming Directives to designers
Another example is the need for Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) equipment in
mission-critical facilities. Requirements for these buildings may be as stringent as 99.999
percent power reliability, which means just five minutes of unscheduled downtime per
year. By comparison, typical utility reliability is 99 percent. Commissioning of mission-
critical power systems, therefore, focuses on ensuring high levels of reliability as well as
power quality. A power interruption of only 8.83 milliseconds can shut down or even
damage computers.
Routine quality assurance is needed for all building components. Usually the decision to
commission specific building systems is made during the Design Development phase of a
project, but may also occur in concept design or Construction Documents as project
performance requirements and Design Intent Documentation evolves.
Many design and construction programs execute careful planning and programming that
is embodied and encompassed in Master Plans, Building Engineering Reports, Special
Studies, Feasibility Studies, and Program Development Studies. Yet, some building
programs execute planning and programming only minimally. For commissioning to be
successful, programming documentation must summarize or include the Owner's Project
Requirements (OPR) that are both general and specific to critical requirements. The OPR
47
Note: This is a general list of programming documentation that will vary by project
depending on scope, size, complexity, and budget.
The Basis of Design (BOD) is a narrative and analytical documentation prepared by the
design A-E along with design submissions to explain how the Owner's Project
Requirements (OPR) are met by the proposed design. It describes the technical approach
used for systems selections, integration, and sequence of operations, focusing on design
features critical to overall building performance. An OPR is developed for an owner/user
audience while the BOD is typically developed in more technical terms.
48
Some owner groups are beginning to task commissioning authorities with operating
facilities for up to one year after turn-over to conduct seasonal testing and systems
optimization, allowing for an overlap in O&M contract start-up and training.
Emerging Issues
Increased Emphasis on Occupant Security/Security
In the post 9/11 environment, providing occupant safety to visitors and workers in public
facilities has been a driving force to deliver and commission facilities with enhanced
building safety measures. This trend is not expected to decrease, but will likely increase
the standard of care necessary in the design and operation of all forms of public and
corporate buildings.
Continuous Commissioning
Additional Resources
• GSA Building Commissioning Guide
• GSA Project Planning Guide
• Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.
• Raised Access Floor Design Guide (GSA to publish in summer 2005)
Organizations
Tools
Introduction
It is often said that commissioning is all about good project documentation. The purpose
of commissioning documenting is to record the standards of performance for building
systems, and to verify that what is designed and constructed meets those standards.
Commissioning is a team effort to document the continuity of the project as it moves
from one project phase to the next. In the Planning and Development phase of a project,
planning and programming documents begin to define an owner's requirements for
building performance. When the entire project delivery process is documented in a
consistent manner, an historical perspective is created that explains the iterative process
of determining the agreed-to project requirements at each step of the development
process. Commissioning documentation becomes the road map for the success criteria to
be met by facilities that are put in service.
Recommendations
Document all Levels of Project Development and Acceptance
A draft set of system readiness checklists (SRCs) and verification test procedures (VTPs)
is included in the commissioning specification to communicate to the bidding contractor
the level of rigor that can be expected during the testing phase of the commissioning
process. The SRCs are detailed checklists for documenting that each system is prepared
for testing. The VTPs are a detailed set of instructions and acceptable results for
thoroughly testing each system.
During functional performance testing and operator training, the commissioning team
moves to the forefront. The team verifies the performance of building systems based on
detailed test procedures developed by the commissioning team and determines the most
efficient equipment settings. Testing must be performed not only in normal operating
modes but also under all possible circumstances and sequences of operation, with real-
life conditions simulated as much as possible. Further, integrated systems testing should
examine systems as a whole in order to evaluate overall design and compatibility.
The team also supervises operations staff training on commissioned systems and
equipment, and organizes warranty information. Ultimately, the team prepares extensive
documentation on systems, including benchmarks for energy use and equipment
efficiencies, seasonal operational issues, start-up and shutdown procedures, diagnostic
tools, and guidelines for energy accounting.
change during the span of project delivery, the OPR should be updated to reflect
changes in building performance requirements.
• Basis of Design (BOD)—The BOD is a narrative and analytical documentation
prepared by the design A-E along with design submissions to explain how the
Owner's Project Requirements are met by the proposed design. It describes the
technical approach used for systems selections, integration, and sequence of
operations, focusing on design features critical to overall building performance.
An OPR is developed for an owner/user audience while the BOD is typically
developed in more technical terms.
• Design Review Comments—Comprehensive reviews targeted to critical systems
at all design phase submissions are an important aspect of commissioning
documentation. Reviews for code compliance and constructability will pertain all
systems of all projects, while commissioning reviews are focused to
commissioned systems, equipment, and building assemblies and building
components they are interfaced with.
• Certification Documentation—Owners sometimes require their facilities to
achieve certifications such as Energy Star, LEED, USACE Spirit, or
governmental agency testing and inspection. When such performance
certifications are required as part of a design or construction contract, they
become critical to an owner's project expectations and may be included as
commissionionable elements.
• Submittal Review Comments—Concurrent with the design team and owner
review, a designated commissioning team member reviews products and systems
submittals for compliance with the Owner's Project Requirements. Special
attention should be given to substitutions and proposed deviations from the
contract documents and Basis of Design documentation. Submittal review
comments on commissioned systems will often generate issues for coordination
between integrated systems, equipment, and technologies.
• Inspection Reports—Commissioning Inspection Reports should be prepared
regularly to document progress of the work on commissioned building systems.
These reports will normally produce functional issues, integration issues or
operational issues that are then captured in Issues Logs for discussion and
clarification of performance expectations, integration issues, or operational issues.
The construction delivery team (and owner's representative (CM), if applicable)
will also prepare inspection reports pertaining to all building systems and
components.
• Test Data Reports—Test Data reports contain results of the Testing and
Inspection Plans and include Pre-Functional Test (PFT) reports, Functional Test
Reports (FTP), and other test results specified for the commissioned systems.
• Issue Logs and Reports—Issues Logs and Reports are a formal and ongoing
record of problems or concerns-and their resolution- that have been raised by
members of the Commissioning Team during the course of the Commissioning
Process. Issues Logs should be included in Commissioning Reports because,
along with minutes, design review comments, and Inspection Reports, they
explain the thought process and rationale for key decisions in the commissioning
process.
53
May be
Systems Manual Owner or
O&M, CA Owner Design Team included in
Outline CA
OPR
Training O&M, Users, May be
Owner or
Requirements CA, Design Owner Design Team included in
CA
Outline Team OPR
May be only
CA, Design
Issues Log CA CA N/A format at this
Team
phase
Design Team,
Issues Report CA CA Owner
Owner
Pre-Design Phase
Close of Phase
Commissioning CA CA Owner Owner
report
Process Report
O&M, Users,
Owner's Project
Capital CA or CA, Design
Requirements Owner
Projects, Designer Team
Update
Design Team
Design Design Team,
Basis Of Design Design Team Owner, CA
Team CA
May also be
Construction Design Design Contractors, provided by
Specifications for Team, CA, Team or Owner CA, Design Project
Commissioning Owner CA Team Manager /
Owner's Rep.
Design
Design Contractor may
Systems Manual Team, CA, Design Team,
Team or Owner, CA not be hired
Outline-Expanded O&M, Contractor
Design CA yet.
Contractor
Training O&M, Users, Contractor may
Owner or
Requirements In CA, Design Owner Design Team not be hired
CA
Specifications Team yet.
Design Review
CA CA Owner Design Team
Comments
CA, Design
Issues Log CA CA N/A
Team
Design Team,
Issues Report CA CA Owner
Owner
Design Phase
Close of Phase
Commissioning CA CA Owner Owner
report
Process Report
Construction O&M, Users,
Owner's Project CA, Design
Capital CA or
Requirements Owner Team,
Projects, Designer
Update Contractors
Design Team
Basis of Design Design Team Design CA, Owner Design Team,
Update Team CA
55
Emerging Issues
Building Information Models (BIM)
• THE only standard is NIBS/ASHRAE Guidelines. The Cx process does not relieve
the contractor and or A/E of record of any obligation, code, or standard that must
be achieved and maintained.
• Model Commissioning Plan and Guide Specifications, Version 2.05, PECI. Feb.
1998.—Available from PECI, 921 SW Washington, Suite 312, Portland, Oregon
97205; Phone (503) 248-4636; Fax (503) 295-0820; E-mail peci@peci.org
• Procedural Standards for Buildings Systems Commissioning—Available from the
National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)
Additional Resources
Organizationss
• Associated Air Balance Council (Primarily for how the TAB fits into the
commissioning process)—AABC National Headquarters, Phone: (202) 737-0202.
• Building Commissioning Association (BCxA)
• International Alliance for Interoperability North America (IAI-NA)—A Council
of the National Institute of Building Sciences
• National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)—Certification program and
manuals. 8575 Grovemont Circle, Gaithersburg, MD, 20877. Phone: (301) 977-
9589.
• Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.
• Texas A&M Energy Systems Lab—Retro-commissioning process and software,
for sale.
Publications
Tools
Introduction
Should an independent Commissioning Authority be retained, and if so, when? How will
the commissioned systems be tested, inspected, and documented? How much should be
budgeted for commissioning and special testing services? Once a project delivery team
has determined critical project goals and requirements, these questions are answered by
planning the commissioning process. This page is about incorporating a project's
performance requirements into a plan that defines the commissioning scope, process,
responsibilities, budget, and documentation requirements.
Recommendations
Establish Goals for Quality, Efficiency, and Functionality
The commissioning planning process should be accomplished at the same time that a
project team Determines Project Performance Requirements. The level and focus of
commissioning efforts should be appropriate to a project's size, complexity, its housed
mission, and an owner's risk management strategy. After the project delivery team has
determined the essential project performance requirements, goals for project quality,
efficiency, and functionality can then be established, and a commissioning approach and
scope can be developed.
There are numerous ways to assemble and structure a commissioning team. A different
team member, including owner representatives, contracted program managers, or design
professionals may lead the commissioning effort at each stage of project delivery, but the
overall process, principles, and objectives are constant.
The question of who should be responsible for planning and overseeing the Building
Commissioning Process and specific commissioning activities will depend on the needs
of each project and is somewhat driven by budget and expertise available within the
project delivery team. Regardless of where the responsibility for building commissioning
lies, it is important that the commissioning authority maintain a position of impartiality to
59
Since many owners' groups typically utilize A-E's and "not-at-risk" CMs for quality
assurance, commissioning responsibilities and benefits of third-party commissioning
services must be determined for each project. NIBS Guideline 3-2006 Exterior Enclosure
Technical Requirements for the Commissioning Process provides, "The Commissioning
Process does not impinge upon the competency, authority, or responsibility of licensed
professionals nor upon the obligations between Owners, Design Professionals or
Contractors contained in standardized contract forms or project-specific contracts. The
Commissioning Process structures the design and construction process to increase
quality. It does not require the Owner to employ a specific outside expert as the
Commissioning Authority and nothing would prevent the Owner from selecting the
project design or construction firm to do commissioning, if the CA is properly qualified
and positioned outside the specific project team within the firm. The level of effort of the
Commissioning Process and size of the Commissioning Team for a given building can be
strongly influenced by such factors as the owner's preferred level of building quality, the
level of risk the owner will accept, as well as building size, type, and complexity".
Commissioning requires the active participation of the A/E, the Building Contractor, a
Commissioning Agent, and the Owner. The construction contractor is typically tasked
with executing commissioning tests and inspections, with planning, defining
commissioning procedures, coordination, witnessing, verification tasked to the
Commissioning Agent.
the full extent of systems commissioning and on-site technical services is determined.
The GSA Building Commissioning Guide includes a sample Scope of Commissioning
Services suitable for use on public agency projects.
Commissioning costs can range widely and are dependent upon many factors including a
building's size, complexity, and whether the project consists of building renovation,
modernization, or new construction and the scope of commissioning services provided. In
general, the cost of commissioning new buildings range from 0.5 percent of the total
construction cost for relatively simple projects such as office buildings to 1.5 for complex
laboratories and medical facilities1. Additional information on Building Commissioning
can be found in PECI, New Construction Commissioning Costs, 2/14/2002. For an
existing building, the cost of commissioning can range from 3.0 to 5.0 percent of the total
operating cost. A good rule of thumb for systems-based commissioning budgeting is
between 2 and 4% of the construction cost of each system being commissioned.
Key factors that can have a direct impact in developing a commissioning budget include:
Note: Some utilities now have programs offering incentives/rebates for owners that may
offset costs for commission or re-commission of facilities.
A written Commissioning Plan is essential to all commissioned projects and allows all
project participants to anticipate and plan for commissioning requirements and
milestones. The plan is first developed in the Pre-design phase as a Design Phase
Commissioning Plan and is updated at or near design completion and released as a
Construction Phase Commissioning Plan. During the Pre-Design phase, the
commissioning plan focuses on assuring the owner's performance requirements are
incorporated and properly integrated in the prepared and accepted construction
documents. Details of systems teats and procedures, assembly specific checklists, and
61
The team works closely with contractors to integrate commissioning activities into the
overall construction schedule, to keep commissioning activities off the critical path, and
to carry out site inspections with a focus on systems operations and maintenance. A
commissioning schedule is developed as a section of (or appendix to) a commissioning
plan and is updated throughout the project. The objective of scheduling commissioning
activities is to integrate and coordinate them with other construction phase activities.
Detailed integration of commissioning activities and tasks with the construction schedule
is critical to maintaining project milestones. The following chart illustrates how
commissioning activities and tasks relate to typically occurring project activities.
62
Please see NIBS Guideline 3, which shows how the commissioning process relates to
typical planning, design, and construction activities.
Emerging Issues
Commissioning Authority Certification
64
Additional Resources
• NIH Commissioning Guidelines & Commissioning Plan Oregon.
• TECHINFO—USACE Technical Information website
• University of Washington—University Commissioning guide specifications
Publications
Tools
Bibliography
1. U.S. Department of Energy. Building Commission ["Citing sources on the internet"].
URL http://www.rebuild.org/attachments/guidebooks/commissioningguide.pdf
66
Overview
Effective project management includes strategies, tactics, and tools for managing the
design and construction delivery process and for controlling key factors to ensure the
client receives a facility that matches scope and quality expectations, delivered on time
and within budget. Successful project delivery requires implementation of management
systems that will enable project delivery teams to control changes in the key factors of
scope, costs, schedule, and quality.
Scope Management
Project scope is defined as the work that must be done to meet a client's program goals
for space, function, features, and level of quality. In many ways, scope management is
the foundation on which the other project elements are built. From project inception,
project scope defines the boundaries within which the delivery team and the external
stakeholders work. Effective scope management requires accurate definition of a client's
requirements in the Planning and Development stage and a systematic process for
monitoring and managing all the factors that may impact or change the client's program
requirements throughout the project delivery process.
Cost Management
67
Project costs are measured and analyzed in many ways throughout a project, from
planning and design to bidding, construction, turnover, and beyond. First costs, cost-
benefit, and life-cycle cost are a few examples of how a project's cost-effectiveness can
be evaluated. However, the control of costs requires continual systematic cost
management. These cost management processes start with the establishment of budgets
that align with scope and quality requirements and continue with milestone estimates,
value engineering, procurement strategies, and change order management through to
claims avoidance and negotiation.
Schedule Management
Quality Control
Quality control starts with matching expectations about quality levels with budget and
scope during planning and design reviews and continues through construction delivery
with a program of inspections, tests, and certifications. It requires a coordinated
performance among the entire project team in order for a completed building program to
fully satisfy a client's expectations.
Building Commissioning
68
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
o Cost-Effective Branch
o Historic Preservation
o Secure / Safe
Project Management
o Building Commissioning
Organizations
Publications
Scheduling Software
• Microsoft Project
• Pacific Edge
• Primavera Systems
69
• Prolog
Tools
Risk Management
by Scott Cullen
Hanscomb Faithful & Gould
Introduction
In design and construction, risk analysis can be described as a systematic methodology
and ongoing process by which occurrences that may substantially affect the end product
can be identified, quantified, modeled, managed, and monitored. This tool is especially
useful as a method of good project management and planning, because the business of
building is inherently risky—the risk mitigation methods can be applied to project cost,
schedule, quality/performance, safety, and business operations, especially as construction
risk increases with the size of the project. Good risk management procedures ultimately
measure the team's confidence level in the project on an ongoing basis, and allow the
introduction of corrective actions, monetary contingency, and schedule float in order to
minimize losses to the project and increase the likelihood of the project being completed
on schedule and within budget.
The application of risk management procedures in construction can give early visibility to
potential "problem areas" and opportunities, where effort and money can be expended
early in the design and construction phases to reduce vulnerability, insurance costs,
business or mission interruption, and claims. Early risk identification ensures that design
and team effort is concentrated in critical areas, focusing the project team's attention on
actions and resources where there is a major risk exposure, or where the greatest
time/cost savings can be made through reengineering and streamlined project
management. The objective is proactive management of projects, where problems are
reduced as they are identified, as differentiated from the traditional approach to
construction, which waits until critical problems develop and then implements an
immediate (and typically expensive) response which may reduce the impact to the project
but likely does not avoid losses as effectively as early risk response. Over time, risk
management allows the project team to build a historical profile of risk based upon
experience and lessons learned, which will allow for better management of future
projects.
Risk management is an organized method of identifying and measuring risk and then
developing, selecting, implementing and managing options for addressing risks. There
are several types of risk that an owner should consider as part of risk management
methodology. These include:
• Schedule risk
• Cost risk
• Technical feasibility
• Risk of technical obsolescence
• Dependencies between a new project and other projects
• Physical events beyond direct control
Risk management seeks to identify and ultimately control possible future events and
should be proactive rather than reactive. To be effective, risk management must rely on
tools and techniques that help predict the likelihood of future events, the effects of these
71
future events and methods to deal with these future events. Risk management is the
responsibility of everyone involved in a project.
Paying attention to detail and implementing appropriate cost and schedule control
systems will assist in risk analysis and management. However, one area that deserves
closer scrutiny is the use of range estimating as a risk analysis tool. Range estimating can
be done in a rather simple fashion by selecting the 20 percent of the line items in an
estimate that represent 80 percent of the cost then developing a range for each of those 20
percent and doing a simple process of adding the low and high ranges. A more advanced
approach could take the same 20 percent items, establish the range and then use any one
of several available software packages to perform a Monte Carlo simulation and produce
a risk profile. This approach would give a more accurate projection of the logical highs
and lows involved with 20 percent drivers. A sensitivity analysis can also be prepared to
vary the key risk parameters.
Finally, it is possible to use a complete risk analysis package that includes range
estimating and prepares a risk profile that estimates confidence ranges and contingency
amounts. This type of an approach can establish contingencies for not only individual
projects but for entire programs.
Monte Carlo or risk analysis is used when establishing a baseline or baseline change
during budget formulation. The contingency developed from the Monte Carlo analyses
should fall within the contingency allowance ranges presented previously. Monte Carlo
analyses and other risk assessment techniques use similar methodology to obtain
contingency estimates. There are a number of software packages both publicly and
commercially available. The estimator must subdivide the estimate into separate phases
or tasks and assess the accuracy of the cost estimate data in each phase. After the project
data have been input and checked, the computer program will calculate various
contingencies for the overall project based on the probability of project underrun. The
random number generator accounts for the known estimate accuracy. Once the program
has completed its iterations (usually 1,000), it produces an overall contingency for the
project with certain accuracy.
The application of this type of quantitative risk analysis allows the construction project
exposure to be modeled, and quantifies the probability of occurrence and potential impact
of identified risks. The results can be used to produce a realistic representation, in graphic
s-curve form, of the project's total uncertainty and risks. Referring to the s-curve figure
below as an example, a contingency amount of approximately $4 million represents 65%
confidence in achieving that project cost. For 80% confidence, contingency should be
increased such that total project cost is $51 million.
72
Risk management with probabilistic modeling can be used to reduce project contingency
from a guesstimate of 10-20% to a quantitatively determined amount, typically in the
range of 3-8%. As the project progresses, and the confidence level in project cost
increases, the early release of contingency amounts may be achieved and the money may
be invested elsewhere.
Major Resources
Publications
Introduction
The operations and maintenance (O&M) of facilities covers all that broad spectrum of
services required to assure the built environment is available to and will perform the
functions for which they were designed and constructed. O&M is comprised of the day-
to-day activities necessary for the built entities to perform their intended function.
Operations and maintenance are combined into the one term O&M because an entity
cannot operate without being maintained; therefore the two are discussed as one.
At this time the Operations and Maintenance section offers guidance in the following
areas:
Future updates to the Operations and Maintenance section will provide additional
guidance in the areas described below.
The scope of O&M includes the activities required to keep the entire built environment as
contained in the organization's Real Property Inventory of buildings and structures and
their supporting facilities such as utility systems, parking lots, roads, drainage structures
and grounds in condition to be used to meet their intended function during their life cycle.
These activities include routine and breakdown maintenance and repairs, operations of
utility systems and grounds care. It varies from O&M of a single building to a complex of
many buildings and structures or groups of complexes. As the number of buildings and
structures increases, the organization performing the O&M increases in size and
complexity. In all cases it requires knowledgeable and skilled management and skilled
and trained technical personnel to perform the many varied O&M functions.
Major Resources
A. Planning and Design Phase
74
O&M activities start with the planning and design of a facility and continue through its
life cycle. During the planning and design phases, O&M personnel should be involved
and should identify maintenance requirements for inclusion in the design, such as
equipment access, built-in condition monitoring, sensor connections, and other O&M
requirements that will aid in their operations and maintenance when the built facility is
turned over to the O&M organization.
B. Construction Phase
During the construction phase and prior to turnover of the facility for O&M operations
and maintenance manuals are provided to the O&M organization and O&M organization
personnel are provided training required for their O&M of the new facility. Assurance
that the manuals and training are provided is a part of the Building Commissioning
process.
D. O&M Approach
The O&M organization is normally responsible for operating the utility systems and for
maintenance of all of the built entities. In accomplishing these responsibilities, the O&M
organization must operate the entities responsibly and maintain them properly. The utility
systems may be simple supply lines/systems or may be complete production and supply
systems. The maintenance work may include preventative and programmed maintenance,
repairs, trouble calls, (e.g., a room is too cold,) replacement of obsolete items, predictive
testing & inspection, and grounds care. Many O&M organizations are now utilizing a
Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) program that includes "the optimum mix of
reactive, time- or interval-based, condition-based, and proactive maintenance practices…
These principal maintenance strategies, rather than being applied independently, are
integrated to take advantage of their respective strengths in order to maximize facility and
equipment reliability, while minimizing life-cycle costs." The O&M organization is also
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Most O&M organizations also perform work that is not O&M, but is so often performed
by facilities maintenance organizations they become a part of their baseline. This work is
facilities related work that is new in nature, and as such should not be funded with O&M
funds but funded by the requesting organization. Examples of the work includes
installation of an outlet to support a new copier machine, providing a compressed air
outlet to a new test bench, and other minor facilities work of like nature.
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Introduction
Know Your Assets and What They Cost!
Description
In today's business environment RPIs are or should be maintained in computer databases
with detailed inventory records maintained in paper files. The records should contain
details of transactions that affect the organization's assets and should be maintained as
permanent records for the life of each asset. The computer RPI size of course depends on
the number of facilities and how the organization chooses to maintain the database. The
database may be located at a site/complex/campus or at a central location where the
assets of the company/university/ government agency are maintained in total. The
inventory data on an asset will include information as determined by laws, government
regulations and/or an organization's management. It will depend on the use of the data
and what requirements have been placed on the organization such as information to meet
tax requirements, government regulations, management reports, operations and
maintenance (O&M) requirements and other requirements the organization may have.
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The RPI paper files and database should start with the acquisition of the asset whether by
construction, purchase, lease, donation or any other source. When by construction the
RPI records should follow project delivery, at the time the asset is turned over to the
owner for O&M. When by other means the RPI should start with the owners assuming
O&M responsibility for the asset. The decision to enter an asset or improvement to an
asset in the RPI is determined by the value set by law, government regulation or the
organization and the organizations definition of real property. In most cases real property
includes land and anything permanently affixed to it, such as buildings including their
installed systems and building equipment and in some cases other installed equipment,
roads and parking facilities, fences, utility systems, structures, etc. The RPI for assets
meeting the definition and value requirements imposed on the organization should then
be maintained for the life of the asset whether in the private sector or in the government.
A. RPI Content
The RPI of an organization should include the detail paper files identifying the asset and
its cost including its initial acquisition and improvements. The RPI database should
include the asset's name (usually a descriptive title), its facility number or address, its
book value, type of facility (may be a classification code or simply included in its
descriptive title), its capacity and its unit of measure (UOM). Other asset data in the
database will depend on the organization and its management. Some other data that may
be included is its location, book value, its current replacement value, asset's use (may be a
code) and status, listing of improvements and their costs, previous years O&M costs, and
in the case of government agencies General Services Administration (GSA) Usage
Codes.
The initial entry in the RPI includes the book value with asset improvements that meet an
organizations guidelines being added to the book value as they occur. What is included in
the book value of an asset will depend on tax laws and management requirements in the
private sector and finical management rules and government regulations in the
government organizations. An example of government requirements is that capitalized
value (book cost) of a facility includes all costs incurred to bring the facility to a form
and location suitable for its intended use. The cost may include the following, as
appropriate for the type of facility to be capitalized and included as the book value of a
new asset or in the case of an asset improvement added to the facility's book value:
C. Capital Improvements
Capital improvements to an asset are modifications whose cost equals or exceeds a value
established by the organization or by law/regulation and 1) extends its useful life by two
years or more or, 2) enlarges or improves its capacity or otherwise upgrades the asset to
serve needs different from, or significantly greater than, those originally intended. Capital
Improvements are capitalized and increase the book value of the facility.
Where a replacement occurs due to a capital improvement, the book cost of the asset
should be appropriately adjusted to remove the original costs of items replaced where the
costs exceeds a costs set by law, regulation or the organization. If only a portion of the
property is being replaced, and that portion is not separately identifiable in the asset's
records, the original value of the replaced portion should be estimated and the book value
adjusted accordingly. The costs of items replaced do not include the costs of removal but
only the original book costs.
The organization responsible for the RPI should develop and sponsor the establishment of
guidance and procedures as required for the organization to ensure compliance with
applicable laws, regulations, and organization policy. The guidance and procedures must
include the assignment of responsibilities and establish controls necessary to ensure that
the RPI records are kept current including the database, that periodic physical inventory
are performed and that the records are reconciled based on the inventories.
Application
An RPI should be maintained by all organizations responsible for maintaining asset
records. The records should include detailed paper records and a database containing the
asset information needed by the organization to meet reporting requirements and
recurring request for information. By having the data in a database reports and request for
information can be answered easily without using manpower to extract the data from
paper files. This is particularly applicable where the organization is responsible for a
complex or campus with numerous assets as found at large corporations, universities and
government agencies.
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Emerging Issues
The security of the data in a database is an issue that most organizations have already
faced with their computer systems but it is a continuing problem that must be faced in the
computer world.
• 40 U.S.C. 483 and 484, Sections 202 and 203 of the Federal Property and
Administrative Services Act of 1949, as amended
• 41 CFR, Chapters 101 and 102, Federal Property Management Regulations
• Executive Order 13327, Federal Real Property Asset Management (PDF 96 KB)
Major Resources
• Army Real Property web site
• GSA Office of Government Wide Policy, Customer Guide to Reporting Real
Property Inventory Information (DOC 368 KB)
• Office of the Deputy Under the Secretary of Defense - Installations and
Environement Real Property Inventory Requirements
• NASA's Real Estate Management Program Implementation Manual
• U.S. Department of Energy Real Property Asset Management (PDF 188 KB)
Tools
Introduction
Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM) is an approach in Facilities
Management that includes creation and utilization of Information Technology (IT)-based
systems in FM practice. The usage of CAFM systems in Facilities Management practice
aims to support operational and strategic facility management, i.e. all of the activities
associated with administrative, technical, and infrastructural FM tasks when the facility
or building is operational, as well as the strategic processes for facilities planning and
management¹.
CAFM systems consist of variety of technologies and information sources that may
include object-oriented database systems, Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems,
Building Information Models (BIM), and interfaces to other systems such as a Computer
Maintenance Management System. Today most CAFM systems are web-based and
provide a host of features including facilities related scheduling and analysis capabilities.
Data may be stored, retrieved, and analyzed from a single data-store or collected from a
variety of sources through technology interfaces or human transfer processes.
Description
Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM) evolved in the late 1980's leveraging
the PC to automate the collection and maintenance of Facilities Management information.
Widespread usage of IT systems in almost all disciplines eventually penetrated the
construction and Facility Management industry as well. After the development of
Internet-based database systems, usage of high-end tools in FM practices increased in
that sector. CAFM systems provided the facility manager with the tools to track, plan,
manage, and report on facilities information.
A mature CAFM system combines and analyzes complex data to improve facility
management practices throughout a variety of industries including government,
healthcare, educational, commercial, and industrial environments. The CAFM system
gives decision makers the ability to automate many of the data-intensive facility
management functions and typically results in continuous cost savings and improved
utilization of assets through-out their entire lifecycle.
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A well developed CAFM system may include a variety of functions and features to meet
the specific demands of the Facility Manager. Although there is no ideal model, suitable
for all situations, a typical CAFM system provides and maintains information on floor
plans, property descriptions, space utilization, energy consumption, equipment locations,
and other critical infrastructure data that pertains to the sector it is serving.
Interactive Database: Since the data in crucial in Facilities Management practice, CAFM
systems are based on fully developed relational databases that are designed around the
functional requirements of the Facility or Space Manager.
Interactive Graphics: CAFM systems facilitate an interactive graphics module for basic
drafting and modification of facility layouts, plans and other visual documents. A
majority of CAFM systems on the market integrate industry standard CAD engines into
the CAFM system to utilize common CAD file formats. Additionally, the graphics data
may be maintained in a format compatible with Geographic Information System (GIS)
standards that will allow CAFM information to be accurately shared across multiple
platforms, including spatial environments.
Data Management Tools: CAFM systems reuse existing data and are able to recognize
and/or convert external data for their own use. These tools usually provide a robust user
interface to enable a user-friendly environment for data input, editing, and analysis.
Application
Most facility managers face a variety of constraints and challenges. The most common
issues facing most managers today include:
The challenge for facility managers is to overcome these obstacles by utilizing the
resources available and convincing leadership that efficiencies and cost savings can be
achieved with investments in technology, such as a well planned CAFM system. Mature
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CAFM systems are important to enable the facility managers to become effective
decision makers and provide effective management of facility information. The mature
CAFM system will help the facility's manager ensure the organization's assets are fully
utilized at the lowest possible cost, while providing benefit to every phase of a building's
lifecycle.
Usage Areas
CAFM systems can be used for different purposes in Facilities Management practices.
Planning, monitoring, and reporting capabilities of typical CAFM systems provide vital
information to perform tasks in the facility management arena. Typical facility functions
that a CAFM can benefit include the following:
Strategic Planning: Tasks include analyses of property and space to provide capital
planning of new or remodel assets to improve the mission of the organization. The
CAFM tools will usually aid the Facility Management in determining space requirements,
equipment locations, construction costs, environmental constraints, encroachments, and
other critical planning functions.
Space Inventory and Management: The CAFM should define and standardize space
attributes and data elements as well as the physical asset inventories of the organization.
Typical functions of this module include analysis on space dimensions, utilization,
hazardous material locations, evacuation routes, fire equipment locations, and buildings
attributes such as:
• Age
• Cost data
• Life expectancy
• Construction data
• Contract and Warranty data
• Building managers
• Telephone numbers
• Technology drops
Maintenance and Repairs: Tasks include monitoring routine repairs and preventive
maintenance operations in the facility. Safety conditions, such as a lock-out/tag-out
program can also be managed in this module.
Space Forecasting: Includes the ability to determine current space utilization and to
project future space requirements based on customer or mission requirements. This task
typically includes the ability to manage the requirements for people, space, utilities,
technology access, as well as the cost and move planning features.
Fig. 1. Usage of CAFM in the life cycle of a building² (Schürle and Fritsch, 2000).²
Benefits
Benefits of CAFM usage in Facility Management tasks can be grouped in various areas,
including quality of life, cost reduction, cost avoidance, and information improvement.
Specifically, a mature CAFM system will provide benefits similar to those listed below:
• More efficient space utilization to achieve cost savings and potential reduction in
asset inventories.
• Reduction in moving and relocation activities resulting in greatly reduced
relocation costs.
• Continuous improvement in facilities management efficiencies.
• Improved project planning leading to reductions in A&E, construction, and
building maintenance costs.
• Fast and accurate reporting on critical facilities information.
• Existing processes will become more efficient and streamlined, using
standardized data that is shared across the enterprise.
• The CAFM will give facilities managers the tools necessary to become more
proactive instead of reactive to facilities' requirements and enable better decision
making.
• Improve safety and environmental planning capabilities, reducing risk from
accident and regulatory compliance violations.
• Disaster planning capabilities are significantly improved to reduce the potential
for human injury or death in a disaster as well as to improve those required for
operational recovery.
• Data standardization across the organization and the elimination of redundant
information held by multiple organizations in various degrees of quality and
accuracy.
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Major Resources
Publications
Websites
• FM Innovations
Organizations
• BOMA International
• FIATECH
• IFMA (International Facility Management Association)
• International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI)
• NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences)
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Introduction
Know What Work Has Been Done on Your Assets and What it Costs!
Prior to the computer age paper records were maintained to track the work. Reports were
simple and costly to prepare. With the dawn of the computer age it was recognized
computer software could be used to record work requirements, track the status of the
work and analyze the recorded data for managing the work, produce reports and help
control costs. With time computers have become more powerful, less costly, and easier to
use and now provide tools to support improved maintenance practices. Facility
professionals now have the tools to manage the planning and day-to-day operations and
maintenance activities required for a single facility or a large complex, providing all of
the information required to manage the work, the work force and the costs and provide
management reports and historical data.
Description
The goal of a maintenance manager is to employ a management system that optimizes the
use of scarce resources (manpower, equipment, material, and funds) to maintain the
facilities and equipment that are the responsibility of the maintenance organization. The
system should provide for integrated processes giving the manager control over the
maintenance of all facilities and maintainable equipment from acquisition to disposal.
The following lists what the system should do:
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A modern CMMS meets these requirements and assists the facilities maintenance
manager with work reception, planning, control, performance, evaluation, and reporting.
Such a system will also maintain historical information for management use. The
manager should evaluate management data requirements and establish electronic data
needs prior to acquiring a system or additions to, or replacement of, an existing system.
The evaluation should include a return on investment (ROI) analysis before investing in
additional or new CMMS capabilities. The manager should only acquire what is
necessary to accomplish the maintenance organization's goals. The following paragraphs
include details of capabilities that may be included in a modern CMMS.
A. Operating Locations
The CMMS may include an application that allows an operator to enter and track
locations of equipment (locations in which equipment operates) and organize these
locations into logical hierarchies or network systems. Work orders can then be written
either against the location itself or against the equipment in the operating location. Using
locations allows for the tracking of the equipment's lifecycles (history) and provides the
capability to track equipments' performance at specific sites.
B. Equipment
The CMMS may include a module that allows an operator to keep accurate and detailed
records of each piece of equipment. This module would include equipment related data,
such as bill of material, Preventive Maintenance (PM) schedule, service contracts, safety
procedures, measurement points, multiple meters, inspection routes, specification data
(name plate), equipment downtime, and related documentation. This equipment data is
used for managing day-to-day operations and historical data that can be used to help
make cost effective replace or repair decisions. The data can also be used to develop
additional management information, such as building equipment downtime failure code
hierarchies for use in maintenance management metrics.
C. Resources
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The CMMS may include a separate module to track labor resources. This module
typically includes records for all maintenance personnel, including their craft or trade
categories, such as mechanic, electrician, or plumber. Additionally, this module may
include labor rates in order to capture and track true labor costs against any asset or piece
of equipment. Some CMMS will allow maintenance managers to also track skill levels
and qualifications for each resources to help in planning and scheduling of work.
Grouping labor categories into common associations can help a manager assign work to
particular shop rather than an individual.
D. Safety Plans
With the emphasis placed on safety throughout Government and industry a capability for
safety plans/planning may be included in a CMMS. The following capabilities should be
provided:
E. Inventory Control
F. Work Request
A work request module should be an integral part of a CMMS. The module could provide
the capability for a requestor to input a request, such as a trouble call, or it could be
entered by the maintenance organization's work control. The data entry screen should be
designed for minimal data entry. The work order number could be assigned manually or
automatically. A requester could enter minimal data and work control could enter
additional information as required. Data should be entered once, and pop-up tables in the
system should eliminate the need to memorize codes.
A CMMS must include work order tracking because it is the heart of a work order
system. The data should be entered once, and pop-up tables should eliminate the need to
memorize codes. The tracking system should provide instant access to all of the
information needed for detailed planning and scheduling, including work plan operations,
labor, materials, tools, costs, equipment, blueprints, related documents, and failure
analysis. Of course, this is dependent on how many modules are installed and how much
information has been entered in the system. The manager must evaluate data
requirements and the practicality of adding modules.
H. Work Management
A work manager module may be a part of the CMMS. The module could provide the
capability that would let a planner specify which labor to apply to specific work orders
and when. The module would permit planning and dispatching.
I. Quick Reporting
The CMMS could provide a rapid and easy means for opening, reporting on, and closing
work orders, and reporting work on small jobs after-the-fact. Labor, materials, failure
codes, completion date, and downtime could all be reported.
J. Preventive Maintenance
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• Support multiple criteria for generating PM work orders. If a PM master has both
time-based and meter-based frequency information, the program should use
whichever becomes due first, and then update the other.
• Generate time-based PM work orders based upon last generation or last
completion date. Next due date and job plans should be displayed.
• Permit and track PM extensions with adjustments to next due date.
• Trigger meter-based PM by two separate meters.
• Print sequence job plans when wanted.
• Create a PM against an item so new parts have PM automatically generated on
purchase.
• Specify the number of days ahead to generate work orders from PM masters that
may not yet have met their frequency criteria.
• Consolidate weekly, monthly, and quarterly job plans on a single master.
• Assign sequence numbers to job plans to tell the system which job plan to use
when a PM work order is generated from a PM master.
• Permit overriding frequency criteria in order to generate PM work orders
whenever plant conditions require.
• Route PM with multiple equipment or locations.
• Generate work orders in batch or individually for only the equipment wanted.
• Should have the capability to be used with the system scheduler to forecast
resources and budgets.
K. Utilities
L. Facility/Equipment History
A history module may be included that would contain the maintenance histories of the
facilities and equipment. It would contain summaries of PM, repairs, rehabilitation,
modifications, additions, construction, and other work affecting the configuration or
condition of the items. It would include completed and canceled work orders. The
maintenance history records can be used to support proactive maintenance techniques
such as root-cause failure analysis and reliability engineering.
M. Purchasing
A mature CMMS may also include a Purchasing module to initiate the requisition of
material against a work order and track the delivery and cost data of the item when the
material arrives. This capability will allow the maintenance manager improved visibility
of matters that can impact work planning and efficiency. Procuring required material
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outside the CMMS can often leave information gaps that can inhibit the effectiveness of
work execution and result in redundant parts orderings and non-standard procurement
practices. The purchasing module may include many functions such as a vendor master
catalog, invoicing, purchase orders, receiving, and even request for quotations.
The CMMS can be utilized to accumulate the data for KPIs for use in evaluating the
organization's maintenance program. The maintenance management organization must
select the metrics to utilize in establishing their goals and to measure progress in meeting
those goals. The importance of Selecting the Right Key Performance Indicators cannot be
overstated. The KPIs must be based on data that can be obtained and provide meaningful
information that will be utilized in managing the organization.
P. Specialized Features
Some CMMS providers have also developed specialized capabilities and features for
particular business sectors, functions, or requirements. Maintenance managers today are
able to use their CMMS for tracking transportation and fleet inventory , including
maintenance history, mileages, lease terms, rates, and accounting data. Other managers
are using their CMMS to track deployed assets such as computers and other IT
equipment. Through their CMMS the track changes, additions, and movement of
equipment, including software inventory on PC. When selecting a CMMS; considering
the full scope of asset management options, with a focus on consolidated IT solutions
may a sensible course of action.
Application
A CMMS can be utilized in the management of a range of facilities from a single facility
to a complex/campus. They can also be used to manage the maintenance program for a
grouping of equipment such as a fleet of vehicles. The systems are very versatile since
most are in modular form for the various maintenance functions and can be customized to
fit the particular application. Whatever system or set of modules are selected for use,
careful consideration needs to be given to Functional Requirements and a sound
deployment plan. The CMMS must meet the needs, constraints, and opportunities of the
business and be implemented in a way that users will welcome the technology and have a
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vision for the benefits it brings. Proper configuration, testing, and training can not be over
emphasized when bringing a new CMMS or upgrading an exiting system to an
organization.
Emerging Issues
Failure of CMMS implementations is a continuing problem voiced by industry experts.
To avoid this pitfall a thorough management study of the proposed or existing system is
required to evaluate the use of such a system in their organization and to determine the
costs benefits. Not all maintenance organizations require the use of a complete set of
CMMS modules. Those that have implemented CMMS programs without a complete
study, typically fail to use the capabilities incorporated in the software and may
eventually view the program as a failure.
Major Resources
The Internet provides a wealth of information for use in making CMMS implementation
decisions. Two of the sites offering this type of information are Maintenance Resources
and Cmmscity.com. Maintenance Resources provides CMMS reference articles from
"What is CMMS?" and articles dealing with various aspects of CMMS. Cmmscity.com is
designed to provide the CMMS end user community with information, resources and
education relating to preplanning purchases and making effective use of computerized
maintenance management systems.
The following are some company web sites that offer CMMS software. There are many
others that can be found on the Internet with a "CMMS" search.
• Datastream,
• Micromain Corporation,
• IBM,
• Ivara Corporation,
• Champs Software, Inc.,
• Davison Software,
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• TMA Systems,
• fsc Limited and
• MaintSmart Software, Inc.
The National Aeronautics and Spaces Administrations (NASA) provides insight into the
use of Facilities Maintenance Management Automation in Chapter 6 of their procedures
requirements document, Facilities Maintenance Management.
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Space Types
There are many different types of spaces in a building, and each type of space has its own
characteristics and requirements. This section of the WBDG provides information and
guidance organized by functional space types, which complements the WBDG Building
Types pages. For each Space Types page there is a discussion of the general attributes
and requirements of the space as well as example configurations, layouts, and
construction criteria. Space Types pages are also linked to related Building Types pages
and Resource Pages that explain strategies, technologies, and emerging issues relevant to
that specific Space Type. Further, all WBDG design objectives: accessible, aesthetics,
cost effective, functional/operational, historic preservation, productive, secure/safe, and
sustainable and their interrelationships must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately
applied within the spaces. As such, each of these design objectives is presented in the
context of the others throughout the Space Types pages as they apply.
• Atrium
• Auditorium
• Automated Data Processing: Mainframe
• Automated Data Processing: PC System
• Child Care
• Clinic / Health Unit
• Conference / Classroom
• Courthouse: Courtroom
• Courthouse: Enhanced Office
• Courthouse: Judicial Chamber
• Firing Range
• Food Service
• General Storage
• Hearing Room
• Joint Use Retail
• Laboratory: Dry
• Laboratory: Wet
• Library
• Light Industrial
• Loading Dock
• Lobby
• Mail Center
• Office
• Parking: Basement
• Parking: Outside / Structured
• Parking: Surface
• Physical Fitness (Exercise Room)
• Place of Worship
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• Plaza
• Private Toilet
• Warehouse
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Overview
The Family Service Center is a community-based facility that provides educational and
support programs primarily for adults and families. The support programs offered will
vary widely and can include the following:
Some facilities may include aid- or charity-based services such as a food bank or
financial aid. Military Family Service Centers support the programs required by the
Department of Defense (DoD) Instruction 1342.22 Family Centers and must meet
specific requirements defined in UFC 4-730-01, Family Service Centers and supporting
documents.
Most of the facility's programs can be accommodated through three functional space
types: classroom and training space, resource rooms (library/computer labs), and program
or counseling offices. Additional functional areas include administrative spaces,
dedicated storage spaces, and building support spaces.
Building Attributes
A. Space Types and Building Organization
A Family Service Center must accommodate both public spaces and very private spaces.
This drives the facility layout and functional space adjacencies.
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Public spaces are areas that customers need ready access to and may enter unattended by
staff. They should typically be located near the main entrance and include the following:
• Lobby/waiting area
• Classroom(s)
• Resource room and
• Public toilets
Semipublic spaces are areas that customers need access to but will usually only enter
accompanied by a staff member. They include the following:
Private spaces are areas that customers will not normally enter or areas that a customer
will only enter with a staff member and require a high degree of privacy. They include
the following:
Design the facility such that the entrances to the public spaces are clearly visible from the
main entrance. The resource room shares many characteristics with a library. It should be
designed to accommodate multiple computers with Internet access and the storage and
easy retrieval of printed reference material. The resource room should also allow for
display of informational brochures, such as for community resources and recreational
activities.
Staffed program offices are directly adjacent to the resource room so customers using the
resources can easily ask questions and interface with staff. Likewise, staff members that
are meeting with customers in their offices can easily take the customer into the resource
room and set them up for independent research.
The classrooms are configured like typical training facility rooms and should be designed
for flexibility of use. Since prime class time is limited to the early evening hours after
work, a flexible design will provide facility managers with more options for running
multiple classes. If budget allows, consider providing a teaching kitchen as part of or in
addition to the classrooms.
The private spaces should not be located in high traffic areas. The counseling spaces are
similar to psychiatric facility spaces and should feel safe, confidential, and non-
threatening. A beneficial additional space adjacent to counseling offices or group therapy
rooms is a waiting and/or decompression room. This room provides a private space for a
distraught customer waiting to see a counselor or for a customer to compose him or
herself after an emotionally difficult session prior to reentering the public spaces.
B. Design Considerations
Key design goals and considerations for Family Service Centers include the following:
Non-threatening Environment
In order for customers to feel comfortable using the services of a Family Service Center,
they must not feel intimidated. They also must feel that the information they share and
the emotions they express will remain confidential. Therefore, the following design
elements are critical:
Provide space to assist staff in developing and maintaining the center's programs and
business. Outside of normal day-to-day operations, staff must be able to accomplish the
following:
Also see the office space type for more information on staff space.
Design the facility to accommodate equipment and operational strategies to both protect
staff and customers and maintain a healthy environment. Consider the following critical
elements:
Flexibility
As with any program-based facility, flexibility is critical since programs will change as
the community served evolves and grows:
• Provide movable partitions and numerous data ports and electrical outlets in the
classrooms
• Orient as many program offices as possible around the resource room
• Design for the changing nature of work
Emerging Issues
One approach to the management of family service centers encourages staff to spend
more time out in the community versus in the facility. If this operational approach is
followed, it requires a smaller but more flexible facility design. Staff will normally work
in an open office setting rather than private offices since they will spend more time
outside of the facility. Staff-customer meetings will be performed in an expanded
resource room or in dedicated interview rooms that can be reserved when a private
meeting is necessary.
Department of Defense
Community Services
Overview
The Community Services building type is distinguished by the wide range of different
facility types that fall under it. While all Community Services facilities share a common
purpose in the service of public needs, each facility is very specialized and the functional
requirements are extremely varied. For example, facilities such as museums, visitor
centers, and youth centers are recreational in nature, accommodate the general public,
and are open and welcoming in design character. However, facilities such as police and
fire stations, while sometimes being partially open to the public, comprise many spaces
that are intended to be occupied only by highly trained professionals. Spaces such as the
following will represent unsafe or high-risk areas to the general public:
Therefore, the design and functional layout of these facilities will vary widely. If there is
one unifying theme to these building types, it is that the exterior architectural message
should respect the cultural tastes and history of the community served.
Emerging Issues
As with all public buildings and buildings with a 24-hour staff, several design issues have
gained increased attention over recent years:
• Quality of life issues for staff, particularly overnight staff, and health and safety
concerns for patrons drive issues such as daylighting, the specification of non-
toxic building materials, and the quality of finishes and the environment they
create;
• Anti-terrorism/force protection measures are vital to protect life, protect physical
assets, and to maintain operations in critical community service facilities such as
police and fire stations; and
• Return on investment is of paramount importance and can be enhanced through
the use of renewable energy sources and sustainable design principles.
Classification
As noted, the range of Community Services facility types is vast and varied:
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• Auditoriums
• Banks/Credit Unions
• Central Laundry/Dry-Cleaning Facilities
• Community Centers
• Fire Stations
• Fitness Center
• Museums
• Police Stations
• Post Offices
• Visitor Centers
• Youth Centers
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Overview
The Clinic/Health Unit space types are facilities where outpatient ambulatory health
services are provided. Sub-space types, such as office spaces, private toilets, and filing
and storage areas are included.
This space type does not include provisions for invasive surgery, in-patient services,
medical diagnostic categories I, II, and III equipment (including exam lights and medical
gas systems), radiological diagnostic services (including special structural elements and
radiation shielding on ceiling and floor areas), darkroom revolving door systems, or
medical laboratory spaces. Clinics where general anesthesia, invasive procedures, or
overnight care are provided require Institutional Occupancy construction types and are
not included.
See Health Care, Hospital, Nursing Home, Outpatient Clinic, and Psychiatric Facility for
more information about inpatient and specialized care facilities.
Space Attributes
The Clinic/Health Unit space type should provide a sanitary and therapeutic environment
in which patients can be treated by medical practitioners quickly and effectively. Typical
features of clinic/health unit space types include the list of applicable design objectives
elements as outlined below. For a complete list and definitions of the design objectives
within the context of whole building design, click on the titles below.
Accessible
• All areas should comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, with the Uniform
Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS). For more information, see WBDG
Accessible Branch and Comply with Accessibility Requirements (historic
facilities).
Functional / Operational
Productive
• Efficiency and Flexibility: The layout of the Clinic/Health Unit should promote
prompt and reliable medical attention. Relationship and flow diagrams created at
the beginning of the design process will ensure a sensible programming of space.
Office support spaces such as workrooms, file rooms, copier areas, coat storage,
and lockers typically will be integrated into the clinic environment. Flexibility
must also be a basic feature of any health care facility to keep it from rapid
obsolescence in the face of changing needs and technologies.
• Acoustic and Visual Privacy: The new HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and
Accessibility Act) regulations address the security and privacy of "protected
health information" (PHI). These regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and
visual privacy, and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle
medical records and other patient information-both paper and electronic-as well as
patient accommodations. Flow diagrams created in the beginning of the design
process should address controlled access areas.
Secure / Safe
• Emergency Backup Systems: Typically, this space type will require emergency
battery backup for 25% of lighting. Refer to individual utility requirements for
specific medical equipment.
Example Program
HEALTH UNIT
Sum Tenant
Description SF Space Tenant
Qty. Actual Usable
Tenant Occupiable Areas Each Req'd. USF
SF Factor
Entry Lobby 240
Waiting 1 120 120
Reception/Registration 1 60 60
Payee Window 1 60 60
General Patient Care 684
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Example Plans
For GSA, the unit costs for the Clinic/Health Unit space type are based on the
construction quality and design features in the following table (PDF 57 KB, 5 pgs). This
information is based on GSA's benchmark interpretation and could be different for other
owners.
Guides for planning hospital based ambulatory care clinics, community based
outpatient clinics, satellite outpatient clinics, and ambulatory surgery clinics. This
information library also includes Design Manuals of technical requirements,
equipment lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and
standard details.
Major Resources
WBDG
Building Types
Design Objectives
Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Federal Green
Construction Guide for Specifiers, Building Envelope Design Guide
Project Management
Publications
Design Disciplines
Every building project has a unique set of program goals and technical requirements that
demand assembling all the stakeholders and a team of professionals in various design
disciplines. Each design discipline has a different set of skills, professional standards, and
issues that drive how they operate in the building process. Traditionally, many disciplines
provide a specialized technical service that is not always well coordinated with other
aspects of the project. 'Whole building,' or integrated, design as a process requires the
various stakeholders and disciplines to coordinate and interact as early as possible in the
process, and throughout the life cycle of the project to achieve a holistic solution that may
yield multiple benefits.
• Architecture
• Cost Estimating
• Fire Protection Engineering
• HVAC and Refrigerating Engineering
• Information Technologies Engineering
• Interior Design
• Landscape Architecture
• Planning
• Plumbing Engineering
• Architectural Programming
• Structural Engineering
This Branch of the WBDG has been developed to assist participants in planning, design,
and construction programs understand how building design disciplines are organized and
practice. This Branch also offers insight into creating opportunities for successful project
delivery through a coordinated, integrated design, construction, and management process.
Each Design Discipline page provides information and guidance from a 'whole building'
perspective. In addition, each page includes a discussion of the discipline's professional
services, legal definition, their roles and responsibilities in the emerging integrated design
process, other emerging issues facing the professional discipline, the codes and standards
governing or affecting their practice, and lists of numerous resources relating to each
discipline. With this knowledge in hand, each professional will be able to move beyond
conventional practice to a more comprehensive, integrated practice.
Design Discipline Pages are also linked to related Resource Pages, Design Objectives,
Building Types, and Space Types that explain strategies, technologies, and emerging
issues relevant to that specific Design Discipline. Each design discipline is encouraged to
review the other design disciplines. By expanding your knowledge of their roles and
responsibilities, you will be able to work together better, identify gaps and omissions, and
resolve issues holistically.
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More Design Disciplines Pages will be posted when they are available. If you are a
qualified professional and would like to develop a Design Discipline Page for any of the
following disciplines, please contact us for more information:
• Archaeologist
• Site Engineer
• Civil Engineer
• Surveyor
• Demolition Specialist
• Waste Management Specialist
• Soils Engineer
• Seismic Engineering
• Blast Resistance Expert
• Electrical Engineer
• Lighting Designer
• Building Envelope Specialist
• LEED® Specialist
• Commissioning Agent
• Historic Preservation Specialist
• Conveyance Specialist
• Space Planner
• Productivity Specialist
• Acoustical Engineer
Design Objectives
Each design objective described herein is significantly important, yet it is just one aspect
of what it takes to achieve a successful project. A truly successful project is one where
project goals are identified early on and where the interdependencies of all building
systems are coordinated concurrently from the planning and programming phase. Further,
all WBDG design objectives: accessible, aesthetics, cost effective, functional/operational,
historic preservation, productive, secure/safe, and sustainable and their interrelationships
must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately applied. Each of these design objectives
is presented in the context of the others throughout the WBDG web site.
Accessible
Pertains to building elements, heights and clearances implemented to address the specific
needs of disabled people.
Related topics:
Aesthetics
Pertains to the physical appearance and image of building elements and spaces as well as
the integrated design process.
Related topics:
Cost-Effective
Pertains to selecting building elements on the basis of life-cycle costs (weighing options
during concepts, design development, and value engineering) as well as basic cost
estimating and budget control.
Related topics:
Functional / Operational
Related topics:
Historic Preservation
Related topics:
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Productive
Related topics:
Secure / Safe
Pertains to the physical protection of occupants and assets from man-made and natural
hazards.
Related topics:
Sustainable
Related topics:
Accessible
by the WBDG Accessible Committee
Overview
"We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal..."
- Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776
In daily life, as we maneuver through society, nothing is more important yet taken for
granted more often than access. For millions of people with disabilities, the access that
most of us take for granted is difficult, impossible, or achievable only with the
intervention of a third party. We live in what is considered an independent society, yet
independent access to programs, facilities, and employment are not easily achievable by
many. Physical access is historically the arbiter of success and the source of opportunity
in education, employment, and social freedom. Thus, accessibility is a civil rights issue
for many people with disabilities and for our society.
The accessibility movement has common roots with the civil rights movement and the
Civil Rights Act of 1964. These roots lie in the structure and implementation of laws
dealing with accessibility.
The first nationally recognized accessible design standard American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities. Released in
1961, this standard was based upon research done by the University of Illinois and
funded by the Easter Seals Research Foundation. It served as an important reference for
private entities and local and state governments. In 1974, the standard received federal
input when the Department of Housing and Urban Development joined the Secretariat of
the committee in charge of the standard.
Since 1968, when the Architectural Barriers Act was passed, the federal government has
taken steps to address accessibility and its enforcement in facilities designed, built,
altered, or leased using certain federal funds. The timeline below details many of these
steps.
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196 American National Standard Institute (ANSI) A117.1 Accessible and Usable
1 Buildings and Facilities—Became the private sector model for a technical standard
for accessible features. This document was most recently updated and published in
2003.
196 Civil Rights Act—Made racial discrimination in public places illegal, required
4 employers to provide equal employment opportunities, stated that uniform
standards must prevail for establishing the right to vote
196 Architectural Barriers Act (ABA)—Requires that facilities designed, constructed,
8 altered, or leased with certain federal funds be accessible to persons with
disabilities
197 Rehabilitation Act—Prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs
3 conducted by federal agencies, in programs receiving federal financial assistance,
in federal employment, and in the employment practices of federal contractors
Section 504—Each agency has its own set of section 504 regulations that apply to
its programs. Agencies that provide federal financial assistance also have section
504 regulations covering entities that receive federal aid. Requirements common to
these regulations include reasonable accommodation for employees with
disabilities; program accessibility; effective communication with people who have
hearing or vision disabilities; and accessible new construction and alterations.
198 Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)—Contains accessibility scoping
4 and technical requirements implementing the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968
198 Fair Housing Amendments Act (FHAA)—Requires adaptable features in certain
8 covered multi-family dwellings with 4 or more units
199 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)—Prohibits discrimination on the basis of
0 disability; establishes design requirements for the construction or alteration of
facilities required to be accessible. It covers facilities in the private sector (places of
public accommodation and commercial facilities) and the public sector (state and
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If we live long enough, all of us may eventually have a disability that requires a
modification of the built enviroment. The number of Americans having a disability is
projected to grow rapidly as our population ages. One outgrowth of this is that the line
between who is and who is not a person with a disability will steadily erode. We must
redefine and redirect our traditional understanding of designing for accessibility to not
only include those persons permanently disabled, but also those temporarily disabled due
to an injury as well as any other potentially debilitating condition.
The Accessible branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to provide insight and raise
awareness on accessible design issues. For information about compliance with
accessibility guidelines and standards for a particular facility, contact the Department of
Justice or the U.S. Access Board.
Note: Information in these Accessible pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high
performance buildings.
Emerging Issues
Revision of ABA and ADA Accessibility Guidelines
The U.S. Access Board's guidelines issued under the Americans with Disabilities Act
(ADA) and the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) have been completely updated and
revised. The ADA Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) cover the construction and
alteration of facilities in the private sector (places of public accommodation and
commercial facilities) and the public sector (state and local government facilities). The
accessibility guidelines issued under the ABA primarily address facilities in the federal
sector and others designed, built, altered, or leased with federal funds. The guidelines
under both laws have been combined into one rule entitled Americans with Disabilities
Act and Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines that contains three parts: a
scoping document for ADA facilities, a scoping document for ABA facilities, and a
common set of technical criteria that the scoping sections will reference. As a result, the
requirements for both ADA and ABA facilities will be made more consistent. The
updated guidelines were published as a final rule in the Federal Register in July of 2004.
The federal agencies that are responsible for setting the standards to enforce the ADA and
ABA are revising their standards so that they are consistent with the updated guidelines.
For the ADA, the responsible agencies are the U.S. Department of Justice and
Department of Transportation. The responsible agencies for the ABA are the U.S. Postal
Service, Housing and Urban Development, General Services Administration, and
Department of Defense. Until an agency revises its standards, the current standards will
remain in effect. For more information, contact the U.S. Access Board.
Major Resources
The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access
Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for
people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and
maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles,
telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing
technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing
accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the
Access Board's Links Page.
Organizations
Federal Agencies
Overview
For Americans with disabilities, access means simply being able to use, enjoy, and
participate in the many aspects of society, including work, commerce, and leisure
activities. While removing architectural barriers may allow people with disabilities to
circulate within and around a facility, other factors, such as transportation, affect their
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ability to fully participate in activities. Designers and other suppliers of services and
goods need to provide equal access for all without undermining the needs of people with
disabilities.
Providing equal access means ensuring all individuals can make use of transportation,
buildings and facilities, programs and services, employment opportunities, and
technology. It also means offering all users the same provisions for privacy, security, and
safety.
The renovated Post Office at Ronald Reagan National Airport provides equal access to
the intake windows, Arlington, VA.
Photos before and after the renovation by: Eric Taylor on behalf of the Metropolitan
Washington Airports Authority
Providing equal access removes discrimination and protects human rights. An accessible
built environment provides the opportunity for all people to fully participate in and
contribute to their families, communities, and society. Equal access offers individuals the
occasion to improve the quality of life and standard of living for themselves, their
families, and other people in the world. Finally, providing equal access is required, to
varying degrees, in order to meet applicable building codes, accessibility standards, and
accessibility guidelines.
Equal access must be an integral part of the life-cycle process (planning, programming,
design, construction, operation, and maintenance) of buildings and facilities, not an
afterthought. Accessible features should blend with the design. All stakeholders on the
project should work together from the start to coordinate and optimize the design of the
site and the building. A building and its site should be designed as an integrated whole,
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Keep in mind that "equal access" applies to programs, services, benefits, transportation,
fixtures, furnishings, equipment, employment opportunities, and technology. The
Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in aspects of
all programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs receiving Federal financial
assistance, in Federal employment, and in the employment practices of Federal
contractors.
Major Resources
WBDG
The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access
Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for
people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and
maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles,
telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing
technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing
accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the
Access Board's Links Page.
Organizations
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Federal Agencies
Publications
Others
Special thanks to Lex Frieden for his inspiring words in the speech "Toward a Barrier
Free World for All," April 5, 2001.
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Overview
During the early stages of developing a building, when the planning, programming, and
concept design are being shaped and molded, there may be many goals. An owner may
talk about the ultimate design providing a "user-friendly work environment" and "future
flexibility." What exactly does this mean? Physically, these concepts are demonstrated
with spaces that can be easily modified and that can serve a variety of purposes for a
diverse group of users. See also WBDG Productive and WBDG Functional.
• are easy to modify (See also WBDG Productive—Design for the Changing
Workplace.)
• can serve multiple uses and/or users (See also WBDG Functional—Account for
Functional Needs.)
• accommodate future technologies (See also WBDG Productive—Integrate
Technological Tools.)
• are life-cycle cost-effective.
Flexibility in accessible design manifests in the concepts of Universal Design and Visit-
Ability described below.
This grade level building entrance utilizes universal design priciples. Student Union,
University of Arizona—Tucson, AZ
Universal Design advocates addressing human needs within the mainstream of building
and product design. Many of the design features that are user-friendly and flexible are
simply good design practices, rather than requirements of a building code or accessibility
standard or guideline. According to the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina
State University, the intent of universal design is to simplify life for everyone by making
products, communications, and the built environment more usable by as many people as
possible at little or no extra cost. Universal Design benefits people of all ages and
abilities.
As such, one should note that providing Universal Design features in a building does not
necessarily mean that one has complied with the legal and regulatory accessibility
criteria, including those contained in the UFAS and ADAAG. These ideas must not be
used interchangeably. Universal design concepts developed over the years promote
environments, building components, and features designed to be "usable by all people, to
the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation, specialized design, or
significant additional cost." (Mace)
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The campus master plan at Carnegie Mellon University incorporates the principle that
"All improvements to the physical environment shall adhere to the concept of universal
design."
The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University defines Universal
Design principles to include:
• Equitable Use
• Flexibility in Use
• Simple and Intuitive
• Perceptible Information
• Tolerance for Error
• Low Physical Effort
• Size and Space for Approach and Use
These seven principles may be applied to evaluate existing designs; guide the design
process; and educate both designers and consumers about the characteristics of more
usable products and environments.
The Center for Universal Design provides a comprehensive list of resources on their
website.
Visit-Ability
Studies have shown that the additional cost of providing many accessible features in new
construction is minimal when compared to adding accessible features during alterations
to existing construction. Features and systems that contribute to greater usability in the
future should be integrated into the design at the onset of the project. For example,
according to Concrete Change, on average and depending on the type of foundation, it
costs approximately $150 extra for a zero-step entrance when it is included at the time of
design and construction. Modifications to achieve a zero-step entry to an existing home
could cost at least $1,000 and can be much higher.
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Design and analysis tools, such as ADA Design Assistant and CodeBuddy Version 5.0
Accessibility can be used during the design process to evaluate the benefits of providing
accessible design features and products. See also WBDG Life-Cycle Cost Analysis
(LCCA).
Major Resources
The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access
Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for
people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and
maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles,
telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing
technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing
accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the
Access Board's Links Page.
WBDG
Design Objectives
more usable, safer, and appealing to people with a wide range of abilities,
throughout their life spans.
• Center for Universal Design—A national research, information, and technical
assistance center that evaluates, develops, and promotes universal design in
housing, public and commercial facilities, and related products. They have an
extensive publications list including material on many aspects of accessible and
universal design, as well as slide shows and video tapes to supplement print
resources.
• Concrete Change—An Atlanta-based organization that started the visit-ability
movement. Concrete Change is dedicated to promoting visit-ability in all single-
family homes across the U.S. As a result of its advocacy, visit-ability legislation
in several cities and towns across the U.S. requires that single-family homes
incorporate basic barrier-free design.
Federal Agencies
Publications
• The 1995 Accessible Building Product Guide by John P.S. Salmen and Julie
Quarve-Peterson. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.
• Access by Design by George A. Covington and Bruce Hannah. New York, NY:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.
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Aesthetics
by the WBDG Aesthetics Subcommittee
Overview
aes•thet•ics: 1: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of the beautiful and with
judgments concerning beauty…
Figure 1: Jose V. Toledo U.S. Post Office and Courthouse, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico.
Credits: Finegold Alexander + Associates, and GSA.
Originating from the Greek, aesthetics is the term used since classical times for the study
of beauty and the nature of the beautiful. In 1 B.C., Vitruvius the renowned Roman
architect declared that all architecture must possess commodity, firmness, and delight
(utilitas, firmitas, and venustas). Other aesthetic developments such as the Romanesque,
Gothic, Baroque and Neoclassical periods occurred over the next several centuries. In the
128
second half of the 19th Century, poets, writers, designers, and architects began to turn
again to aesthetic concerns and to place more emphasis on ornament and the past, the
result being the Aesthetic Movement and a new freedom in design. The 21st Century
brought Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Expressionism, the Bauhaus, Functionalism, Hi-Tech
and Post-modernism to name a few. So based on this triad, former Senator Daniel Patrick
Moynihan, then Special Assistant to the Secretary of Labor, wrote in 1962 the Guiding
Principles for Federal Architecture. Issued by the Kennedy Administration, it states that
federal buildings must be "efficient and economical" as well as "provide visual testimony
to the dignity, enterprise, vigor, and stability of the American Government." The study of
aesthetics continues to evolve as social, political, and even industrial or technological
developments contribute to new views on art, architecture, and design and their
manifestations in the built environment.
Most designers would also agree that aesthetically satisfactory architecture most often
comes from an integrated approach. Beginning with a correctly formulated problem (or
program) developed with the client's participation to design reviews involving the
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This branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to help those not familiar with
architectural design terminology understand the basic process, technique, and language
by which architectural aesthetic decisions are made. Towards this end, users are
encouraged to investigate three essential principles of aesthetics and design:
The result of successfully integrating the three principles often leads to exemplary
projects that are awarded through Design Awards Programs sponsored by professional
societies, the federal government, and industry trade associations. These programs offer
insight into aesthetic choices and values at a given time in history. For more information
see Design Award Programs.
Note: Information in these Aesthetics pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-
performance buildings.
Major Resources
Federal Agencies
Organizations
Associations
The work of many building professionals impact aesthetics decisions. These include
architects, landscape architects, interior designers, lighting designers, and engineers. In
part to help define the boundaries of professional and aesthetic responsibility, each of
these professions is represented by a national trade association. In most cases, the trade
association or organization publishes industry guidelines about the legal, ethical, and
aesthetics role of their members in the building design process.
Profession Association
Architects The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
Society of American Registered Architects
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
(NCARB)
Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture
(ACSA)
Landscape Architects American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)
Interior Designers American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)
International Interior Design Association (IIDA)
National Council for Interior Design Qualification
(NCIDQ)
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Publications
social developments that have informed or challenged its evolution. This lavishly
illustrated book will be of interest to anyone who appreciates interior design as
well as antiques, furniture design, textiles, decorative objects and the general
evolution of the space where we work and live.
• Interior Design Illustrated, 2nd Edition by Francis D. K. Ching, Corky Binggeli.
October 2004. ISBN: 0-471-47376-6.—Ching's illustrated introduction to interior
design is now completely revised to be even more clear and accessible. It includes
new and updated material on finishes, furnishings and textiles, lighting,
sustainability, acoustics, workstations, and much more.
• Interior Graphic Standards by Maryrose McGowan (Editor-in-Chief), Kelsey
Kruse (Graphics Editor). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.
• On the Art of Building in Ten Books by Leon Battista Alberti and translated by
Joseph Rykwert and Neil Leach. MIT Press, 1988.
• A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray
Silverstein, with Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. Oxford
University Press, 1977.
• The Ten Books on Architecture by Pollio Vitruvius and translated by Morris
Hicky Morgan. Dover Publications, 1960.
• Architecture and Interior Design Through the 18th Century: An Integrated History
by Buie Harwood, Bridget May and Curt Sherman. New York, NY: Prentice-Hall,
December 2001. Exceptionally comprehensive, this single-source reference
allows readers to compare and contrast architecture, interior design, interior
architectural features, design details, motifs, furniture, space planning, color,
lighting, textiles, interior surface treatments, and decorative accessories through
many centuries—from antiquity to the 18th century—from the many regions of
the world.
• architekturphoto provides a large-scale, specialized online archive of carefully
composed photographs of prominent projects.
• The ArcSpace image archive includes brief descriptions of cutting-edge design.
Exhibit reviews give a taste of architectural gallery installations.
• The Art of Landscape Detail: Fundamentals, Practices, and Case Studies by Niall
Kirkwood. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., August 1999. ISBN: 0-471-
14044-9. A fresh, holistic approach to the theories, approaches, and practices of
landscape detail. With the support of a wealth of graphic and written material
taken from historic and contemporary landscape design work, Kirkwood clearly
demonstrates the role that landscape detail plays in the design process. Going
beyond theoretical considerations, the book outlines landscape detail as a primary
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design activity, both pragmatic and poetic, using a range of built landscape design
examples.
• The Evolution of American Urban Design: A Chronological Anthology by David
Gosling. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., December 2002. ISBN: 0-471-
98345-4. Covering a 50-year span, the book seeks to identify built urban design
projects and traces the evolution and separation of American urban design
theories up to the end of the twentieth century. It includes contemporary designs,
projects, and writings in an attempt to identify future directions of the next
century.
• The Great Buildings Collection
• The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary World Architecture is a gorgeous new
compendium of recent design from around the globe. This coffee-table book is so
heavy, it's sold in its own carrying case.
• Weimar University's Innovative Housing (in German) Website allows you to
search by criteria, architect, or name of project. Pick "Kriteriensuche" or "Suche".
If you have trouble reading a foreign site, try using the Babelfish translator to get
a crude approximation.
Overview
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In the late nineteenth century, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan wrote, "Form follows
function." This dictum became one of the rallying cries of twentieth century modern
design, and remains one of the best known architectural aphorisms today.
What Sullivan implied was that design—or in his phrase, "form,"—is a natural
consequence of meeting functional requirements. For many, particularly those
uncomfortable with the subjective and decorative dimension of design, this was an
appealing message.
But even a cursory look at Sullivan's own architecture reveals that his work is far from
purely functional. Indeed, Sullivan is often described as one of the greatest ornamental
detailers in American architectural history. It was this aspect of his work that attracted his
most famous protégé, Frank Lloyd Wright.
Countering Sullivan's position, it has also been argued¹ that there is no such thing as a
purely utilitarian object—that there are always at least two ways of meeting the same
functional objective (for example, getting people from the first floor to the second;
bringing light into a room; or making a hinge). Once a choice between these two
alternatives has been made, an aesthetic consideration has come into play.
The architect is responsible for the design integrity of the building and will make
decisions and selections which support this integration. The point is that while it is
appealing to reduce design decision making to a brief set of rules or axioms, nearly all
designers agree it is impossible to do so.
It is relatively easy to determine if a given design contains the right square footage or the
right number of rooms. It can be more difficult to evaluate its aesthetic success.
Complicated, and often conflicting, formal and compositional desires must be weighed in
the light of technical, economic, and social constraints.
To assist in this process, like most professionals, architects and other designers share a
language and vocabulary that helps them reduce complex ideas into short phrases or
highly charged terms. An architectural language is a vocabulary of forms arranged
according to a particular grammar. The particular forms used become the 'words' of the
language and how those forms are put together is the 'grammar' of the language. To the
uninitiated, the use of the language and terms can be dismissed as jargon. But, to the
designer, this shared terminology is very much at the heart of aesthetic communication.
Indeed, designers must be aware that no matter what design language is used, key players
on the project team must be able to understand and communicate well with each other
(visually and verbally) to produce successful solutions.
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It is beyond the scope of the WBDG to provide a comprehensive list of design terms and
their definitions. However, the fundamental visual elements of design that these terms
describe are explained below.
• Vertical:
o Wall, Arch, Beam Lintel, Quoin, Column, Orders
o Base: Shaft, Capital
o Openings: Window, Door
• Horizontal:
o Plinth, Floor, Roof
Style
Form
Mass and shape define form. Mass refers to the volume defined by a structure relative to
its surroundings and to its solidity and weight. Shape is the composition and complexity
of the surface planes.
Materials
Both exterior and interior building materials should be selected based upon their
appropriateness for the building type, durability, impact on the environment, climatic
conditions, and the prevailing architectural design and character of the installation.
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Major Resources
Useful introductions for the layman to architectural design, the design process, and
design decision making include the following:
Publications
Overview
The design of buildings requires the integration of many kinds of information into a
synthetic whole. An integrated process, or "whole building" design process, includes the
active and continuing participation of users, code officials, building technologists, cost
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The integrated design process enables project team members to work together from the
project outset to develop solutions that have multiple benefits.
Preparation for the project can be led by many players but generally comes from the
user/client who identifies the need for building on the basis of quantifiable requirements
for space and budgetary capacity to undertake the activity. A needs assessment often
accompanies this planning activity—it can describe existing space use; develop realistic
estimates of requirements, both spatial and technical; and arrive at a space program
around which design activity can develop. For larger projects, a construction manager or
a general contractor may be engaged at this point. See also WBDG Project Management
and Programming.
Once the Pre-design activities are complete, the architect or other prime consultant, in
consultation with his or her team of sub-consultants, may produce initial graphic
suggestions for the project or portions of it. Such suggestions are meant to stimulate
thought and discussion, not necessarily to describe the final outcome. Involvement of
sub-consultants is a critical part of the process at this stage - their individual insights
made at this point can prevent costly changes further along in the process. Gradually a
design emerges which embodies the interests and requirements of all participants while
also meeting the overall area requirements which the project budget will have established
during Pre-Design activities. The resulting Schematic Designs produced at this stage
show site location and organization, general building shape, space allocation, and an
outline specification which makes an initial list of components and systems to be
designed and/or specified for the final result. Depending on the size of the project, it is
often useful to have a cost estimate performed by a professional cost estimator at this
point. For smaller projects, one or more possible builders may perform this service as part
of a preliminary bidding arrangement—selection can be made on the basis of an estimate
at this stage. On larger projects, a cost estimate can be part of the selection process for a
builder, assuming other prerequisites like bonding capacity, experience with the type, and
satisfactory references are met.
138
After the general contractor is selected and during the Construction Phase, the designers
and other members of the team must remain fully involved. Decisions previously made
may require clarification; suppliers' information must be reviewed for compliance with
the Contract Documents; and substitutions must be evaluated. Contract Documents are
never perfect—clarifications will be required. If changes affect the operation of the
building, it is especially important that the user/client be involved. User requirements
may change, necessitating changes in the building—these changes require broad
consultation among the consultants and sub-consultants, pricing, and incorporation into
the contract documents and the building.
The design team is responsible for assuring that the building meets the requirements of
the Contract Documents, but the building's success at meeting the requirements of the
original program can be assessed by the construction management team or third parties in
a process known as Commissioning. Here the full range of functions in the building is
evaluated and the design and construction team can be called upon to make changes and
adjustments as needed.
This summary describes the standard operation of the integrated project team. Such a
model is neither new nor exceptional. But it depends on:
The Owner's Representative: this person must speak for the owner and be prepared to
devote the time needed to fully advocate, defend, clarify, and develop the owner's
interests. This person may come from within the organization commissioning the project
or may be hired as a consultant.
The Construction Manager: this professional is hired on a fee basis to represent the
logistics and costs of the construction process. This person can be an architect, a general
contractor, or specifically a consulting Construction Manager. It is beneficial for this
person to be involved from the beginning of the project.
The Architect acts as the lead designer in most building projects, coordinating the sub-
consultants, assuring compliance with the program, and assuring compliance with the
budget. In some cases, the architect hires some or all of the sub-consultants; in larger
projects the owner may contract directly with some or all of them. He or she provides the
progressively more precise and detailed suggestions for the form of the result and
manages the production of the contract documents. The architect usually participates in
the construction phase of the project, assessing compliance with the contract documents
by managing appropriate inspections, submissions approvals, and evaluations by the sub-
consultants. The architect assists in the evaluation of requests for payment by the builder.
The Civil Engineer is essential for understanding the land, soil, and regulatory aspects of
any construction project; early involvement is essential and the civil engineer is
frequently hired directly by the owner in advance of the rest of the design team. The civil
engineer prepares his or her own contract documents and assesses compliance of the
work with the contract documents.
140
The Landscape Architect is often part of the civil engineer's resources, but can also be
involved as an independent consultant. In either case, the landscape architect should be
involved early in the project to assess natural systems, how they will be affected by the
project and the best ways to accommodate the project to those systems.
C. Results
The best buildings in history are the result of high degrees of consistency at all levels of
their realization. The simplicity in massing of the Seagram Building by Mies van der
Rohe in New York City, for example, is supported by the building's subtle and spare
details at every level. Design attention is applied to the massing and the drinking
fountains, the site plan, and the door details. Good buildings result from an appreciation
by all involved of the importance of formal consistency throughout the design.
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Left: The Seagram Building by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, New York, NY in 1950s.
And Right: This U.S. Courthouse in Seattle, Washington by NBBJ won a 2004 GSA
Citation Award for architecture and interior design and an honor award for construction
excellence.
Frank Lloyd Wright referred to this process as "organic design"—he used the phrase to
refer to the integral relationship in good architecture between the parts and the whole—
setting out the architect's obligation to assure consistency throughout the project and at
every level of detail.
The WBDG features successful projects that have engaged the integrated design process
in the Case Studies section. Among them are:
You are encouraged to share your project successes and challenges by submitting a case
study write-up. Click here to download the WBDG Case Study Template (MS WORD 48
KB).
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Project Management
WBDG News
Publications
Overview
Design professionals play a critical role in the quality of our built environment. The
capabilities of the architects and engineers (A/Es) on the integrated design team
constitute the single most important factor in determining the success of the overall
design—from image and attributes of the building and landscape to construction costs
and life-cycle costs. Building in today's marketplace is a complex undertaking requiring
many different skills and materials. Successful designs are the result of an integrated
design process that addresses not only client needs and requirements, but also climate,
context, and quality while complying with public health, safety, and welfare building
requirements. Well qualified design professionals who understand these complexities can
deliver thoughtful and innovative designs that satisfy the client's programmatic needs
while addressing the unique characteristics of a given site and community.
The clinic's unique design promotes efficient and cost-effective medical care, and
enhances quality of life for military personnel in an environment equal to off-base
civilian facilities while adhering to Air Force design standards and guidelines. Medical
Clinic, McChord Air Force Base, WA.
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Credits: NBBJ, Seattle District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Air Force Center for
Environmental Excellence, and Air Force Surgeon General-Facilities.
Federal sites and buildings are with us for centuries. Therefore, government agencies are
often committed to design excellence, sustainability, the development of a world-class
workplace, and the legacy that quality federal buildings provide. A/E teams and customer
agencies are encouraged to explore new technologies and foster alternative solutions to
the numerous challenges of designing a facility, while expending the taxpayers' dollars
effectively and efficiently. They are encouraged to address the needs of the community
and to work within the context of broader issues—not just the functionality of a facility,
but its appropriateness to the surrounding landscape, its responsiveness to our limited
resources, and its representation of the federal government to the public.
The selection of the design team should be undertaken as early in the life of a project as
possible. Every design and construction project is unique, with a variety of services
required to transform the generalized concept into reality. A qualified design professional
can guide an owner through the intricacies of the design process; standard phases include
pre-design, concept design, design development, construction documentation, bidding
and negotiations, and construction. Building design professionals can assist in defining
the project at the outset in terms that provide meaningful guidance for design. Pre-design
services might include site selection, existing facilities surveys, environmental studies
and reports, feasibility and programming studies. Design services, in addition to the
standards phases of design, might include Building Information Modeling, LEED
certification, and commissioning. It is important to begin the process of selecting design
professionals with a consideration of delivery method, and site, programmatic, schedule,
and budget issues. These factors contribute to defining the scope of work for projects,
which in turn inform the selection of appropriate design professionals and delivery team
composition.
When a building project is initiated by an agency representing the public, the selection of
a qualified building professional becomes a reflection of how tax dollars will be spent.
When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary concerns are to get the
best available design services and outcome, and to conduct a fair and equitable selection
process. Once that selection has been made, it is then the responsibility of the agency to
negotiate the best value for those services; but first, the selection panel should ensure the
selection of the best available firm for the project. A building project is a long-term
investment, and the realized, built project will be a testament to how well thought-out the
selection process is.
For public projects, there are two main methods for selecting design professionals:
Qualifications-Based Selection and Design Competitions. In either method, the
individuals responsible for selecting the design professional should have an
understanding of the needs of a specific project and should be able to evaluate the
achievements of the potential firms. Selection panels evaluate firms on criteria such as
144
previous experience, past performance, portfolio review, awards and recognitions, level
of commitment to project, and overall customer service.
To ensure the selection panel will make a well informed choice, it is important that any
procurement for professional design services take into consideration:
• The goals of the project. Solicitations for qualifications and requests for proposals
should be specific about the goals and parameters of the project, the anticipated
scope of work, and any specialty disciplines that will be required. Be clear about
what will be expected of the design team and what evaluation factors will be used
to select them.
• The design team's suitability for the project. This does not mean an AE must have
done the same type of project, but that his/her experience demonstrates a
competency in projects of similar complexity or context.
• Who is in charge. Complex needs may be addressed by a complex team; make
sure you know who is in charge and how the team is structured.
Engineering News Record, a national magazine, publishes an annual listing of the top
design, construction, and international firms.
Design Competitions
• Open design competitions are open to all design professionals. These are usually
design teams headed by an architectural firm with a registered architect at the
helm. An example of this is the World War II Memorial Competition, won by
Freidrich St. Florian.
• Invited design competitions are competitions where a selected group of design
professionals, usually highly regarded or recognized architects, are invited to
submit a design on a project. This is often the last stage of a qualifications-based
selection process. An example of this is the proposed Federal Courthouse in
Rockford, IL, won by Koetter Kim Architects.
• In a One-Stage design competition, the selected firm is chosen by a jury from all
submitted entries. The winner is then awarded the design contract. Because of the
nature of projects that lend themselves to Federal Design Competitions, this type
of competition is not used very often.
• A Two-Stage design competition is also open to all design professionals. The goal
of the first stage is to solicit design portfolios from Design Firms and Lead
Designers. Based on the jury evaluation of the submitted portfolios, a short-list of
Design Firms and Lead Designers is selected to proceed to Stage II. The highest
ranking competitors are then invited to form complete A/E teams, and submit
additional written material on the teams for further evaluation by the agency's A/E
Evaluation Board. During Stage II, team interviews are also held. A final ranking
of the teams is completed by the A/E Evaluation Board, who then makes the final
selection.
• A Three-Stage competition incorporates the same components as the One- and
Two-Stage competition, however final selection is made following completion of
a "vision" for the project. The evaluation of the design concepts by an
146
For information on how to run a design competition, see WBDG Running a Design
Competition.
This Federal Courthouse in Las Vegas, NV was designed via GSA's Design Excellence
Program.
(Courtesy of Cannon Dworski Architects)
The Design Excellence Program recognizes the GSA's commitment to the "Guiding
Principles for Federal Architecture" which states that "The policy shall be to provide
requisite and adequate facilities in an architectural style and form which is distinguished
and which will reflect the dignity, enterprise, vigor, and stability of the American
National Government. Major emphasis should be placed on the choice of designs that
embody the finest contemporary American architectural thought".
B. Design Recognition
Architecture has a robust tradition of awards and recognition for design. Each year, many
of the periodicals, journals, and organizations affiliated with the profession hold open
competitions under which firms anonymously compete for architecture, planning, urban
design, and research awards and recognition.
147
Design award programs serve as the vehicle to honor the creative strengths of building
design professionals and to publicize the enduring results of their efforts. For more
information and a listing of agency and industry-sponsored design awards, see WBDG
Aesthetics—Design Awards.
Design competitions can bring many different design ideas, innovations, and publicity to
a project, an issue, or to the designer/design team. They broaden the field of opportunity
for client and architect alike and can often be a means for younger, less established
architects to gain acclaim and win projects that they might not have been awarded under
a qualifications-based selection process. Examples of this are the Vietnam War Memorial
in Washington DC, awarded to Maya Ying Lin, a 21-year old undergraduate architecture
student at Yale University, and the Evanston Public Library Competition, an international
design competition won in 1991 by 28-year old Joseph Powell. See Section on Design
Competitions.
Publications
Winners of design awards and competitions are often published in professional journals
and architectural periodicals where they receive additional publicity and recognition. In
addition, some publishing houses routinely publish monographs or reviews of
architectural design, practice, and theory. They include:
• MIT Press
• Oxford University Press
• McGraw-Hill
• Princeton Architectural Press
• Wiley Publishers Architectural catalogue
Periodicals
Mass market and trade periodicals present articles and photographs of current projects
and current issues. Often they present the latest in contemporary theory, design, and
technologies—from urban planning principles to smart buildings and materials—as well
insights on specific building types. These articles can be a useful tool in gaining an
understanding of contemporary architectural practices and practitioners. See the
Periodical list below.
C. Professional Organizations
representatives from throughout the construction industry. In part to help define the
boundaries of professional and aesthetic responsibility, each of these professions is
represented by a national trade association. In most cases, the trade association or
organization publishes industry guidelines about the legal, ethical, and aesthetic role of
their members in the building design and construction process.
Profession Association
Architects The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ACSA)
National Council of Architectural Registration Boards
(NCARB)
Society of American Registered Architects
Landscape Architects American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)
Interior Designers American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)
International Interior Design Association (IIDA)
National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ)
Lighting Designers Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
(IESNA)
International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)
Professional Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)
American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)
Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)
Structural Engineers Association International (SEA)
Planners American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)
American Planning Association (APA)
Others Building Commissioning Association
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Disciplines
Federal Agencies/Organizations
Organizations/Associations
Architecture/Engineering Periodicals
• Architectural Record
• Architectural Review
• Architecture Magazine
• Contract Design
• Designarchitecture.com—An electronic journal of architecture and design
updated daily on the Internet
• Design Build Magazine
• Engineering News Record—A national magazine that publishes an annual listing
of the top design, construction, and international firms.
• Environmental Design and Construction
• Landscape Architecture
• Metropolis
Design Competitions
• American Architecture
• The American Institute of Architects, Locating an architect
• AIA Issue Briefs: Qualifications-Based Selection in the Federal Sector, January
2001, and Qualifications-Based Selection in the Public Sector by The American
Institute of Architects. The American Institute of Architects, State and Local
Government Affairs, January 2003.
• Architects USA
• designguide.com
150
Cost—Effective
by the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee
Overview
"We no longer build buildings like we used to, nor do we pay for them in the same way.
Buildings today are... life support systems, communication terminals, data manufacturing
centers, and much more, They are incredibly expensive tools that must be constantly
adjusted to function efficiently. The economics of building has become as complex as its
design." (Wilson, in foreword to Ruegg & Marshall, 1990)
Every owner wants a cost-effective building. But what does this mean? In many respects
the interpretation is influenced by an individual's interests and objectives.
While an economically efficient project is likely to have one or more of these attributes, it
is impossible to summarize cost-effectiveness by a single parameter. Determining true
cost-effectiveness requires a life-cycle perspective where all costs and benefits of a given
project are evaluated and compared over its economic life.
The federal government has numerous mandates that define program goals with the
expectation that they be achieved cost-effectively.
The challenge is often how to determine the true costs and the true benefits of alternative
decisions. For example, what is the economic value in electric lighting savings and
productivity increases of providing daylight to workplace environments? Or, what is the
value of saving historic structures? Alternately, what is the cost of a building integrated
photovoltaic system (BIPV), given that it may replace a conventional roof?
Note: Information in these Cost-Effective pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high
performance buildings.
Major Resources
Mandates
WBDG
Design Objectives
Project Management
Publications
Others
Overview
Throughout a project's planning, design, and construction phases, Cost Management is
employed as a means of balancing a project's scope and expectations of quality and
budget. The approach can be summarized as requiring the following three steps:
1. Define the scope, the level of quality desired, and the budget
2. Ensure that the scope, quality, and budget are aligned
3. Monitor and manage the balance of these three components throughout the life of
the project
Cost Management encompasses more than cost estimates however—it includes Risk
Management and in the federal arena in particular, can include Earned Value Analysis.
Risk Assessment and Management are important as identified risks on construction
projects are typically financial in nature. Therefore early in the project an assessment of
risk is crucial to establish the budget parameters within which the project must be
completed. The calculation of project contingencies should be based on an assessment of
the risk surrounding the project (site issues, availability of bidders, method of
procurement, general market conditions etc). As risks are mitigated (site investigation is
done, market survey completed, program finalized, design started, and so forth) then
contingencies can be reduced and the range of estimated final cost narrowed.
The firm charged with managing the costs of the project should ideally be hired directly
by the owner, early in the process, and should be independent of both the
architect/engineer and the construction contractor.
Planning Phase
155
Cost Management differs from Building Economics in that it is typically concerned with
the initial costs—or first costs—of accomplishing new construction or renovation
projects. A project must start right in order for it to finish right, so the establishment of an
appropriate budget is critical. Early in the planning stages, both building owners and
designers must agree on an anticipated cost of the project at bid award. This is a critical
stage in the cost management process—an inaccurate budget can doom a project to
continual stress and compromise, with neither the owner, end-user nor design team being
completely satisfied at the end. A common mistake at this stage is to take a program of
areas and apply those to historical costs without making adjustments for the myriad
factors which affect construction costs—size of the project, renovation versus new,
location (has a market survey been done?), price increases since the date of the data used,
method of procurement, overall quality of the space envisioned, etc.
Preliminary Estimates are employed in the early planning phases of a proposed project to
match an owner's needs, expressed as written programmatic requirements, with budget
constraints in order to establish its overall scope (size) and quality expectations.
The method of procurement selected should be identified at this stage. The options
available today are more numerous than in the past—Lump Sum, Construction Manager
as Constructor (CMC) (also known as CM at Risk), Design/Build and so forth. Each
method has pros and cons relative to cost and risk, so the method selected should also be
factored in to the project budget.
Value Engineering should also be considered at this stage. Any changes to the program at
this early phase have very little, if any, impact on schedule and A/E time and redesign
costs, but the benefits in terms of solidifying the program and establishing project goals
can be huge.
Design Phase
Once an initial budget has been established, the scope set and the quality expectations
documented, it is important to monitor the estimated cost of the project by employing a
series of increasingly precise cost estimating techniques that coincide with further
development of design and construction details.
156
Earned Value Analysis is a useful tool in cost management, in that costs for each
component of the project (in a Work Breakdown Structure, or WBS) can be tracked
against the initial budget, and adjustments made to ensure the overall budget is on track.
Movements between components are common; however, without tracking where costs
are changing, the budget is in danger of being exceeded leading to re-design or extensive
value engineering. Similarly future cost planning can be improved by the use of Earned
Value Analysis, by tracking where the money really goes in a project.
Construction Phase
At the bid stage, the drawings should be 100% complete; however, in many instances this
does not happen, leading to addenda being issued to clarify details, resolve conflicts or to
complete the design. Often the estimate is not adjusted to account for these design
changes, leading to a so-called final estimate that really does not represent the scope of
work being bid. The estimate should therefore be adjusted during bidding to reflect the
same information the bidders receive. Also a read of the market at bid stage is still useful,
and can be included in a risk assessment to determine a range of bids expected. In a
particularly volatile market, the use of bid options may allow the owner some flexibility
in achieving the budget on bid day.
The preparation of the bidding documents is also crucial in an overall cost management
strategy. Consideration should be given to contract clauses that govern changes in the
work and how they will be valued (e.g. by reference to a published price book or trade
manual); allowable mark-ups on changes by the various levels of contractors and sub-
contractors; notice requirements for delays; the use of unit prices for changes and any
other clauses that may affect the final cost of the project.
During construction the focus shifts from predictive cost estimating to reactive cost
management of any changes in the work. Changes arise from a number of different
sources—unforeseen conditions, owner-generated changes, drawing errors and
157
omissions, code issues or contractual claims. Also changes can arise from on-going
proactive cost management, either generated by the design team or the general contractor,
where one of the parties proposes a better-value substitution (sometimes known as Value
Engineering Change Proposals or VECPs). For all reviews of changes the owner should
first establish the ground rules as delineated in the contract documents, agree a format
with the general contractor, and require the general contractor to first review change
proposal from subcontractors before compiling and forwarding to the owner. Changes
should also be reviewed by the design time for entitlement—is it really a change to the
scope and are there any credits due? Then the agency Construction Manager or
independent cost consultant should review the pricing against the contract and industry
norms, leading to an independent government estimate for presentation to the general
contractor.
Earned Value Analysis is often used in this phase to determine at any given point in time
the likely financial and schedule outcome of the project.
Post-Occupancy Evaluation
To provide data for future cost management, an evaluation is often carried out to prepare
a detailed cost analysis of the completed project and to develop lessons learned to inform
future design decisions.
Major Resources
Associations
Publications
Others
158
Overview
During the energy crisis and inflationary cycles of the 1970s and 1980s, the federal
government, as the nation's largest owner and operator of built facilities, was faced with
increasing initial construction costs and ongoing operational and maintenance expenses.
As a result, facility planners and designers began to use economic analysis to evaluate
alternative construction materials, assemblies, and building services with a goal to lower
costs. Today, building owners wishing to reduce expenses or increase profits utilize
economic analysis to improve their decision making during the course of planning,
designing, and constructing a building. Moreover, federal, state, and municipal entities
have all enacted legislative mandates—in varying degrees—requiring the use of building
economic analysis to determine the most economically efficient or cost-effective choice
among building alternatives.
The steps to estimate the economic consequences of a decision, as listed in Ruegg's and
Marshall's Building Economics—Theory and Practice, are summarized below:
3. Determine whether an economic analysis is necessary, and if so, the level of effort
which is warranted.
4. Select a method or methods of economic analysis.
5. Select a technique that accounts for uncertainty and/or risk if the data to be used
with the economic method are uncertain.
6. Compile data and make assumptions called for by the economic analysis
method(s) and risk analysis technique.
7. Compute a measure of economic performance.
8. Compare the economic consequences of alternatives and make a decision, taking
into account any non-quantified effects and the risk attitude of the decision maker.
There are many methods available to calculate specific economic performance measures.
Used appropriately, these methods allow the planning and design team to analyze the
economic consequences of particular design decisions and fairly evaluate alternative
approaches.
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is the basic method recommended in 10 CFR 436A
and OMB Circular A-94 for evaluating the economic performance of federal investments
in buildings or building systems. It involves computing the Life-Cycle Cost (LCC) for
competing design alternatives, considering all significant costs over the economic life of
each alternative (expressed in equivalent dollars), then comparing them, and choosing the
alternative with the lowest LCC. LCCA is particularly useful in evaluating building
performance from an energy consumption perspective (i.e., MEP systems and building
envelope). The other methods described below are usually used as supplementary
measures of cost-effectiveness to the LCCA.
Value Engineering
The solar photovoltaic system, cool roofing, and energy efficiency upgrades installed at
Alameda County's Santa Rita Jail have resulted in net savings of $410,000 in its first year
of operation.
(Courtesy of R. Solari)
160
Apart from, but related to economic analysis methods, Value Engineering (VE) is a
systematic evaluation procedure directed at analyzing the function of materials, systems,
processes, and building equipment for the purpose of achieving required functions at the
lowest total cost of ownership.
According to VE experts Kirk and Dell'Isola, "Value Engineering is a team approach that
analyzes a function by systematically developing the answers to such questions as: what
is it?; what does it do?; what must it do?; what does it cost?; what other material or
method could be used to do the same job without sacrificing required performance or
degradation to safety, reliability, or maintainability?" VE is concerned with elimination
or modification of anything that adds costs without contributing to the program functional
requirements. Reductions in a project's scope or quality to get it into budget are not
considered VE—those decisions are simply "cost cutting".
Major public works projects may undergo both VE studies and LCCA, and while the two
practices serve separate purposes, their consideration of design alternatives is often
interrelated. For example, value engineering can be used to complement a life-cycle cost
analysis when selected LCC alternatives cannot be adopted without exceeding the project
budget. VE can be utilized to reduce initial costs of design features other than those under
study in a LCCA. If the VE effort results in sufficient reduction in initial costs, savings
may allow selected LCC alternatives to be adopted within the overall program budget,
thus optimizing the long-term cost-effectiveness of the project as a whole.
Perhaps the most challenging aspect of a VE analysis is the evaluation of the non-
quantifiable benefits of design, materials, or system attributes. Aesthetics, occupant
comfort and performance, environmental impact, historic preservation, and the like may
be key design objectives that drive budget decision making and contribute enhanced
value to the project.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Publications
Others
Overview
The essential aspects of conducting a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) and determining
the cost-effectiveness of any given construction alternative are the identification of all the
relevant inputs and outputs and quantification, when possible, of these as costs and
benefits to facilitate informed decision making. Costs can be more readily quantified than
benefits because they normally have dollar amounts attached. Benefits are difficult
because they often tend to have more intangibles. In analyses, benefits should be as
important as costs and deserve to be brought to the attention of decision makers.
Non-Quantifiable Benefits
Despite best efforts to develop quantitative measures of benefits, there are situations that
simply do not lend themselves to such an analysis. Certain projects may provide benefits
such as improved quality of the working environment, preservation of cultural and
historical resources, safety and security of the building occupants, and other similar
qualitative advantages. Although they are most difficult to assess, these benefits should
be documented and portrayed in a life-cycle cost analysis.
Owners of the West Bend Mutual Insurance credited the energy efficient strategies
implemented in the new Headquarters Building, West Bend, IN for 99% reduction in
personnel complaints about IAQ and 16% improvement in productivity.
In such instances, written and accurate descriptions of qualitative benefits must be done.
This is the least preferred method of analyzing benefits due to its subjectivity and
inherent lack of precision. However, under certain conditions, this method must suffice;
and if the following guidelines are observed, qualitative statements can make a positive
contribution to the analysis.
1. Identify all benefits associated with each alternative under consideration. Give
complete details.
2. Identify the benefits common in kind but not to the same degree among the
alternatives. Explain all differences in detail.
164
Following these general guidelines will help to enhance the difficult task of documenting
these intangibles that are measured in non-economic terms like aesthetics, safety, or
morale, and enhance the value of benefit/cost analyses and make informed decision-
making easier.
Externalities
For most investment decisions (particularly with respect to the public sector), it is not
necessary to analyze in depth externalities such as environmental impacts and community
economic impacts as part of the life-cycle cost analysis. These aspects of alternatives
being considered are usually treated in detail as part of the Environmental Impact
Assessment/Environmental Impact Statement process or environmental documentation
associated with local and state processes for addressing environmental impacts of
construction projects. However, the mention of anticipated impacts (both quantified and
qualitative) in life-cycle cost analysis documentation is appropriate.
Summary
analysis is truly complete unless it addresses benefits attending all the alternatives under
consideration.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Publications
• GSA P-120 Project Estimating Requirements for the Public Building Service
• NAVFAC P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook
Functional / Operational
by the WBDG Functional / Operational Committee
Overview
166
Exterior lateral bracing created open interior spaces at the John Hancock Building—
Chicago, IL
Courtesy of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP
Development in the building sciences in the late 1900's has pointed to the need to refocus
on programming, designing, constructing, and operating facilities that function well,
while at the same time incorporating new technologies, and creatively meeting other
design objectives such as sustainability, accessibility, safety, energy, and environmental
(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®)). Post-occupancy
evaluations have shown that early programming and design decisions have significant
impact on the functional quality, and long-term efficiency and effectiveness of buildings,
initially and over their life cycle. By adopting a methodical approach that extends through
all phases of a project, from pre-design through owner occupancy and operation to
disposal, with checks at each stage of the process to ensure validation of decisions to
meet the owner's program and design requirements, buildings can be functionally
successful and thus more safe, productive, and inspiring places that enhance work and/or
livability.
This branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to help those not familiar with
architectural and engineering design understand the basic process, technique, and
language by which functional decisions are made.
Care should always be used when undertaking cost management practices (i.e., Value
Engineering, cost cutting, etc.) not to compromise the functional or operational
performance of the interrelated and often interdependent systems.
Key to improving the facility planning, design, and delivery process is continual
improvement of team performance through learning from and avoiding repeated design
errors, omissions, or flaws in project execution. "Lessons Learned" is a common term
that refers to an organization's compilation and publication of the lessons for the
knowledge and benefit of future project teams.
Design of facilities that meet or exceed the functional expectations of owners and facility
managers will require the application of these principles as well as thorough
understanding of historical precedent and knowledge of current design practices for the
building type.
Note: Information in these Functional pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high
performance buildings.
Major Resources
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Publications
Associations
The following are major associations representing design professions that publish
resources and set practice standards for the planning and design of facilities.
Overview
Programming should begin with a clear definition of the work activities to be performed.
Accounting for functional needs is a primary purpose of the planning process that defines
an owner's functional and physical requirements for each spatial element in a building or
facility. This process seeks to state the problem; establish goals; collect and analyze facts;
establish functional relationships; uncover and test concepts; and finally state the problem
to direct a course of action. Adequate programming performed in the project planning
phase will clearly delineate functional requirements and relationships of occupant
activities and spaces required for all supporting building systems and equipment.
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However, a truly functional building will require a thorough analysis of the parts of the
design problem and the application of creative synthesis in a solution that integrates the
parts in a coherent and optimal operating manner. 'Whole Building' design is
characterized by a design solution that functions well from an occupant activity and
building systems point of view.
There are several key steps in the development of project requirements that fully describe
the design problem. They are:
• Understand how the work processes support the mission and purpose of a facility;
• Define spatial requirements for occupant activities and equipment;
• Understand functional relationships among the programmed spaces;
• Anticipate installation, O&M practices, spatial change, and replacement of
building equipment;
• Accommodate information technology (IT), communication, and other building
systems equipment; and
• Consider serviceability (clearance) requirements.
Recommendations
Understand How the Work Processes Support the Mission and Purpose of
a Facility
• Determine the owner's goals and needs for spatial and mechanical support of the
organization's IT program.
• Incorporate IT system needs as an integral part of the design concept.
• Design for configuration flexibility within workspaces that promotes occupant
productivity. See also WBDG Accessible—Plan for Flexibility.
• Accommodate network support and servicing requirements in the design of
spaces.
Vontz Center for Molecular Studies—Cincinnati, Ohio. This 150,000 gsf., $35 milllion
interdisciplinary research center is designed to accommodate neuroscience and cancer
research. It includes core science research labs, offices, support areas, and seminar rooms
with fully accessible mechanical, electrical, and support spaces between the main
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laboratory floors.
Courtesy of BHDP Architecture
• Design for vehicular clearances in the site design (e.g., drives, gates, ramps,
parking).
• Design for vehicular clearances in building design (e.g., doors, docks,
obstructions).
• Design for durability.
• Design for maintainability (including housing of maintenance equipment).
• Consult facility O&M personnel in the design process.
Emerging Issues
• Computer-based space programming applications
• Appropriate accommodation for the changing nature of work (productivity)
• Virtual workplaces and increased use of "Hoteling" for flexible space
• Building Information Modeling (BIM) (defining object functionality for facility
life cycle)
Major Resources
Publications
Associations
Others
Overview
174
"There is no separation of utility and beauty. You cannot determine where a tree stops
being beautiful and starts becoming utilitarian." Richard Neutra
A successfully designed building has also been compared to a beautiful symphony. The
parts of a building, like individual instruments in an orchestra, have the capacity to make
up a whole that is greater than if they were played alone. Imagine, for instance, that an
office space had a beautifully designed interior and state-of-the-art furniture and
computer equipment, but could not be heated and cooled properly. The lack of adequate
climate control would be as apparent as if a loud "off-key" note were played during a
symphony.
Like musical instruments, building systems, materials, and products incorporated into a
design must be "integrated" in a supporting way to create a unified whole that achieves
the desired functional purpose. See 'Whole Building' Design Approach.
An integrated solution results from a methodical design approach that considers the
characteristics and properties of each system or product, its role in the greater whole of
the design, and its needs for installation, coordination with other building systems and
O&M serviceability. For example, the selection of a ceiling light fixture has implications
that must be considered in terms of light as well as energy use, heat, noise, and radiation.
An integrated design solution will:
• Develop design concepts that meet functional needs of the building program;
• Understand the integral relationship of form and function;
• Evaluate product/system selection for the specific application;
• Seek design solutions that fully integrate product/systems; and
• Consider how the facility will be operated and maintained.
Recommendations
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The glazed wall on the south contributes to passive solar heating and daylighting.
Chesapeake Bay Foundation's John Philip Merrill Environmental Center—Annapolis,
MD
(Courtesy of David Harp/Chesapeake Bay Foundation)
Functional characteristics of building systems (e.g., air distribution systems) can serve as
unique design opportunities in shaping the facility's form and aesthetics. See WBDG
Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.
• Select systems and products that are "use-appropriate" and support functional
goals of individual spaces as well as the entire facility.
• Avoid a "one size fits all" design approach. Also see WBDG Accessible—Plan
for Flexibility. More
• Look at design problems as unique opportunities for creativity and innovation.
See WBDG Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.
• When resolving conflicts in the design and selection of products and systems,
coordinate with consideration of opportunities and impacts affecting design and
constructability of all involved building systems.
• Consider energy conservation and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis in the selection of
systems and equipment, especially for facilities with longer expected/designed
service life (such as institutional and governmental buildings).
Integrated design strikes a balance between all design objectives, including Aesthetics
and Functional/Operational.
Emerging Issues
• Increased use of extranets and new communication tools that enhance
interdisciplinary design coordination
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Major Resources
WBDG
Wall Systems Branch, Fenestration Systems Branch, Roofing Systems, Atria Systems
Publications
measurement tools that can be used to track the workplace's effects on people and
organizations; and to define the basic elements of the Integrated workplace—
people, technology, and space—and discusses how each of these should be
considered when providing new or reconfigured offices.
• Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data by Donald Watson, Michael
Crosbie, and John Hancock Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1997.
Associations
Others
• ARCAT
• CMD First Source
• Pierpoint
• Building Poducts and Materials by Sweets Network
• 4.specs.com
Overview
Meeting performance objectives is a sustained effort from inception and planning,
through turnover and operation, to assure the delivery of a project that satisfies all of the
owner's functional requirements. There are many aspects involved in assuring
performance objectives are met; from assembling a qualified project delivery team; to
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The ability of a building to perform in a way that fully meets an owner's functional
expectations—both qualitative and quantitative—requires a coordinated effort by a multi-
disciplined team of experts who understand and apply a 'Whole Buildings' design
approach.
Recommendations
Assure that Appropriate Programming Occurs
Establish Design Objectives and Priorities that Will Drive Design Concepts
• Set performance goals for both building envelope and building systems.
• Look for unique aspects of the project to feature and enhance.
• Reconcile conflicting priorities (i.e. physical security vs. fire safety needs).
• Define qualitative and quantitative performance measures (e.g., design for
sustainability, maintainability, etc.)
• Several organizations have compiled "Lessons Learned" on past projects that are
available in the following resources.
o GSA Compendium of Lessons Learned
o GSA Facilities Performance Tool
o NAVFAC Facility Quality Survey [requires NAVFAC account access]
o NIBS Building Operations Manuals
o VA Technical Library
o VA Design Alerts & Quality Alerts
• Involve O&M staff in all design phases. See WBDG Aesthetics—Engage the
Integrated Design Process.
• Bring forward special knowledge and experiences of O&M staff into the design
phases.
• Anticipate what it will take to maintain and operate the facility. See WBDG
Sustainable—Optimize O&M Practices.
• Perform energy analysis in design phases; make sure operating budgets are
addressed. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
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Emerging Issues
• Computer-Aided modeling for predicting performance
• Building Commissioning procedures
• Re-commissioning and continuous commissioning
• Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)
• International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)
Major Resources
Publications
• Adding Value to the Facility Acquisition Process: Best Practices for Reviewing
Facility Designs by Ralph S. Spillinger in conjunction with the Federal Facilities
Council, Standing Committee on Organizational Performance and Metrics,
National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999.
Report #139.
• Functionality and Serviceability Standards: Tools for Stating Functional
Requirements and for Evaluating Facilities—Paper published in Federal Facilities
Council (FFC) Report No. 145.
• Journal of Architectural and Planning Research (Vol. 1-18) edited by Andrew
Seidel. Locke Science Publishing Co.
• Learning From Our Buildings by the Federal Facilities Council. Washington, DC:
National Academy Press, 2001. Report #145.
• Post-Occupancy Evaluation by Wolfgang Preiser, Harvey Rabinowitz, and
Edward T. White. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1988.
• Problem Seeking, Third Edition by William Pena (CRSS). Washington, DC: AIA
Press, 1987.
Associations
Others
Historic Preservation
by the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee
Overview
Tacoma Union Station, Tacoma, WA. Tall ceilings, generous daylight, and grand
ceremonial spaces give historic buildings enduring investment value and make them
attractive for a variety of uses.
Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the
National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of
historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural
resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings,
archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is
often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological
remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or
natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical
intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Protection
Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.
Following passage of the NHPA, the Secretary of the Interior established Standards for
the Treatment of Historic Properties to promote and guide the responsible treatment of
historic structures and to protect irreplaceable cultural resources. Today, the Standards
are the guiding principles behind sensitive preservation design and practice in America.
Work on historic properties requires specialized skills. The Secretary of the Interior has
identified professional qualification standards for a variety of preservation disciplines.
Within the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties
there are Standards for four distinct approaches to the treatment of historic properties:
preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.
Restoration depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing
evidence of other periods.
While each treatment has its own definition, they are interrelated. For example, one could
"restore" missing features in a building that is being "rehabilitated." This means that if
there is sufficient historical documentation on what was there originally, a decorative
lighting fixture may be replicated or an absent front porch rebuilt, but the overall
approach to work on the building falls under one specific treatment.
Treatment Plan
Alexander Hamilton Custom House. Original drawings, photographs, and other archival
documents are used to determine the original appearance of missing features to be
replicated within restoration zones.
Determine the appropriate treatment for a historic property BEFORE work begins, at
project initiation. This includes making sure that the proposed function for the historic
property is compatible with the existing conditions in order to minimize destruction of
the historic fabric. Generally, the least amount of change to the building's historic design
and original architectural fabric is the preferred approach. To develop a treatment plan,
site assessments are conducted to identify character-defining features and qualities. These
assessments also examine the building or property as a whole to establish a hierarchy of
significance, or "zones," corresponding to specific treatments. Zoning establishes
preservation priorities.
San Francisco Court of Appeals, San Francisco, CA. Onsite surveys identify significant
features to be retained as part of a comprehensive preservation plan.
For a list of other Federal Historic Preservation and cultural resource laws click here
Major Resources
WBDG
Federal Agencies
Organizations/Associations
Publications
Other
Historic Preservation
by the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee
Overview
189
Tacoma Union Station, Tacoma, WA. Tall ceilings, generous daylight, and grand
ceremonial spaces give historic buildings enduring investment value and make them
attractive for a variety of uses.
Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the
National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of
historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural
resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings,
archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is
often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological
remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or
natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical
intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Protection
Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.
Following passage of the NHPA, the Secretary of the Interior established Standards for
the Treatment of Historic Properties to promote and guide the responsible treatment of
historic structures and to protect irreplaceable cultural resources. Today, the Standards
are the guiding principles behind sensitive preservation design and practice in America.
Work on historic properties requires specialized skills. The Secretary of the Interior has
identified professional qualification standards for a variety of preservation disciplines.
Within the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties
there are Standards for four distinct approaches to the treatment of historic properties:
preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.
Restoration depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing
evidence of other periods.
While each treatment has its own definition, they are interrelated. For example, one could
"restore" missing features in a building that is being "rehabilitated." This means that if
there is sufficient historical documentation on what was there originally, a decorative
lighting fixture may be replicated or an absent front porch rebuilt, but the overall
approach to work on the building falls under one specific treatment.
Treatment Plan
191
Alexander Hamilton Custom House. Original drawings, photographs, and other archival
documents are used to determine the original appearance of missing features to be
replicated within restoration zones.
Determine the appropriate treatment for a historic property BEFORE work begins, at
project initiation. This includes making sure that the proposed function for the historic
property is compatible with the existing conditions in order to minimize destruction of
the historic fabric. Generally, the least amount of change to the building's historic design
and original architectural fabric is the preferred approach. To develop a treatment plan,
site assessments are conducted to identify character-defining features and qualities. These
assessments also examine the building or property as a whole to establish a hierarchy of
significance, or "zones," corresponding to specific treatments. Zoning establishes
preservation priorities.
San Francisco Court of Appeals, San Francisco, CA. Onsite surveys identify significant
features to be retained as part of a comprehensive preservation plan.
192
For a list of other Federal Historic Preservation and cultural resource laws click here
• The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and
Historic Preservation (As amended and annotated by the National Park Service)
Major Resources
WBDG
Federal Agencies
Organizations/Associations
Publications
Other
Overview
Work on historic buildings, landscapes, archaeological sites, or other cultural resources,
requires knowledge of a unique process of compliance and review. This process differs
from work on existing buildings or on new construction and should be considered in
concert with other project goals requiring close collaboration between preservationists
and design disciplines. To ensure a balanced, economically viable, and preservation-
sensitive project, the outline below should be followed.
Eligibility for listing in the National Register is based on a set of criteria, which are used
by those involved in the decision making process on local, state and federal levels. There
are also local and state registers who evaluate their resources in a similar manner.
A general threshold for eligibility in the National Register, or state or local registers, is
that the property be at least 50 years old, although there are exceptions to this rule. The
four principal eligibility criteria are:
A. Resources that are associated with the events that have made a significant
contribution to the broad patterns of historic; or
B. Resources that are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; or
C. Resources that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method
of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic
values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose
components may lack individual distinction; or
D. Resources that have yield or may be likely to yield information important in
prehistoric or history.
Eligible properties that meet these criteria and successfully complete the formal
nomination process are then "listed" in national, state, and/or local registers. Buildings
are either located within the boundaries of a designated "historic district", or are
"individually listed" for their architectural and/or historical merit. A listed building may
also become eligible for tax credits and other financial incentives.
process more efficient. (Refer to section on Form a Qualified and Experienced Project
Team in Section B below.) There may also be regulations, guidelines, and applicable
codes that must be followed. Preparing a nomination should be done in consultation with
the consulting agencies (State Historic Preservation Office, the Federal Preservation
Office, and the Tribal Historic Preservation Office) to make certain all requirements are
met. Nominations for federal properties in certain historic districts must also be reviewed
by the local historic preservation commission.
For the long-term preservation of a historic property, it is very important to understand its
history before any construction begins. Consider the following:
Archival research to verify the original appearance of the building and site is helpful in
establishing preservation priorities and in preparing treatment alternatives.
An excellent planning tool for successfully completing a project for any historic resource
is to develop a Preservation Management Plan. This document records a resource's
history, why it is significant, what are the most important features to preserve if work is
completed. The plan delineates which areas require special protection or which areas first
merit rehabilitation. The preservation management plan guides future maintenance,
repairs, and alterations. Some also provide detailed guidance for rehabilitation or
adaptive use.
The following are sources to aid in archival research concerning the property:
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National Sources
State Sources
Local Sources
When work is proposed for a historic property, compliance involving a variety of public
agencies may be required. Compliance with federal preservation laws is mandatory if the
property is using federal funds, leases, grants, permits, or licenses (even if the historic
resource is privately owned), is on federal land, or is under the jurisdiction of the federal
government. To save time and money, determine ahead of time who must review the
preservation project and learn what is required for approval (at all governmental levels).
Section 106 and Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act
Section 106, 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties: Section 106 regulations
require that the head of any federal agency "prior to the approval of the expenditure of
any federal funds on the [construction] undertaking … take into account the effect of the
undertaking on any [historic] district, site, building, structure, or object". Or, more
simply, if federal funds are used to do work on an individual property, then studies must
be conducted to determine the potential effect of the work on the property. If any historic
or cultural resource (building, land, structure, object, or feature) will be adversely
affected by the work, then mitigation and/or remedial plans must be made, as well as a
plan to suitably document any resource to be lost. The Advisory Council on Historic
Preservation establishes policy on this process.
198
Section 110: Section 110 regulations require that each federal agency establish and
maintain a "preservation program for the identification, evaluation, and nomination to the
National Register of Historic Places, and protection of historic properties" for all
properties owned by or under the jurisdiction of the agency, thus providing responsible
management of current and future historic properties under their care.
For more information on compliance with Section 106 and Section 110, refer to the
following:
Legal Agreements
Sometimes there are historic easements, covenants, mechanisms of title transfer, or other
legal agreements placed on historic properties that can restrict work undertaken.
There are also binding commitments that federal agencies make with specific regulators
that must be taken into consideration. These arrangements are established to protect
significant historic, archeological, or cultural resources, and to ensure that the property's
intrinsic values will be preserved for future generations through subsequent ownership.
Local Compliance
Until recently, building codes were generally written exclusively for new construction
with few provisions made for historic buildings and their unique requirements. New
codes are now being developed for older structures on local, state, and national levels.
These include those listed in the Codes & Standards.
Additionally, significant older buildings often qualify for zone or code variances if
provisions are not explicitly made for historic buildings in the state or local code. Federal
Agencies must adhere to other mandates, such as those listed in the WBDG
Mandates/Reference section. Federal employees embarking upon a project involving a
historic building in addition to checking with the agency's Federal Preservation Officer
(FPO), should check with their environmental compliance office, preservation office,
and/or facilities division for immediate requirements that must be adhered to.
U.S. Capitol
Courtesy of Architect of the Capitol
Consider the following in identifying the character defining features of the historic
property:
• Site
o Setting, landscape features, district, or neighborhood
• Plan
o Spatial definition and volume
• Envelope
o Roof profile
o Window and door pattern
o Elements and assemblies
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o Envelope materials
• Finishes
o Interior materials
o Color and texture
o Decoration (ornamentation and artwork)
o Fixtures and furnishings
Following are recommended sources to aid in the investigation and to help identify a
building's most salient features:
This former rail station depot was converted to a hotel with reception areas. This program
fit the extant building well.
Courtesy of National Park Service.
The goal of preservation is to protect the historic integrity of an individual building and
its surroundings. Once the important features of a property are identified, their protection
is a priority. The design process should respect and respond to the historic features.
201
Instead of demolishing the former train shed, it was converted into an indoor ice arena.
This program fit the extant building well.
Courtesy of National Park Service; Photo of indoor ice arena: Audrey Tepper
B. Planning Stage
Historic building surveys, planning documents, and technical studies concerning repair
and alteration of historic material and spaces should be prepared only by firms and
individuals meeting, at a minimum, Department of Interior qualification standards for the
applicable preservation professions. This should also be done in accordance with the
Secretary's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. These individuals include
202
Some agencies have developed criteria and procedures for evaluating the competency of
preservation professionals and construction contractors.
There are many sources for finding good expertise in historic preservation, including:
Continuing the preservation process with sound preservation planning is the next course
of action. Prior to construction, it is essential to create a planning document outlining the
significance of a historic building, documenting the qualities and elements that contribute
to its historic character, establishing preservation priorities, and addressing how the
building is to be treated. This type of plan is often called a "preservation management
plan" or "Historic Structures Report." In government agencies, this type of document may
also be referred to as an Integrated Cultural Resource Management Plan (ICRMP) and
Building Preservation Plan (BPP). In addition, a "Cultural Landscape Report or
Inventory" may also need to be prepared.
o Structural Analysis
o Fabric Analysis, Including Paint Analysis; Masonry
• Recommendations for Appropriate Treatments
• Future Compliance Requirements (where applicable as required by law)
This late 19th century hotel ballroom conversion into a parking garage is not a suitable
use or program for this type of highly articulated finished space.
Courtesy of National Park Service
zones dictating a stricter vs. more lenient design approach is unique to each building. In
some buildings, every space is highly significant and all changes must be taken with great
care, under the guidance of an experienced preservation professional or team. Other
buildings can accommodate greater change while still maintaining their historic
character.
Buildings well matched to their tenants and functions require very little change.
Whenever changing building occupancy or functions, seek uses and tenants suited to the
building. Suitable uses are functions that minimize the need to alter character-defining
features or spaces. The less modification required by the proposed program, the more
suitable the program.
Accommodating new functions demands ingenuity. The success of which rests, to a great
extent, upon the ability to successfully integrate old and new so that the property retains
its historic character and the parts still relate to the whole.
In addressing changing space requirements, first consider options that enable the historic
building to continue serving the function for which it was originally constructed. When
the historic function is no longer viable, feasibility studies are undertaken to assess the
financial and practical achievability of treatment options.
The underlying philosophy behind any preservation project is to keep to a minimum the
proposed changes to a historic property. For its long-term protection, the historic property
must always come first. Therefore, any changes should play a secondary role to the
historic property and new work must not dictate what occurs on site. The role of the
preservation design team or specialist is to help ensure that these changes contribute to,
rather than detract from, a building's historic character and design unity.
If a historic property is on federal land or using federal funds and changes are proposed,
the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) in which the property is located must be
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consulted to comply with Section 106. The Secretary of the Interior's Standards provide
the framework for responsible preservation design. Technical guidance is available to
help resolve common preservation challenges.
For more detailed design guidance, refer to the following WBDG pages:
Similar to the selection of the project team, the construction team should consist of
qualified contractors and subcontractors with experience working on similar historic
properties. Select contractors early enough to include them in developing solutions that
meet the project goals (where the contract process so permits).
GSA has developed contract language and evaluation criteria to verify the competency of
architectural and engineering firms, as well as, construction contractors that propose to
work on historic buildings. GSA's preservation project management online guidance also
includes a model scope of services for architectural and engineering design work
involving historic buildings. For more information, visit the GSA Historic Buildings
website.
D. Construction Stage
Construction activity during the course of a project can damage historic resources.
Therefore, providing temporary protection of a building or site during this time should be
incorporated in planning and construction documents. On-site supervision with regular
inspections ensures that historic fabric is not at risk. For additional information on
temporary protection see the National Park Service TechNote section on Temporary
Protection.
Many historic buildings are destroyed as a result of fires during construction. Fire-safe
clean-up, including removal of flammable solvents and rags and debris, is critical. Fire
suppression systems must be maintained and augmented when appropriate. Leave
pathways to exits clear, and ensure that fire doors remain closed. Additional supervision
may be required while high risk construction activities are underway.
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Educating everyone involved in the project—from the property owner, to the consultants
(architectural, structural, mechanical, plumbing, electrical, civil), to the contractors and
laborers, and to the eventual property users—about why the property is worthy of
preservation is vitally important. The better informed one is the more likely one is to treat
the property with care.
Regular on-site supervision and good communication between the preservation team and
the construction team can protect a historic building while construction is underway.
Sometimes features worthy of preservation are uncovered as work progresses and this can
ensure these and other important elements are not compromised.
E. Occupancy Stage
Tenants must know what they can and cannot do prior to leasing. This type of
information may be included in leasing documents and through the development of tenant
guidelines.
Historic properties must also be protected when tenants move in or relocate to a property.
Transporting furniture and office equipment can often cause damage unless care is taken
to protect important features during increased levels of activity. Once again,
accommodations for temporary protection should be made early on in the planning
process and in construction documents.
Leases should also include procedural guidance for Section106 compliance when
alterations are unavoidable.
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Historic properties are often used for special events (e.g., exhibitions, exceptions, parties,
demonstrations, etc.). These activities increase the wear and tear on a property and can
damage an historic resource. Temporary protection of the architectural fabric and
landscapes when equipment is moved in and out, and when the space is being used,
should be provided. The following actions are recommended to minimize the effects of
special events on the historic property:
• Confer with code officials to determine the types of activities that are appropriate
for the space. Develop specific special events guidelines, noting that some
activities are inappropriate for the property.
• Establish a permitting process when public or private buildings are leased for uses
beyond their usual function, such as using a museum for a social event.
• Establish that lessees should submit in advance how they propose to use a historic
property; some activities may be inappropriate.
• Determine beforehand who is responsible for protection and incidental damage as
a result of leasing out a space. Consider mandatory security deposits.
• Ensure that the property (or lessee) is adequately insured to cover any damage.
• Ensure that appropriate on-site supervision is present throughout the event and
clean-up.
Federal
State/Local
Codes
Major Resources
WBDG
Publications
General
• For more information about the preservation field in the United States please see
the ICOMOS Document, A Brief Overview of Preservation in the USA
209
Codes
Technical Guidance
Investigation
• House Histories: A Guide to Tracing the Genealogy of Your Home by Sally Light
and Margaret Eberle (Illustrator). Golden Hill Press, September 1989.
• Preservation Brief 35—Understanding Old Buildings: The Process of
Architectural Investigation by Travis C. McDonald, Jr. National Park Service,
1994.
• Specifying Buildings, A Design Management Perspective by Stephen Emmitt and
David T. Yeomans. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
Training
Overview
For many historic structures, "building systems" are new additions that must be
incorporated with as much sensitivity to the original fabric as possible. However, more
recently constructed buildings, such as early 20th century commercial buildings, may
contain early systems that may be historic themselves and can be reused. For example,
decorative ventilation grilles and switch plates may contribute to a building's significance
as much as marble wainscoting or decorative stenciling.
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Changes—both big and small—can have a significant cumulative impact over time. Care
must be taken during initial project design and periodic upgrades to avoid the incremental
loss of integrity. Following are four basic principles to keep in mind when upgrading
systems in historic properties:
Early Planning
During the initial design phase, preservation zones are defined within the individual
preservation management plan, giving a hierarchy of significance to the building's spaces
and features (i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary spaces). An understanding of the
building's most important spaces and features is critical to evaluating preservation trade-
offs and preserving character-defining qualities. It is better to install new equipment in
secondary or tertiary spaces, and avoid or minimize intrusions in primary architectural
spaces. Basements and attics are usually good locations for horizontal routing of systems;
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existing chases such as fireplaces, flues, and utility closets are good for vertical routing of
systems; and use existing penetrations and chases to the greatest extent possible. Be
aware that some basements may contain valuable archeological sites that should not be
disturbed. Also, janitorial closets can be good locations for electrical equipment. Where
possible, use this opportunity to improve on the placement and function of a building's
systems so as to emphasize the building's integrity.
Recommendations
A. HVAC—Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning
Choose a system and/or equipment that is appropriate for the use of the building. For
instance, a museum has different climatic needs than an office building.
General
Distribution System
Ductwork retrofit. The insensitively installed ductwork detracts from the hallway's scale
and obscures the transoms.
Photo courtesy National Park Service
• Avoid the need for new ductwork, especially in lobbies, corridors, and other
circulation spaces, by examining ductless alternatives such as split systems and
pipe systems with reuse of existing ducts for ventilation.
• If new ductwork is unavoidable, disturb as little original fabric as possible and
minimize the visual impact.
o Avoid reconfiguring ceilings (e.g. suspended ceilings) to accommodate air
distribution.
o Install in attic or basements first. If service areas are not available,
carefully place in secondary areas, never in primary spaces, away from
window heads.
o Retain full window height so that exterior appearance is unaltered.
o Configure ceilings to avoid obscuring the full height of windows and
interior or exterior transoms.
o Retain decorative millwork and other character-defining features. Rather
than puncturing decorative elements, move the position of the ductwork.
o Configure ductwork to be as flat as possible and to avoid disrupting the
symmetry of the space. Explore zoning using multiple, smaller ducts,
rather than a single, larger profile duct system.
o Avoid running ductwork along or across corridors.
o Where appropriate, step, slope or pocket out the ceiling with sufficient
depth to retain the original appearance of a full, unobscured window from
the exterior.
o In some cases, exposed ductwork may be appropriate, such as in industrial
or other utilitarian buildings, or spaces with vaulted or other decorative
ceilings that would otherwise have to be obscured.
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Building Envelope
• Retain window operability; install locks and/or stops if required to control tenant
use.
• Use operable windows for natural ventilation during temperate spring and fall
months whenever possible.
o Use weather stripping and insulating doors and windows, instead of
replacing or sealing windows.
• Consider the architect's original energy conservation methods, such as operable
windows, porches, overhangs, etc. Incorporate these features into the overall
energy conservation plan.
o Are weather stripping and storm windows appropriate?
• Retain original ventilation systems, (e.g. attic vents, crawl space, and airflow
patterns).
• Carefully consider insulation options; ensure that the chosen method/materials
will not create condensation in a building's interior.
• Consider the appropriateness of moisture vapor barriers; if chosen, install them
with sensitivity to the historic fabric.
• Maintain good breathability/permeability of the envelope; be mindful of the
original structure's inherent tolerance to moisture.
Equipment
• Install air handlers and other equipment in locations that will least affect building
occupants and activities (e.g. vibration and noise).
• Install wall or ceiling mounted equipment in secondary or tertiary spaces.
• Locate any exterior building equipment adjacent to a secondary or tertiary façade
or landscape, rather than the primary façade or landscape.
o Landscaping is a low cost method of camouflaging new HVAC
equipment.
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Information technology systems are complex and constantly changing. These systems
have exponentially increased the need for easily accessible wiring raceways. Today's
modern office buildings incorporate raised floors that allow easy access to wiring
systems. Although not appropriate for all buildings and spaces, in some historic buildings
this approach can enable retention of ornamental ceilings and features:
Computer Rooms
Wiring Distribution
• Create a maintenance plan with strict standards for installation of new wiring and
equipment. Ensure that copies of wiring diagrams are available to building
managers and external locations.
• Design for flexibility and expansion.
• Do not drill marble, parquet, terrazzo, and other finished flooring. If unavoidable,
drill in corners to minimize impacts and run wiring along baseboards.
• Select high-quality, highest speed, and smallest size cabling to minimize the need
for future intrusive replacements, especially in ornamentally significant spaces.
C. Lighting/Electrical
Historic lighting levels may not be appropriate for current or planned use of a historic
building and the installation of new lighting systems may be necessary. The lighting
levels and equipment should be appropriate to the building's current or planned use while
respecting the original fabric.
Interior Lighting
Preserve and reuse historically significant light fixtures. This rehabilitation project reused
the architect's original lighting scheme and extant fixtures.
Photo courtesy National Park Service
• Retain as much original fabric as possible when installing new systems (i.e., do
not needlessly puncture a decorative plaster ceiling or molding, when it may be as
feasible to relocate a fixture or junction box).
• Retrofit existing light fixtures with reflectors to increase light output.
• Conserve and rewire existing fixtures and accessories. Even if original fixtures
will not be electrified and/or used, they should be retained and preserved in situ.
• If original fixtures cannot produce the amount of light required, use alternate light
sources from removable fixtures, such as task lighting and torchiéres.
Inconspicuous sconces or unobtrusive perimeter ceiling lighting are preferable to
eye-catching modern fixtures.
• Retain and reuse original, character defining switch plates and other accessories.
• Use existing electrical chases.
o Install new chases within or behind walls or vertically in secondary or
tertiary spaces.
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• If using historically sensitive replacements that are wired for modern energy loads
and light output.
o Replicas of original lighting fixtures can be designed to accommodate
energy efficiency and multiple light sources.
• Incorporate the original light color in new lighting plans.
• Ensure that the addition of interior lighting systems and other repairs will not
corrupt the building's structural integrity.
Left: Before—A dropped ceiling drastically affects the architect's original intent and
grand scale of this space. Right: After—The removal of the dropped ceiling restored the
architect's intent and has a much more pleasing and commercially desirable impact.
Photos courtesy National Park Service
Exterior Lighting
D. Plumbing
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E. Conveyance Systems
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All or part of a conveyance system may be historic. For instance, this elevator cab has
several character defining features, such as exotic wood paneling, elegant moldings, and
metal air vents.
Photo courtesy National Park Service
Elevators and escalators may also contribute to a building's historic significance. First
ascertain whether these features are historically significant:
F. Structural
When updating a building's structure, it is preferable to retain and repair as much of the
original structural system as possible. However, it may be necessary to add an entirely
new structural system or to strengthen the existing system with modern innovations. For
instance, a new structural system might be installed to accommodate the larger crowds
associated with a museum; whereas originally, the building housed only a small family.
Also, it's important to note that a structural system itself may be historic and may require
sensitivity when altering or repairing it. The Brooklyn Bridge, for instance, is an example
of a structural system that is inseparable from the aesthetic impact. If structural
intervention is necessary:
Structural elements are an inherent part of the architect's intent; determine which parts, if
any, of a building's structure are historic and rehabilitate appropriately.
Photos courtesy National Park Service
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Publications
Overview
This federal courthouse in Tucson, AZ offers an imaginative solution for vehicle barriers:
a row of lush palm trees. These trees provide a structural barrier and welcome relief from
the desert sun in an otherwise spartan plaza.
Most building projects place a higher priority on the protection of building occupants and
assets than on the preservation of cultural resources. However, it is important to address
the protection of the building's historic spaces, finishes, and collections in the design and
implementation of safety and security measures. Because historic buildings are each a
unique case, cost effective, synergistic, performance solutions developed in a
collaborative environment will produce the best results. See also WBDG Whole Building
Approach.
Designers, facility managers, fire, security and code officials, curators, preservation
officials, and building occupants should be involved early on in the planning and design
process. This allows the project team to look at issues holistically and remain flexible to
the challenges of the historic property.
Recommendations
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The primary codes that address life safety are NFPA 101, Life Safety Code; the
International Building Code; and NFPA 914, Code for Fire Protection of Historic
Structures. NFPA 914 addresses performance approaches and equivalencies for achieving
code compliance. Application of these codes should be done in consultation with code
authorities and preservation experts. A number of states have enacted rehabilitation and
historic building codes that may lessen the alteration of historic material. These codes
address the following issues, depending on type of use:
Increased concern about seismic risk has led to more stringent requirements that can
negatively impact historic buildings. Un-reinforced masonry construction, common to
many historic buildings and structures, is particularly susceptible to damage in seismic
events. The challenge of seismic upgrades in historic buildings is to accommodate
strengthening in ways that do not interfere with the building fa…ade or the volume and
features of significant public spaces. For these reasons the input of qualified structural
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A new concept design for security at the Federal Triangle in Washington, DC beautifies
the sidewalk by incorporating barriers into garden walls. This inviting landscape includes
new amenities such as benches and sculptural features.
General building security involves technical, physical, and operational solutions with
appropriate redundancies. Before security measures are designed, a threat/vulnerability
assessment and risk analysis should be conducted to determine the potential threats and
acceptable levels of risk. In regards to historic preservation, wherever possible:
• Integrate security design to minimize visual and other impacts on the historic
fabric of the building. A principle goal of the entry experience is to maintain a
setting that is welcoming to the visitor.
• Seek opportunities to create amenities that are seamless with historic character.
• Seek opportunities to create public spaces that address security measures and
enhance historic character (e.g., standoff distances reduce the need to modify
buildings).
Consider the following issues when designing security against terrorism for a historic
property refer also to WBDG Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats:
• Site Planning: The goal for site planning is to maximize standoff distance for
potential large explosive devices and to provide clear zones adjacent to the
building to facilitate observation of small explosive devices. Care must be taken
to avoid significant alteration to historic landscaping. Impact-engineered site
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furniture and appropriately designed bollards can enhance both site amenity and
security.
• Architecture
o Replacement of historic windows can frequently be avoided with the
addition of blast-resistant interior storm windows and/or blast curtains to
prevent glass fragmentation hazards (refer also to WBDG Glazing Hazard
Mitigation and Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive
Threats).
o Doors are generally required to open outward, and blast resistant doors
may be required in some situations. Replacement of historic doors can
often be avoided by closing an entrance or providing an additional set of
doors to provide the required protection.
o Materials and products exist that resemble historic materials but may offer
more security.
o Internal layout of spaces is important to provide entry control and
protection of critical resources. If new features are required, they should
comply with code and be compatible with the original design.
o Some historic architectural elements, including ceiling elements and tiles,
light fixtures and equipment, should be secured or reinforced to prevent
injury and loss in security or seismic events.
• Structural: Prevention of progressive collapse is required for buildings of three
stories or more. Building modifications need to consider the threat level,
structural analysis, and review of design alternatives as they relate to preservation
issues. Furring in of exterior walls should be avoided where it impacts historic
finishes or changes the volume and proportions of significant spaces. For
guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update
Building Systems Appropriately.
• Electrical: Electrical issues relate to provision of power and emergency lighting as
well as means of mass notification. Installing emergency generators for existing
historic fixtures can eliminate the need for intrusive secondary lighting systems.
Notification devices and detection equipment should be integrated to avoid
damage or disruption of historic finishes. For guidance on sensitive building
systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC): HVAC systems must be
installed and protected to prevent the entry of external contaminants. They also
should allow for the isolation of contaminants and the exhaust of smoke in
support of building evacuation. In general, make every effort to minimize impact
on the historic fabric of the building. For guidance on sensitive building systems
upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.
Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility and Metro Entrance Facility, Arlington, VA.
Photo Courtesty of DoD
Pentagon Reservation with Metro entrance facility (left) and remote delivery facility with
landscaped parade ground (right foreground)
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The RDF is a 250,000 square foot shipping and receiving facility adjoining the Pentagon.
The RDF significantly improved the physical security of the Pentagon by providing a
secure consolidated location to receive and screen thousands of items shipped to the
building each day. A landscaped roof provides new green space with indigenous
vegetation and water reuse in what was once an asphalt parking lot. The roof landscaping
also reduces storm water volume on the site and heat loading of the facility. The RDF is
registered as a pilot project with the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design (LEED) program. The facility includes a building control
system for energy efficiency and indoor air quality.
The Pentagon was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1992. This landmark
protects five contributing architectural features of the Pentagon, including the Mall
Terrace façade. By conforming the one-story receiving facility to the shape of the
existing site, bordered by two highways, it actually improved site lines to the Pentagon's
historic Mall Terrace. The façade of the RDF replicates the look and feel of the original
Indiana limestone used on the exterior of the Pentagon in the 1940s.
The MEF was a congressionally mandated security project to relocate the Pentagon bus
station further from the building and to create a secure screening facility for visitors
entering the Pentagon. Balancing the security needs of the Department of Defense while
creating a welcoming and historically sensitive "front door" to the Pentagon is a difficult
balancing act made possible with sustainable solutions. The design of the MEF uses
landscaped dirt berms to mitigate the potential effects of a blast. Self-cleaning Teflon-
coated fiberglass canopies protect pedestrians from the foul weather and will not
fragment in the event of an explosion (as is the case with glass or other less flexible
materials. The MEF is the first Department of Defense facility to receive Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED™) certification from the U.S. Green Building
Council. The following features design and construction features contribute to the LEED
Certification:
The National Capital Planning Commission and Commission of Fine Arts cited the MEF
as an exemplary project. Like the RDF, the façade of the MEF matches the existing
exterior of the Pentagon to complement the appearance of the historic building. The MEF
was subject to review by the Virginia State Historic Preservation Officer and other
governmental review commissions since the Pentagon is a listed National Historic
Landmark. PENREN adhered to the Secretary of Interior's Standards throughout the
design and construction of the project.
Metro entrance facility (fiberglass canopy) with Pentagon security entrance and visitor
screening center (terrazzo structure adjacent to Pentagon building)
PENREN chose finish materials for the security entrance and visitor center that enhance
sustainability of the facility (e.g. terrazzo, certified wood, recycled content ceiling
panels). Designers incorporated skylights to bring natural light into the facility thereby
reducing the use of artificial lighting. The skylights allow visitors and personnel to see
the monumental façade of the Pentagon (restored during the project) when ascending the
escalators from the security area into the Pentagon proper.
LEED points earned on the RDF and MEF projects combine to certify the entire
Pentagon Reservation under the U.S. Green Building Council's pilot program, LEED for
Existing Buildings.
Emerging Issues
Smart Codes
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The general intent of life safety codes is to ensure prompt escape of building occupants,
in the event of a fire, to a safe area. The code addresses construction features such as the
a) width, length, and fire resistance of exit paths and b) ability of construction materials
to contain fire and prevent its spread; fire protection features such as smoke detection
devices, alarms, and fire suppression systems; occupancy and operational features such as
emergency evacuation planning; and fire precautions during construction.
In 2000 the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development released an updated
and expanded edition of Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies with the
expressed goal of promoting the preservation and reuse of America's older housing and
building stock. This guide provides fire ratings for a wide variety of materials and
assemblies found in buildings from the nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries, as well
as methods for calculating the fire resistance of general classes of archaic materials and
assemblies for which no documentation is available. The 2000 edition also includes an
array of details developed by English Heritage for upgrading the fire resistance of wood
panel doors. The document has found widespread acceptance among code officials and
has been incorporated into numerous state and local building codes, model code
publications, and (U.S.) National Fire Protection Association standards.
In addition, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 914 Code for Fire
Protection in Historic Structures provides alternatives, including performance-based
approaches and operational solutions, for meeting the intent of the NFPA Life Safety
Code within the framework of the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment
of Historic Properties. The intent of NFPA 914 is to ensure prompt escape of building
occupants while minimizing the impact of fire and fire protection on the structure,
contents, and architectural features that give a building its historic character.
Seismic Upgrades
• Department of Defense:
• UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings
• General Services Administration (GSA):
• Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100, Chapter 8.
• Department of State:
• Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998. (For Official Use Only)
• National Capital Planning Commission's Urban Design and Security Plan
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Publications
230
Overview
Ariel Rios, EPA Headquarters, Washington, DC. The ramps at this historic federal
building were sensitively designed to provide equal access while preserving the building's
original fabric.
(Photo: GSA)
Most historic buildings were not originally designed to accommodate people with
disabilities and special needs. However, persons with disabilities should experience sites,
landscapes, buildings, and spaces in the same manner as other users whenever possible.
Providing access (exterior and interior) for persons with disabilities in ways that preserve
the character of the historic property is a challenge and requires creativity and
collaboration among the project team members. Compliance is required in these areas,
but the accessibility standards (such as Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)
and American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)) are more
flexible when applied to historic buildings. UFAS and ADAAG provide alternative
solutions that allow retention of original historic fabric (such as narrow corridors).
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While accessible design is covered in WBDG Accessible Branch, unique issues that must
be resolved in order to provide accessibility in historic buildings will be discussed in this
section.
Recommendations
The following are the primary areas related to accessibility design requiring special care:
Areas in front of this community center were regraded to allow access to the building via
landscaped ramps. Arlington, VA.
(Photo: Arlington County, VA)
• Preserve the intended entry experience of historic sites and buildings for
everyone.
o Wherever possible, design solutions that use on-grade entrances or low
slope ramps integrated into the site to avoid the requirement for railings at
abrupt level changes.
o As an alternative, consider on-grade entrances or down-grade sloping
ramps that connect to interior elevators.
o This may require locating an accessible entrance elsewhere.
• Exterior accessibility can be accommodated by providing a wheelchair accessible
path from safe and accessible parking to a significant entry to the building,
historic landscapes, or informational exhibits.
• Accessible routes do not have to be altered if they provide adequate turning radius
at intervals.
• Construct new ramps and railings of compatible materials and design.
• Preserve visual symmetry where applicable.
Program Accessibility
Restroom Design
• When restrooms are part of the character of the historic building and cannot be
readily modified due to clearances or level changes, consider adding appropriately
located, accessible, unisex restrooms to eliminate the need for modifying existing
bathrooms with historic finishes.
Signage
• Signage should be integrated into the historic building fabric in ways that preserve
the historic character.
• Avoid altering, removing, and damaging historic signs and finishes.
o Installation: Installation of signage should be carefully executed to avoid
damage to finishes. Avoid penetrating historic material. Free-standing
signage is often an acceptable alternative to mounting signs on historic
fabric.
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• Serif letters may be used if the font size is large and there is high contrast with the
background. See Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibit Design for more
information.
Vertical Accessibility
• Either new or existing elevators provide vertical accessibility. Often elevators are
a significant element of the fabric of a historic building. Accommodating required
clearances and control heights are often issues. Consider:
o Call buttons: Although the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards
(UFAS) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility
Guidelines (ADAAG) require call buttons at 42", an ADA modification
can often be sought for buttons up to 54" in height when appropriate side
access is available.
o Stair Railings: In some cases, railings on stairways need to be raised to
comply with accessibility requirements. When this is needed designs
should respect the historic fabric.
Major Resources
234
WBDG
Design Objectives
Federal Agencies
Organizations/Associations
Publications
235
Productive
by the WBDG Productive Committee
Overview
Organizations, work practices, and the workforce have changed dramatically in the past
two decades. Technological advances, demographic shifts, and continual demands for
innovation have created pressures for the workplace to catch up with the changing nature
of work.
Organizational effectiveness today means using space more wisely. This does not just
mean cutting costs. It means designing for flexibility to enable space to change as work
groups and projects evolve. Wise use of space also means creating the right context for
concentration, learning, communication, and collaboration—the building blocks of
productivity.
It is often hard to quantify the impacts of specific components of the indoor environment
on productivity, because individual and group work effectiveness is tied to many
different factors—including compensation levels, management practices, and
environmental comfort. It is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate individual physical
factors, such as the presence or absence of team rooms, daylighting, natural meeting
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places, or control over the environment. This problem is exacerbated in the case of white-
collar workers whose "output" is knowledge or insight that cannot be easily quantified.
Nonetheless, an increasing number of studies are beginning to suggest that support for
communication and collaboration as well as for individual cognitive activity are
fundamental aspects of organizational productivity. The GSA agrees and concludes in
The Integrated Workplace (PDF 3.07 MB, 167 pgs) that "since people are the most
important resource and greatest expense of any organization, the long-term cost benefits
of a properly designed, user-friendly work environment should be factored into any initial
cost considerations."
One way to do such "factoring" is to consider the total life-cycle costs of a workplace
each year. In private sector offices, such costs are typically, in order of magnitude:
In this situation, an additional $2 per square foot per year for bricks and mortar costs (e.g.
for providing greater flexibility) would pay for itself if it generated a modest 1% increase
in salary "productivity." Note: Design strategies that increase user satisfaction and that
improve individual and group work effectiveness should therefore be considered not as
cost 'extras,' but as productivity investments that enhance an organization's overall
success.
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Buildings can be more effective, exciting places to work and live by encouraging
adaptability, improving comfort, supporting sense of community, and by providing
connections to the natural environment, natural light, and view.
Note: Information in these Productive pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-
performance buildings. Also, workplace productivity strategies support sustainable
design principles and should be taken on balance for the longevity of systems considered.
Major Resources
WBDG
238
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life- Cycle Cost in Design
(LCCID)
Federal Agencies
Organizations
Publications
• DOE Building Studies by the Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics.
Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University, 1994.
• "Environmental Satisfaction, Personal Control and the Positive Correlation to
Increased Productivity" (PDF 170 KB, 16 pgs) White paper by Johnson Controls
Personal Environments.
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General Service
Administration (GSA).
• Further Findings from the Office of Environment Survey: Productivity.
Proceedings of Indoor Air '90: Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air
Quality and Climate by Gary Raw and Michael Roys. Toronto, Ontario: 1:231-36,
1990.
• Green Buildings, Organizational Success and Occupant Productivity by Judith
Heerwagen, Building Research & Information, 28 (5/6): 353-367, 2000.
• "Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through
Energy-Efficient Design" (PDF 1.16 MB, 17 pgs) White paper by Rocky
Mountain Institute.
• Healthy Buildings and their Impact on Productivity. Proceedings of Indoor Air
'93: Sixth International International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and
Climate by David Wyon. Helsinki, Finland: 6:3-13, 1993.
• How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish
Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.
ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.
• Integrated Systems: Increasing Building and Workplace Performance by BOMA
International Foundation. 2000.
• The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing
Workspace (PDF 3.07 MB, 167 pgs) by Office of Real Property in the Office of
Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.
• New Adventures in Office Space: The Integrated Workplace - A Planning Guide
by the Office of Real Property and Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S.
General Services Administration. February 2002.
• The New Office: With 20 International Case Studies by Francis Duffy. Antique
Collectors Club, 1997.
• "Relationships Between the Indoor Environment and Productivity: A Literature
Review," ASHRAE Transactions by N. Sensharma, et al. 1998.
• Rensselaer's West Bend Mutual Study: Using Advanced Office Technologies to
Increase Productivity by Walter Kroner, et al. Troy, NY: Center for Architectural
Research, 1992. One of the most carefully documented studies on increases in
productivity as a result of improved environmental quality.
• Sustainable Building Technical Manual by the United States Department of
Energy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996.
• Total Workplace Performance: Rethinking the Office Environment by Stanley
Aronoff and Audrey Kaplan (eds.). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: WDL Publications,
1995.
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• Using Office Design to Increase Productivity by Michael Brill, et al, and the
Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation (BOSTI). 1994. A
major study of the relationship between productivity and user satisfaction in 6,000
office buildings throughout the United States during a five-year period.
• Workplace by Design: Mapping the High-Performance Workscape by Franklin
Becker and Fritz Steele. Jossey-Bass, 1995.
Others
• BetterBricks.com
• Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics—Carnegie Mellon University
• Center for the Built Environment—The Contribution of Building Design and
Operation to Productivity, University of California at Berkeley
• The Workplace Forum—DEGW, A private site dedicated to information on
emerging office environments
Overview
Integration of information technology and building architecture calls for a robust, global,
and secure infrastructure that will support the growing and evolving demands of business
and government in the 21st century.
To stay in business, organizations have to stay current, purchasing the appropriate server,
database, media, router, and other technologies that sustain their work. They must
leverage these evolving information technologies to match the specifications of their
stakeholders.
Demands on the building's data pathways will be heavy, and the market will be strong for
high performing buildings having:
• Power supply systems that provide flexible service; reliable, clean power; and can
adjust power delivery to building occupation patterns;
• Wire management systems that enable quick and low-cost reconfiguration;
• Integration of wireless products as they become commercially viable; and
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Recommendations
Provide Distributed Data, Power, Security, Voice, Video, and
Environmental Services for Central Communications and
Continuity of Operations
• Assure that technological solutions respond to the changing nature of work. See
also WBDG Changing Nature of Organizations, Work, and Workplace.
• Consider wireless and mobile technologies to support the changing nature of
work, including both internal and external ability.
• Provide distributed Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) for clean and reliable
power.
• Merge all low voltage systems, including data and voice, through distributed
Ethernet-IP networks with centralized backup.
• Monitor work environmental conditions with central systems, but maximize local
control by occupants.
• Consider desktop video and Internet-based conferencing to provide on-going
contact for dispersed work groups.
• See also WBDG Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces.
• Provide modular racks and plug-in hardware within office suites versus closets
and hard wiring.
• Design service neighborhoods to meet or exceed current standards.
• Manage wiring under floor or vertically through patch panels.
• House servers, bridges, etc. in environmentally controlled modular cabinets.
• Consider overhead cable trays and/or underfloor wire baskets for increased
flexibility and accessibility.
• Optimize plenum real estate. Conduct a multidiscipline "charrette" with structural,
fire, networking, HVAC, interiors to integrate systems.
• Use 3D modeling to facilitate integration.
• Simplify the ease of relocating modular boxes in relation to ceiling, floor, and
carpet tiles.
Mobile office for the intelligent workplace—well-applied technology can ensure a leap in
both technical and environmental quality, enabling every worker to have the very best in
environmental conditions.
(Courtesy of Center for Building Performance & Diagnostics, Carnegie-Mellon
University)
Major Resources
244
WBDG
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)
Trade Shows
Publications
Overview
Reliability is a great concern for building occupants and organizations. Absence of
reliability directly affects personal security and well-being, as well as mission critical
work. As workplaces evolve in response to changes in organizational structure and work
practices, reliability needs to take into consideration the multiplicity of spaces that
245
support individual and group work. This applies to all facilities whether public or private,
institutional or commercial, large or small, regardless of location, circumstance, and/or
purpose. Organizations and their workers are entitled to work places that enable them to
remain productive and in-touch at all times.
People increasingly expect work settings to fully support pursuit of individual, team, and
organizational objectives without operational uncertainty. Building and information
systems that disrupt workflow will not be tolerated. The workforce of the future will
demand workspace and tools that amplify their abilities and help them compete
effectively for the best work. This calls for systems that perform reliably with good
maintenance support.
Building users must be able to rely on facility hardware and software for health, life,
safety, power, data, and voice delivery systems (and related equipment and tools). These
systems need to function consistently and be properly maintained. When the workplace is
supported by high performance systems that require minimal maintenance or downtime
and have back-up capabilities to ensure negligible loss of service, worker productivity
can be improved or maintained.
Recommendations
• Provide freestanding (local) system alternatives for individual user access and
control.
• Maximize interoperability of different manufacturers' systems and products
(including parts interchangeability).
• Provide adequate training and resources to use and/or maintain systems.
• Select systems based on optimum performance, interoperability, and intuitive
operation and maintenance.
• Consider dual-fuel back up for critical building systems, including
fire/emergency, HVAC, lighting, power, data, voice, etc.
• Provide ease of access for maintenance and repair of systems.
• See also WBDG Functional/Operational Branch.
HVAC
Lighting
• Maximize use of daylighting and related lighting control devices (shades, light
shelves, etc.).
• Utilize long-life lamps and quality fixtures.
• Zone power circuits to separate ambient and task lighting.
• Utilize occupancy and light level sensing/control devices to extend lamp life.
• Consider emergency back-up lighting systems (generator, battery, etc.) for critical
function areas.
• Consider emerging lighting technologies such as low voltage lighting systems,
fiberoptics, and light emitting diodes (LEDs) that provide quality lighting with
greater reliability.
Power Supply
• Provide building surge protection to safeguard data systems and critical electronic
equipment.
• Consider Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) or other back-up systems (e.g. solar
power systems).
• Consider distributed power systems for on-site power generation (e.g. fuel cell,
solar, wind, microturbines, etc.).
Security/Safety
Emerging Issues
For most building owners and operators, reliability ranks almost as high as cost as a top
"quality indicator" when selecting building systems and equipment. "Problem prone
equipment," often selected due to lower first costs, reduces system reliability and is
clearly a chief motivator for purchasing quality equipment.
248
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life- Cycle Cost in Design
(LCCID)
Publications
249
Others
Overview
In this electronic/information age, work teams form and reform to meet organizational
needs, technological innovations, and changing business relationships. Buildings and
interior spaces need to be flexible to anticipate and support this changing nature of work.
Within the past few years, designers have sought to create a new generation of "flexible"
buildings and workplace environments within buildings that have infrastructures and
structures that fully support change while sustaining new technologies, and multi-capable
individuals and teams.
The changing nature of work means greater mobility for workers, a multiplicity of
workspaces within and external to buildings, greater use of geographically dispersed
groups, increased dependence on social networks—and greater pressure to provide for all
of these needs and behaviors in a leaner and more agile way. Workplaces have responded
with many new options, including more teaming and informal interaction spaces, more
supports for virtual individual and group work, more attention to integrating learning into
everyday work experience, greater flexibility in work locations, and more focus on fitting
250
the workplace to the work rather than vice versa. Many workplaces are also incorporating
spaces that encourage relaxed engagement with colleagues to reduce stress and promote a
sense of community.
Left: GSA's Public Buildings Service (PBS) workplace renovation incorporates a space
for relaxation that includes an exercise room, lounge area with TV and a pool table. The
space is used for group social events as well as breaks. And Right: The PBS space also
has a daylit café where workers gather at lunch time or for meetings throughout the day.
Recommendations
Design for Flexibility
Personal control features include overhead personal air jet diffusers and task lighting,
which can be controlled from the occupant's desktop computer.
Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions
Directorate
251
Support Mobility
Flexible spaces and services support multiple spatial configurations and densities, and
allow for rapid and easy spatial change.
• If open spaces such as pods or bull pens are used, provide attractive acoustically
sound rooms for individual concentration as needed.
• Locate concentration booths close to work spaces.
252
Emerging Issues
Increasingly, compatible and packaged building components are available on the U.S.
market that meet these goals. Several vendors market systems comprising raised floors,
plug and play wire management components, and demountable wall systems as a single
package.
Open controls protocols such as LonTalk and BACNet, which allow communication
between different types of building systems (HVAC, lighting, security, fire alarm, and
power), are being adapted to an increasing number of products. This will enable a wider
range of cost-effective possibilities for user control over a common network.
Major Resources
WBDG
253
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)
Organizations
Publications
Overview
254
The office of the World Resources Institute utilizes a mixture of elements to provide a
healthy work environment.
(Photo by Alan Karchmer Courtesy of HOK)
Indoor environments strongly affect human health. For example, the EPA estimates that
the concentration of pollutants (like volatile organic compounds) inside a building may
be two to five times higher than outside levels. A 1997 study by W.J. Fisk and A.H.
Rosenfeld (Estimates of Improved Productivity and Health from Better Indoor
Environments. Indoor Air Vol. 7, pp. 158-172) reports that the cost to the nation's
workforce of upper respiratory diseases in 1995 was $35 billion in lost work plus an
additional $29 billion in health care costs. The study estimates that more healthful indoor
environments could reduce these costs by 10%-30%.
Indoor environments also have strong effects on occupant well-being and functioning,
especially attributes such as the amount and quality of light and color, the sense of
enclosure, the sense of privacy, access to window views, connection to nature, sensory
variety, and personal control over environmental conditions. Designing to enhance
psychological well-being will therefore have positive impacts on work effectiveness and
other high value outcomes, such as stress reduction, job satisfaction, and organizational
commitment.
To reap the fiscal, physical, and psychological benefits of healthy buildings, projects
must have a comprehensive, integrated design and development process that seeks to:
Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.
Recommendations
255
• Use a daylighting analysis tool to help guide the design process. See also WBDG
Daylighting.
• Design windows to allow daylight to penetrate as far as possible into a room.
Consider using light shelves (solid horizontal elements placed above eye level,
but below the top of the window) to reflect daylight deep into a room. Design
windows to provide views out from most spaces.
• Design for diffuse, uniform daylight throughout the room. Avoid glare. Avoid
direct beam sunlight in continuously occupied spaces; however sun "spots" in
other, shared or public spaces, are desirable and psychologically beneficial.
• Consider interior (shades, louvers, or blinds) and exterior (overhangs, trees)
strategies to control glare and filter daylight.
• Consider shared daylight through glazed interior walls.
• Integrate daylighting with the electric lighting system. Provide controls that turn
off lights when sufficient daylight exists. Consider dimming controls that
continuously adjust lighting levels to respond to daylight conditions.
• Design floor plate depth to allow access to windows and views.
• Consider the security implications of window, glazing, and door locations. See
also WBDG Designing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats and Retrofitting
Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats.
• Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
• Minimize recirculation while assuring energy efficiency through energy recovery.
See also WBDG High-Performance HVAC.
• Ensure that ventilation air is effectively delivered to and distributed throughout
the 'breathing zone.' Consider individual controls.
• Provide local exhaust for restrooms, kitchens, janitor's closets, copy rooms, etc.
• Consider installing CO2 sensors to provide real time monitoring of air quality.
256
• Test the site for sources of contamination: radon, hazardous waste, fumes from
nearby industrial or agricultural uses. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.
• Locate air intakes away from sources of exhaust fumes (e.g. from buses, cars, or
trucks).
• Consider security implications of the location of building air intakes.
• Consider recessed grates, "walk off" mats, and other techniques to reduce the
amount of dirt entering the building.
• Specify materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants
such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• Allow adequate time for installed materials and furnishings to "outgas" before a
new workplace is occupied. Assist the process by running the HVAC system
continuously at the highest possible outdoor air supply setting after materials and
furnishings have been installed to adequately "flush out" the facility. (The exact
timing may vary for different materials.)
• Consider "modular zoning" for air distribution in order to avoid cross
contamination.
• Install proper barriers between occupied and construction zones in renovation
projects in order to protect worker health.
• Design the ventilation system to maintain the indoor relative humidity between
30% and 50%.
• Design to avoid water vapor condensation, especially on walls and the underside
of roof decks, and around pipes or ducts or windows.
• Design buildings with proper drainage and ventilation.
• See also WBDG Mold and Moisture Dynamics and Air Barrier Systems in
Buildings.
• Design to allow workers to move freely from solitary work to group action as
work requires.
• Provide mobile technologies (phones, computers, wireless connectivity) that
support new work styles and work practices.
• Design to reduce stress and facilitate mental rest breaks.
• Provide workers the means to make meaningful changes in their immediate
environments (e.g. through personalization and control over the immediate
environment to the extent possible).
257
• Provide spatial features that support visual and acoustical privacy but allow
opportunities for informal encounters.
• Provide an interesting visual environment and, at the same time, design for a
balance between visual access and visual enclosure. Provide views of natural
vegetation, indoors or outdoors, when possible.
• Strive to create a 'sense of place' such that the workplace has a unique character
that engenders a sense of pride, purpose, and dedication for individual workers
and the workplace community.
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Design Objectives
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)
Publications
• How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.
• HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K.
Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford,
T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 113 KB, 4 pgs) by Satish
Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.
ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.
• Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppänen, Fellow
ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D.
ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
260
Air Decontamination
by Greg Lesavoy, Consultant, and Jordan Peccia, Ph.D., PE, Assistant Professor of
Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yale University
Updated by WBDG Staff
Introduction
Americans spend nine out of ten hours indoors; and indoor air commonly contains higher
concentrations of airborne chemical contaminants and pathogenic microbes than outdoor
air. Biological and chemical terrorism, sick buildings, cruise ship disease outbreaks, toxic
molds, and epidemics of asthma and allergies, all have made the issue of healthy air
critical. Removing biological pathogens and toxic chemical compounds from air—air
decontamination—has been a recognized need for decades and has mostly been
accomplished through ventilation. Airflow and ventilation are already key factors in
worker comfort, health and productivity, building design, and energy efficiency. Air
security is the next frontier, and can also improve the health of the day-to-day air in a
modern facility.
This Resource Page presents both the scientific fundamentals of clean air, vis-à-vis
filtration and UV, and the benefits and obstacles associated with these technologies. It
also briefly discusses a number of other technologies that have been offered as solutions.
This Page was written to provide a general understanding of air decontamination
technologies for practitioners that may be new to this field, as well as provide updated
codes and resources for those who wish to gain more in depth knowledge. Since the field
is in considerable flux, a number of source documents from government and professional
association websites where up-to-the-minute information can be obtained are also
provided.
Description
In the report "Review of Health and Productivity Gains from Better IEQ" written by
William J. Fisk of the Indoor Environment Department at Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, increased indoor air quality could result in the following monetary savings:
The economic and public health benefits combined with today's interest in protecting the
population from weapons of mass destruction have prompted renewed interest in methods
of removing infectious or allergenic microorganisms from the air we breathe in indoor
environments. Active decontamination technologies such as ultraviolet light (UV) and
high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters have previously been used for germicidal air
cleansing in infectious disease wards and laboratories. However applying these
decontamination processes or other experimental technologies to the high airflow
ventilation systems of modern office buildings presents a new set of challenges. It
requires a fundamental rethinking of many elements of HVAC design, from the location
and security of air ducts, to the integrity and protection of air controls, and the
organization, layout, and construction of the active decontamination components for the
systems themselves.
A. Air Filtration
The simplest solution to disinfecting the air is to capture offending particles in a filter
mesh of some kind. The development of high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters has
made it possible to efficiently clear the air of particles down to 0.3 µm (micrometers) in
size, with smaller particles captured to varying degrees. Viruses are the smallest, ranging
in size from 0.01 µm to 0.4 µm, while fungal spores are at the upper end of the range and
can be larger than 20 µm. Bacteria range in size from 0.5 to 10 µm. Deadly pathogens
like the bacterial Bacillus Anthracis spore powder used in the anthrax cases generally
range from 1 to 6 µm. The relevant size measurement used in aerosol science is the
aerodynamic diameter. This diameter is usually different from the actual particle size of
microorganisms, and accounts for the non-spherical nature of the cells. This parameter is
more useful for predicting aerodynamic behavior of a particle in air.
262
Fig. 1. HEPA filters are made from numerous synthetic fibers that are laid down in
overlapping, random order.
The idea is not to restrict particle passage by capturing target pathogens between closely
spaced threads, but to divert and convolute the passageways of airflow. As airflow twists
and turns through the overlapping threads, heavier objects—such as bacteria, spores,
virus particles, or toxins that are in particle form—will not be able to keep up due to their
greater inertia in relation to air molecules. The slower particles will hit the threads and be
stopped. Since the synthetic fibers are designed to be "sticky," these particles lodge into
the filter elements and are captured. Because HEPA filters capture the microorganisms,
health effects caused by live microorganisms (infectious disease), and those effects that
can be caused by live or dead microorganisms, such as allergies, are both mitigated.
HEPA filters are widely used in clean rooms and in portable room air purification units.
There are a number of limitations with HEPA filters that make it essential to combine
filtration with other technologies in order to ensure effectiveness in a ventilation system.
First, HEPA filters will work well (99.97% efficiency) for particles down to about 0.3
µm. Because the aerodynamic diameter of a virus ranges down to 0.01 µm, many viral
agents will not be removed at a high efficiency. Secondly, even a tiny puncture in a filter,
or a manufacturer's bad quality batch, can significantly reduce performance and endanger
an entire building's population. Thirdly, installation quality is of critical importance, and
leaks or poorly fitting frames can destroy the integrity of the filtration system. Finally, the
installation of HEPA filtration in the plenums of major building HVAC systems has a
significant impact both on airflow throughput and energy consumption. Additional costs
to consider are the replacement and disposal of the filters. Handling is especially
important if there are suspected pathogens in the fibers of the filters.
263
B. Ultraviolet Irradiation
disease. In the 1930s, Westinghouse developed UV bulbs, and since then a great deal of
experimental work has been done to prove their germicidal efficacy. Ultra Violet
Germicidal Irradiation or UVGI generally refers to UV wavelength of 254.7 nm. The
wavelength is near optimal for damaging nucleic acid (DNA, RNA). UV irradiation by
itself does not clean air. The microorganisms are still there, and in the case of some
microorganisms, may still contain the ability to cause noninfectious (e.g. allergenic)
disease. While there is potential for UV to destroy allergenic sites on the surface of a
bioaerosol, this ability has not been documented or quantified.
of air, in order to control the spread of a deadly bio-terrorist pathogen (such as anthrax or
smallpox) the design of a UVGI system is of critical importance.
The effectiveness of UV light as a germicidal agent has resulted in two other techniques
for decontamination. Pulsed UV (PUV) involves pulsing UV lamps at high power at
regular intervals. This technology is being increasingly applied for air and surface
sterilization and decontamination due to the powerful use of advanced UV light lamps
and efficient energy consumption. This is a procedure, which appears to have certain
advantages of very high inactivation rates for most known microorganisms. PUV is also
effective on very hazardous and "hard-to-break" toxic organic compounds and odors from
water, air, or surfaces without producing ozone at a very high speed. These systems use
mercury-free flash lamps that emit pulses at such high energy that the cells are actually
physically destroyed. To have this mechanism work, the rate of the energy deposition
into a microorganism (the fluency rate) must be higher than its rate of cooling to a
surrounding media. In this case, a microorganism undergoes momentous overheating and
disintegration. It is shown that only the Pulsed UV light of a broad spectra can effectively
do this work while Pulsed White Light (PWL) plays no role. Because of this
disintegration action on a microorganism, this pulsed UV sterilization method is named
as the Pulsed UV Disintegration (PUVD). Advantages and limitations of this method are
compared with those of other established sterilization methods. Pulsed UV can sterilize
and disinfect by producing greater than 6 log kills of microorganisms spores and organic
compounds.
266
Fig. 5A. Untreated spores of A. Niger. Fig. 5B. Spores of Aspergillus Niger treated to
two pulses at 33 kw/cm². Note craters around spores formed by sinking of heated spores
into the PET substrate.¹ Fig. 5C. A single spore treated to two pulses of 33 kW/cm². Note
how the spore top was ruptured by an escape of the overheated content of the spore. Note
also the crater around the spore. Fig. 5D. A single spore treated to 5 pulses of 5 kw/cm²
each, open lamp.²
(Photos courtesy of Dr. Alex Wekhof)
Fig. 6. (6A) Untreated and (6B) treated Bacillus Subtilis spores. Note the deformation of
the spore and the absence of any cratering around the spore.¹,²
(Photos courtesy of Dr. Alex Wekhof)
Another technique that has been suggested in building design is to use the natural UV
component of sunlight to treat air. This process is called passive solar decontamination.
In this scenario, buildings would be constructed with UV transparent walled air passages
that surround the outside of the structure. Filtered air would rise through many stories and
receive lethal UV (solar) doses of natural sunlight as it passed up the columns. After
being decontaminated by sunlight, it would enter the building's HVAC system and be
267
cooled (or heated) and distributed throughout the building. This is an intriguing
possibility, however, because ozone in the earth's atmosphere filters out the most
effective germicidal portion of solar radiation, inactivation rates from sunlight are quite
slow (even in Arizona). In the case of spores, sunlight is not an effective disinfectant.
Indeed, spores have evolved to withstand harsh environments and contain tremendous
DNA repair capabilities.
The EPA has issued several warnings concerning UVGI companies that make
unsubstantiated claims as to the effectiveness of their technology. For example, be careful
of reports by sterilization and decontamination companies making claims such as "the
simultaneous emission of ultrasound or ultrasonic waves and ultraviolet light complement
each other and can effectively sterilize either organic or inorganic items in a non-liquid
environment." No white paper or peer reviews have ever been published confirming these
claims. The public is advised to use proven methods of controlling indoor air pollution.
C. New/Experimental Technologies
A number of other technologies, new or at a more experimental stage, may be useful for
decontaminating air in buildings.
One process is called ozonation. Ozone is piped into an air chamber where it is
thoroughly mixed with air. Ozone reacts with organic particles and pathogens, oxidizing
microorganisms and other chemical toxins. While there may be applications in
decontaminating a room, this technology is not applicable to flow in a ventilation system.
Additionally, ozone generation is energy intensive. Removing the ozone from the
airstream is complex, and involves the use of synthetic catalytic compounds that lose
effectiveness over time as they are saturated with the gas molecules. While there have
been successful water sterilization systems developed using ozone, the process has yet to
be tested on airborne pathogens. The EPA lists ozone as a priority air pollutant and warns
that levels of ozone required to inactivate airborne microorganisms would be in excess of
the current ozone standards. The EPA publication, "Ozone Generators that are Sold as
Air Cleaners: An Assessment of Effectiveness and Health Consequences," states:
"Available scientific evidence shows that at concentrations that do not exceed public
health standards, ozone has little potential to remove indoor air contaminants. If used at
concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone applied to indoor air
does not effectively remove viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants."
Another decontamination technique related to filtration is air purging. This is the process
of flooding a building with clean outside air in order to expunge and dilute contaminated
air. This can be an effective procedure in the aftermath of a biological attack, but requires
vacating the building; opening all windows, doors, and access ways; and then forcing
massive quantities of outside air into the facility. This can be an effective post-incident
response, but does nothing to secure a facility during an attack, or on a day-to-day basis.
Another chemical filtration technology that has been proposed is the use of activated
carbon (AC) filters. Carbon adsorption operates by virtue of the large surface area of
activated carbon and the tendency for these surfaces to trap and hold onto large organic
molecules. A grain of activated carbon has a tremendous amount of surface area.
Activated charcoal is charcoal that has been treated with oxygen to open up millions of
tiny pores between the carbon atoms. Advances in manufacturing techniques have
resulted in highly porous charcoals that have surface areas of 300-2,000 square meters
per gram. Activated charcoal is good at trapping other carbon-based impurities ("organic"
chemicals), as well as things like chlorine. Many other chemicals are not attracted to
carbon at all—sodium, nitrates, etc.—so they pass right through. This means that an
activated charcoal filter will remove certain impurities while ignoring others. It also
means that, once all of the bonding sites are filled, an activated charcoal filter stops
working. At that point you must replace the filter. AC filters can be a breeding ground for
microorganisms. While carbon adsorption is a common technology in VOC removal from
airstreams its effectiveness in removing biological pathogens in a ventilation application
is not known.
Application
It is hard to imagine a location where healthier, cleaner, safer air would not be desirable.
While biological terrorism may be an isolated occurrence, protecting airflows in
buildings, while greatly improving the health of the occupants from things as simple as
the rhinoviruses that cause colds, makes a great deal of sense. The return on investment
from upgrading air handling systems far outweighs the costs. At a minimum, modified or
newly constructed buildings should be equipped with some type of efficient, low pressure
drop filtration system. Secure rooms, safe havens, and highly vulnerable areas like mail
rooms and lobbies, should be fitted with second and third stage decontamination systems.
At present it appears that UVGI technology when used in conjunction with filtration is an
effective option for building managers to consider for cost effectively offering a level of
protection from airborne microorganisms within the building envelope and interior
systems. When proper measures are chosen for buildings, and integrated into the design
process, the result/performance of any upgrade is dependent on the installation, operation,
and continuing maintenance. The DoD has established "DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism
Standards for Buildings" that require the limitation of airborne contamination within its
buildings. Air decontamination creates a safe and healthy environment for its occupants
and has real economic impact because of its dual use from a security and environmental
269
The Worldwide web is an important source of further information on this topic. Web
information provided by government agencies and professional societies is the most
reliable and is usually based on peer reviewed research. Technical peer reviewed research
journals are also reliable sources, and focus more on the fundamental science behind each
technology. Use caution with data presented on websites that are not substantiated by
peer review literature or results from well-documented experiments.
Department of Defense:
GSA
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100, GSA Mechanical and
Air Handling Requirements, Chapter 5
Other Standards
Additional Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope
Design Guide
Project Management
Organizations
271
Publications
• Risk Management Guidance for Health and Safety under Extraordinary Incidents
by ASHRAE Presidential Study Group. 12 Jan 2002.—Draft report provides
recommendations for owners and managers of existing buildings
• TI 853-01, Protecting Buildings and Their Occupants from Airborne Hazards
(DRAFT) by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).—Document presents a
variety of ways to protect building occupants from airborne hazards
Figure 4 Footnotes
Overview
Physical comfort is critical to work effectiveness, satisfaction, and physical and
psychological well-being. Uncomfortable conditions in the workplace—too hot, too cold,
too noisy, too dark, too light, too much glare—restrict the ability of workers to function
to full capacity and can lead to lowered job satisfaction and increases in illness
symptoms.
During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.
Recommendations
Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment
One solution for providing quality thermal and ventilation comfort is enhanced
ventilation terminal control system with multi-zone VAV box terminal controls and
individual airflow controls (personal air-conditioning).
(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions
Directorate)
Left: Workplace environments with well balanced color and patterns are pleasant and
appealing. This photo shows an informal work area at the Herman Miller Front Door in
276
Holland, Michigan. And Right: The beige cubicle environment lacking color
embellishment or pattern is, unfortunately, a common site in many work environments.
• Adapt furnishings to the work to be done, not the other way around.
• Specify furnishings that support good posture, body mechanics, and work
techniques for the tasks to be accomplished (e.g. ergonomically designed chairs
and keyboards).
• Provide workstations that allow users to adjust seating, computer equipment
placement, light levels, work surface heights, workspace layout, and ventilation.
• Install glass panels in workstation walls to provide access to daylight and views.
• Design furniture configurations that allow workers variable views for visual
relief.
• For telecommuting workers, the sponsoring organization should assure that the
home office is comfortable, ergonomic, and has the necessary technological tools.
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or
visited.
Design Objectives
Project Management
Building Commissioning
277
Tools
Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page
Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)
• Designlights Consortium
• Energy Star®—EPA
• Federal User's Manual (p. 3-1)
• Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource
Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p.37, p.121)
• Illuminating Engineering Society of North America
• Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
• Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
• Light Right Consortium, Battelle/Pacific Northwest Laboratory
• TI 811-16 Lighting Design
Secure / Safe
by the WBDG Safe Committee
Overview
Concrete bollards are integrated into the street design in front of the White House—
Washington, DC
The design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the primary goal
for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. Today, in recognizing concern
for natural disasters, acts of terrorism, indoor air quality, materials hazards, and fires, the
design team must take a multi-hazard approach towards building design that accounts for
the potential hazards and vulnerabilities. Applicable multi-hazard events include: bomb
threats, terrorist acts, nuclear, radiological, chemical or biological threats, fires, medical
emergencies, demonstrations and civil disorders, power failures, spills or leaks of
hazardous substances, and natural disasters (hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes,
etc.).
Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates
—and then protects—the building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of
operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this process is to understand the
various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment types to
consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions.
This effort identifies the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible
perils or "threats," and establishes a likely consequence of occurrence or "risk." Based on
this assessment and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the
appropriate safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security
requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed,
and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and use of the building.
280
Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and
physical safety methods. For example, to ensure a given facility is protected from
unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might stress the deployment of
guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance
and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways
and gateways. In practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a
deficiency in one area may be compensated by a greater emphasis in the other two. When
they are addressed at the beginning of a project, safety measures can usually be integrated
into the total design efficiently and cost-effectively.
Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high
performance buildings.
Emerging Issues
Information Sensitivity
As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks
of 11 September 2001, the public is even more interested in efforts to protect people,
buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents both benefits and challenges,
because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for mitigation
281
can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For
that reason, project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any
information that pertains to vulnerabilities, particularly when the building is part of a
critical infrastructure or system. Legal counsel should be obtained on how best to protect
such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable
local, state, and federal laws.
There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose
conflicts in arriving at acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include
Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede emergency egress in case of fire, and access
control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict emergency egress. Good
communication between fire protection and security design team specialists through the
entire design process is necessary to achieve the common goal of safe and secure
buidings.
Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and
designers of a wide variety of building types and spaces now consider strategies to
mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Provide Security for Building Occupants and
Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate
them.
Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and
occupants to be able to respond to all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines
of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of
Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and
property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or
minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-
emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants;
training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of
appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and
conducting actual drills.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Tools
Publications
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General
Services Administration (GSA).
• FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist
Attacks Against Buildings
• International Building Code
• Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series, FEMA 386 Series.
• The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and
Key Assets", The White House. February 2003.
• Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism by the Committee on
the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism, Building Research Board,
National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988.
• Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses, FEMA
386-2.
• United for a Stronger America: Citizen's Preparedness Guide (PDF 647 KB, 30
pgs)
• Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and
Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors; Committee on
Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design Criteria, National
Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991.
Websites
Secure / Safe
by the WBDG Safe Committee
Overview
283
Concrete bollards are integrated into the street design in front of the White House—
Washington, DC
The design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the primary goal
for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. Today, in recognizing concern
for natural disasters, acts of terrorism, indoor air quality, materials hazards, and fires, the
design team must take a multi-hazard approach towards building design that accounts for
the potential hazards and vulnerabilities. Applicable multi-hazard events include: bomb
threats, terrorist acts, nuclear, radiological, chemical or biological threats, fires, medical
emergencies, demonstrations and civil disorders, power failures, spills or leaks of
hazardous substances, and natural disasters (hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes,
etc.).
Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates
—and then protects—the building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of
operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this process is to understand the
various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment types to
consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions.
This effort identifies the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible
perils or "threats," and establishes a likely consequence of occurrence or "risk." Based on
this assessment and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the
appropriate safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security
requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed,
and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and use of the building.
Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and
physical safety methods. For example, to ensure a given facility is protected from
unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might stress the deployment of
guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance
and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways
and gateways. In practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a
deficiency in one area may be compensated by a greater emphasis in the other two. When
they are addressed at the beginning of a project, safety measures can usually be integrated
into the total design efficiently and cost-effectively.
284
Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other
design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high
performance buildings.
Emerging Issues
Information Sensitivity
As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks
of 11 September 2001, the public is even more interested in efforts to protect people,
buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents both benefits and challenges,
because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for mitigation
can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For
that reason, project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any
information that pertains to vulnerabilities, particularly when the building is part of a
critical infrastructure or system. Legal counsel should be obtained on how best to protect
such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable
local, state, and federal laws.
There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose
conflicts in arriving at acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include
Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede emergency egress in case of fire, and access
control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict emergency egress. Good
communication between fire protection and security design team specialists through the
entire design process is necessary to achieve the common goal of safe and secure
buidings.
Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and
designers of a wide variety of building types and spaces now consider strategies to
mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Provide Security for Building Occupants and
Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate
them.
Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and
occupants to be able to respond to all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines
of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of
Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and
property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or
minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-
emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants;
training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of
appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and
conducting actual drills.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Tools
Publications
• Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General
Services Administration (GSA).
286
Websites
Overview
The United States has the highest fire losses in terms of both frequency and total losses of
any modern technological society. New facilities and renovation projects need to be
designed to incorporate efficient, cost-effective passive and automatic fire protection
systems. These systems are effective in detecting, containing, and controlling and/or and
extinguishing a fire event in the early stages. Fire protection engineers must be involved
in all aspects of the design in order to ensure a reasonable degree of protection of human
life from fire and the products of combustion as well as to reduce the potential loss from
fire (i.e., real and personal property, information, organizational operations). Planning for
fire protection in/around a building involves an integrated systems approach that enables
the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building fire safety
system package. The analysis requires more than code compliance or meeting the
minimum legal responsibilities for protecting a building; that is, building and fire codes
are intended to protect against loss of life and limit fire impact on the community and do
not necessarily protect the mission or assets, or solve problems brought upon by new
projects with unique circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to creatively and efficiently
287
integrate code requirements with other fire safety measures as well as other design
strategies to achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety.
Recommendations
Issues to address in developing a successful fire protection design usually include:
Design Team—It is most important that the project delivery team include a Fire
Protection Engineer with adequate experience and knowledge in fire protection and life
safety design. The Fire Protection Engineer should be involved in all phases of design,
from planning to occupancy.
Design Standards and Criteria (i.e., Building Code, etc.)—to be utilized by the design
team, including statutory requirements, voluntary requirements addressing owner's
performance needs, and requirements that are sometimes imposed by insurance carriers
on commerical projects.
• Occupancy types
• Interior finish
• Exit stairway enclosure
Fire Detection and Notification System Requirements, at a minimum will address the
following elements:
• Detection
• Notification
• Survivability of systems
• Water supply
• Type of automatic fire extinguishing system
o Water-based fire extinguishing system
o Non-water-based fire extinguishing system
• Standpipes and fire department hose outlets
Emergency Power, Lighting, and Exit Signage, at a minimum will address the following
elements:
• Survivability of systems
• Electrical Safety
• Distributed Energy Resources
Special Fire Protection Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:
EMERGING ISSUES
Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements
The terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 have caused design and engineering
professionals to address integrated fire protection and security measures for the building
site as well as within the building. For example, perimeter protection measures must be
well-designed to ensure that fire departments can still access sites and buildings. Another
example is the increased need to coordinate HVAC design and proper automatic
emergency operations in the event of a fire or chemical/biological/radiological (CBR)
event.
The success of any complex project hinges on getting all the stakeholders, owners,
designers, special consultants, and AHJs working together in a collaborative manner to
achieve performance-based design solutions. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers
has developed and published (in collaboration with NFPA) the SFPE Engineering Guide
to Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and Design of Buildings and the SFPE
Code Official's Guide to Performance-Based Design Review (developed and published in
collaboration with ICC).
290
Legislation
Federal Guidelines
Other Publications
Major Resources
Standards and Code Organizations
Associations
Laboratories
Universities
Others
Overview
Modern buildings are generally considered safe and healthy working environments.
However, the potential for indoor air quality problems, occupational illnesses and
injuries, exposure to hazardous materials, and accidental falls beckons architects,
engineers, and facility managers to design and maintain buildings and processes that
292
ensure occupant safety and health. Notably, building designs must focus on eliminating
or preventing hazards to personnel, rather than relying on personal protective equipment
and administrative or process procedures to prevent mishaps.
Protecting the health, safety, and welfare (HSW) of building occupants has expanded
beyond disease prevention and nuisance control to include mental as well as physical
health (see Productive) and protecting the ecological health of a place (see Sustainable)
through the creation of places that enable delight and the realization of human potential.
Therefore, the design team must engage an integrated approach, including work process
analysis and hazard recognition to develop solutions that provide healthy built
environments, having no undue physical stressors, as well as meeting other project
requirements. In addition, consideration of HSW issues should be an integral part of all
phases of a building's life cycle: planning, design, construction, operations and
maintenance, renovation, and final disposal.
• Provide designs that eliminate or reduce hazards in the work place to prevent
mishaps and reduce reliance on personal protective equipment.
• Prevent occupational injuries and illnesses.
• Prevent falls from heights.
• Prevent slips, trips, and falls.
• Ensure electrical safety from turn-over through Operations and Maintenance.
Modifications must be in conformance with life safety codes and standards and be
documented.
• Eliminate exposure to hazardous materials (e.g., volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and formaldehyde, and lead and asbestos in older buildings).
• Provide good indoor air quality (IAQ) and adequate ventilation.
• Analyze work requirements and provide ergonomic work places to prevent work-
related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD).
• Perform proper building operations and maintenance.
Recommendations
Provide Designs that Eliminate or Reduce Hazards in the Work Place to
Prevent Mishaps
• Integrate safety mechanisms, such as built-in anchors or tie-off points, into the
building design, especially for large mechanical systems.
• Design a means for safely cleaning and maintaining interior spaces and building
exteriors.
• Provide for receiving, storing, and handling of materials, such as combustibles,
cleaning products, office supplies, and perishables.
• Provide guardrails and barriers that will prevent falls from heights in both interior
and exterior spaces.
• Provide fall protection for all maintenance personnel especially for roof-mounted
equipment such as HVAC equipment and cooling towers.
• Provide certified tie-off points for fall arrest systems.
• Provide interior and exterior floor surfaces that do not pose slip or trip hazards.
• Select exterior walking surface materials that are not susceptible to changes in
elevation as a result of freeze/thaw cycles.
• Provide adequate illumination, both natural and artificial, for all interior and
exterior areas. See Daylighting and Energy Efficient Lighting.
• Comply with all regulatory and statutory requirements such as the Americans
with Disabilities Act. See WBDG Accessible Branch.
Typical ventilation system design for fume hood systems in laboratories. Air may be
supplied through single- or dual-duct constant air volume (CAV) or variable air volume
(VAV) systems.
• Design work places that make the job fit the person. See WBDG Functional
Branch.
• Select furnishings, chairs, and equipment that are ergonomically designed and
approved for that use.
• Design equipment and furnishings reflective of work practices in an effort to
eliminate repetitive motions and vibrations as well as prevent strains and sprains.
• Consider using worker comfort surveys in the design phase to help eliminate
work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
• Accept the principle that one size does not fit all employees. See Accessible—
Plan for Flexibility.
• Consider providing break areas to allow the employees to temporarily leave the
work place.
• Minimize lighting glare on computer monitor screens. Provide task lighting at
workstations to minimize eye fatigue. See Energy Efficient Lighting.
Proper preventative maintenance (PM) not only improves the useful life of the systems
and building structures, but it can lend to good indoor air quality and prevent "sick
building" syndromes. See Sustainable O&M Practices.
Emerging Issues
During the last week of January 2000, the Department of Labor said that employers
would not be held liable for health and safety violations occurring in the homes of
telecommuting employees. See "Home Office Isn't Liability for Firms, U.S. Decides,"
New York Times, 28 January 2000. The Department of Labor stated that it would not
hold employers responsible for health and safety violations that occur in home
workplaces other than home offices, for example, fireworks being manufactured in the
home or other activities involving the use of hazardous materials.
Contamination of domestic hot water systems, cooling towers, and condensate pans
continues to result in infections of building occupants on a regular basis. The results of
such infections can range from mild to fatal and affect one or many employees. They
invariably result in employee apprehension and media attention. Mechanical engineers
must be vigilant to avoid system designs that may promote the growth of legionella sp.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Publications
Others
• RiskWorld
Overview
Buildings in any geographic location are subject to a wide variety of natural phenomena
such as windstorms, floods, earthquakes, and other hazards. While the occurrence of
these events cannot be precisely predicted, their impacts are well understood and can be
managed effectively through a comprehensive program of hazard mitigation planning.
Mitigation refers to measures that can reduce or eliminate the vulnerability of the built
environment to hazards, whether natural or man-made. The fundamental goal of
mitigation is to minimize loss of life, property, and function due to disasters. Designing
to resist any hazard(s) should always begin with a comprehensive risk assessment. This
process includes identification of the hazards present in the location and an assessment of
their potential impacts and effects on the built environment based on existing or
anticipated vulnerabilities and potential losses.
have the potential to cause damage, death, and injury, and loss of function in the built
environment. Regardless of who is conducting the risk assessment, the fundamental
process of identifying what can happen at a given location, how it can affect the built
environment, and what the potential losses could be, remains essentially the same from
application to application.
Only after the overall risk is fully understood should mitigation measures be identified,
prioritized, and implemented. Basic principles underlying this process include:
• The impacts of natural hazards and the costs of the disasters they cause will be
reduced whether mitigation measures are implemented pre-disaster (preventively)
or post-disaster (correctively). Proactively integrating mitigation measures into
new construction is always more economically feasible than retrofitting existing
structures.
• Risk reduction techniques should address as many applicable hazards as possible.
This approach, known as multi-hazard mitigation, is the most Cost-Effective
approach, maximizes the protective effect of the mitigation measures
implemented, and optimizes multi-hazard design techniques with other building
technologies.
• All mitigation is local. Most mitigation measures, whether structural or
regulatory, fall under the jurisdiction of local government. Additionally,
mitigation initiatives are most effective when they involve the full participation of
local stakeholders.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Design professionals agree that the most successful way to mitigate losses of life,
property, and function is to design buildings that are disaster resistant. This approach
should be incorporated into the project planning, design, and development at the earliest
possible stage so that design and material decisions can be based on an integrated "whole
building approach."
A variety of techniques are available to mitigate the effects of natural hazards on the built
environment. Depending on the hazards identified, the location and construction type of a
proposed building or facility, and the specific performance requirements for the building,
the structure can be designed to resist hazard effects such as induced loads. Later in the
building's life cycle, additional opportunities to further reduce the risk from natural
hazards may exist when renovation projects and repairs of the existing structure is
undertaken. When incorporating disaster reduction measures into building design, some
or all of the issues outlined below should be considered in order to protect lives,
properties, and operations from damages caused by natural hazards.
Earthquakes
Building design will be influenced by the level of seismic resistance desired. This can
range from prevention of nonstructural damage in frequent minor ground shaking to
302
The key strategy to protecting a building from high winds caused by tornados, hurricanes,
and gust fronts is to maintain the integrity of the building envelope, including roofs and
windows, and to design the structure to withstand the expected lateral and uplift forces.
For example, roof trusses and gables should be braced; hurricane straps should be used to
strengthen the connection between the roof and walls; and doors and windows should be
protected by covering and/or bracing. When planning renovation projects, designers
should consider opportunities to upgrade the roof structure and covering and enhance the
protection of fenestration. The Additional Resources section of this page includes several
FEMA publications for designing community shelters, constructed to protect a large
number of people from a natural hazard event, and "residential safe rooms" for occupant
refuge during windstorms.
Flooding
Flood mitigation is best achieved by hazard avoidance—that is, proper site selection
away from floodplains. Should buildings be sited in flood-prone locations, they should be
elevated above expected flood levels to reduce the chances of flooding and to limit the
potential damage to the building and its contents when it is flooded. Flood mitigation
techniques include elevating the building so that the lowest floor is above the flood level;
dry flood-proofing, or making the building watertight to prevent water entry; wet flood-
proofing, or making uninhabited or non-critical parts of the building resistant to water
damage; relocation of the building; and the incorporation of levees and floodwalls into
site design to keep water away from the building.
One of the primary performance requirements for any building is that it should keep the
interior space dry. All roofs and walls must therefore shed rainwater, and design
requirements are the same everywhere in this respect. For example, roof drainage design
should minimize the possibility of ponding water, and existing buildings with flat roofs
should be inspected to determine compliance with this requirement. Recommendations
for addressing rainfall and wind-driven rain can be found in the International Building
Code (IBC) series.
Ground subsidence can result from mining, sinkholes, underground fluid withdrawal,
hydrocompaction, and organic soil drainage and oxidation. Subsidence mitigation can
best be achieved through careful site selection, including geotechnical study of the site. In
subsidence-prone areas, foundations should be appropriately constructed, basements and
other below-ground projections should be minimized, and utility lines and connections
should be stress-resistant. When retrofitting structures to be more subsidence-resistant,
shear walls, geo-fabrics, and earth reinforcement techniques such as dynamic compaction
can be used to increase resistance to subsidence damage and to stabilize collapsible soils.
Gravity-driven movement of earth material can result from water saturation, slope
modifications, and earthquakes. Techniques for reducing landslide and mudslide risks to
structures include selecting non-hillside or stable slope sites; constructing channels,
drainage systems, retention structures, and deflection walls; planting groundcover; and
soil reinforcement using geo-synthetic materials, and avoiding cut and fill building sites.
Forest Fires
As residential developments expand into wild land areas, people and property are
increasingly at risk from wildfire. Fire is a natural process in any wild land area and
serves an important purpose; however, if ground cover is burned away, erosion, landslide,
mudflow, and flood hazards can be exacerbated. A cleared safety zone of at least 30 feet
(100 feet in pine forests) should be maintained between structures and combustible
vegetation, and fire-resistant ground cover, shrubs, and trees should be used for
landscaping (for example, hardwood trees are less flammable than pines, evergreens,
eucalyptus or firs). Only fire-resistant or non-combustible materials should be used on
roofs and exterior surfaces. Roofs and gutters should be regularly cleaned and chimneys
should be equipped with spark arrestors. Vents, louvers, and other openings should be
covered with wire mesh to prevent embers and flaming debris from entering. Overhangs,
eaves, porches, and balconies can trap heat and burning embers and should also be
avoided or minimized and protected with wire mesh. Windows allow radiated heat to
pass through and ignite combustible materials inside, but dual- or triple-pane thermal
glass, fire-resistant shutters or drapes, and noncombustible awnings can help reduce this
risk.
Tsunami
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor,
landslides, or volcanic activity. In the deep ocean, the tsunami wave may only be a few
inches high. The tsunami wave may come gently ashore or may increase in height to
become a fast moving wall of turbulent water several meters high. Although a tsunami
cannot be prevented, the impact of a tsunami can be mitigated through urban/land
planning, community preparedness, timely warnings, and effective response.
304
Emerging Issues
Hazard Mitigation and Sustainability
Unsustainable development is one of the major factors in the rising costs of natural
disasters. Given that hazard mitigation is at the core of disaster resistance, then, many
design strategies and technologies serve double duty, by not only preventing losses but
serving the higher goal of long-term community sustainability. For example, erosion
control measures designed to mitigate flood, mudslide, rainstorm, and other damage to a
building's foundation may also improve the quality of runoff water entering streams and
lakes.
Finally, designers should augment the codes and standards to consider the importance of
nonstructural elements, assets, and mission of the building, i.e., windows, hoods, parapets
and balcony railings, and electrical and mechanical systems, because they may account
for more than 70% of the value of a building.
Many states and municipalities have also adopted supplemental codes to meet local
requirements for multi-hazard protection. Examples of such codes include:
General Multi-Hazard
Earthquake
Flood
Additional Resources
Organizations and Associations
General Multi-Hazard
Earthquake
Flood
Forest Fires
Publications
General Multi-Hazard
Earthquake
Flood
Landslide, Mudslide
Progressive Collapse
NOTE: To order FEMA publications that are not available online, request by title or
document number from the FEMA Publications Warehouse at (800) 480-2520
Overview
311
The bombings at New York City's World Trade Center, Oklahoma City's Alfred P.
Murrah Federal Office Building, and Atlanta's Centennial Park, shook the nation, and
made Americans aware of the need for better ways to protect occupants, assets, and
buildings from human aggressors (e.g. disgruntled employees, criminals, vandals, and
terrorists).
More recently, the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks demonstrated the country's
vulnerability to an even wider range of threats and reasserted heightened public concern
for the safety of workers and occupants in all Building Types. Many federal agencies
responding to these concerns have adopted an overarching philosophy to provide
appropriate and cost-effective protection for building occupants. That is, while it may be
cost prohibitive to design a facility to a worse case scenario, decision makers should
strive to make smart choices and investments that will lessen the risk of mass casualties
resulting from terrorist attacks.
Some federal agencies have issued their own security design standards. The most
prominent of these are the DOD Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) UFC 4-010-01 DoD
Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings and Interagency Security Committee
(ISC) Security Design Criteria. There are currently no universal codes or standards that
apply to both public and private sector buildings. However, most designers agree that
security issues must be addressed in concert with other design objectives and integrated
312
into the overall building design throughout the process to ensure a quality building with
effective security. This concept is known as multi-hazard design.
Depending on the building type, acceptable levels of risk, and decisions made based on
recommendations from a comprehensive threat assessment, vulnerability assessment, and
risk analysis, appropriate countermeasures should be implemented to protect people,
assets, and mission. Types of attack and threats to consider include:
Recommendations
Basic to realizing an effective security plan and design is the implementation of
appropriate countermeasures to deter, delay, detect, and deny attacks. Oftentimes the
countermeasures work on the layered defense concept or "Onion Philosophy." This
concept provides for increasing levels of security from the outer areas of the site or
facility towards the inner, more protected areas. Some or all of the issues outlined below
need consideration for effective security design and building operations.
Protecting the facility and assets from unauthorized persons is an important part of any
security system. Some items to consider include:
Insider Threats
One of the most serious threats may come from persons who have authorized access to a
facility. These may include disgruntled employees or persons who have gained access
through normal means (e.g., contractors, support personnel, etc). To mitigate this threat
some items to consider include:
Explosive threats tend to be the criminal and terrorist weapon of choice. Devices may
include large amounts of explosives that require delivery by a vehicle. However, smaller
amounts may be introduced into a facility through mail, packages, or simply hand carried
in an unsecured area. Normally the best defense is to provide defended distance between
the threat location and the asset to be protected. This is typically called standoff distance.
If standoff is not available or is insufficient to reduce the blast forces reaching the
protected asset, structural hardening may be required. If introduced early in the design
process, this may be done in an efficient and cost-effective manner. If introduced late in a
design, or if retrofitting an existing facility, such a measure may prove to be
economically difficult to justify. Some items to consider include:
• The design team should include qualified security and blast consulting
professionals from the concept stage forward.
• Provide defended standoff with rated or certified devices such as fencing,
bollards, planters, landscaping, or other measures that will stop persons, if
required, and vehicle delivered threats.
• Consider structural hardening and hazard mitigation designs such as ductile
framing that is capable of withstanding abnormal loads and preventing
progressive collapse, protective glazing, strengthening of walls, roofs, and other
facility components.
• Design the facility with redundant egress and other critical infrastructure to
facilitate emergency evacuation and control during an event.
Ballistic Threats
These threats may range from random drive-by shootings to high-powered rifle attacks
directed at specific targets within the facility. It is important to quantify the potential risk
and to establish the appropriate level of protection. The most common ballistic protection
314
In today's world, business continuity and mission function rely heavily on the
transmission, storage, and access to a wide range of electronic data and communication
systems. Protecting these systems from attack is critical for most users ranging from
individuals, businesses, and government agencies. Some items to consider include:
• Understand and identify the information assets that you are trying to protect.
These may include personal information, business information such as proprietary
designs or processes, national security information, or simply the ability of your
organization to communicate via email and other LAN/WAN functions.
• Protect the physical infrastructure that supports information systems. For
example, if your computer system is electronically secure but is vulnerable to
physical destruction you may not have achieved an adequate level of protection.
• Provide software and hardware devices to detect, monitor, and prevent
unauthorized access to or the destruction of sensitive information.
315
Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and
occupants to be able to respond to all forms of credible attacks and threats. Clearly
defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all
important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of
protecting life and property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out
activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be
accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational
staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing
occupants of appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures;
and conducting actual drills.
Emerging Issues
Balancing Security and Sustainability
Providing for sustainable designs that meet all facility requirements is often a challenge
to the design community. With limited resources it is not always feasible to provide for
the most secure facility, the most architecturally expressive design, or energy efficient
building envelope. From the concept stage through the development of construction
documents, it is important that all project or design stakeholders work cooperatively to
ensure a balanced design. Successful designs must consider all competing design
objectives.
Care should be taken to implement physical security measures that allow Fire Protection
forces access with to sites and buildings and building occupants with adequate means of
emergency egress. GSA has conducted a study and developed recommendations on
design strategies that achieve both secure and fire safe designs. Specifically, the issue of
emergency ingress and egress through blast resistant window systems was studied.
Training was developed based on this information and is available at the GSA Public
Buildings Service—Building Security Technology Web site.
316
Integrated security systems can offer more efficient access and control. (Courtesy of
Integrated Security Systems, LTD)
Integrated Systems
In recent years, there has been a general trend towards integrating various stand-alone
security systems, integrating systems across remote locations, and integrating security
systems with other systems such as communications, and fire and emergency
management. For example, CCTV, fire, and burglar alarm systems have been integrated
to form the foundation for access control.
Mandates
Federal Guidelines
• Department of Defense:
• DOD Security Engineering Manual (For Official Use Only)
• FM 3-19.30 Physical Security—Sets forth guidance for all personnel responsible
for physical security
• NAVFAC MIL-HDBK-1012/3 Telecommunications Premises Distribution
Planning, Design, and Estimating
• UFC 1-200-01 Design: General Building Requirements
• UFC 3-520-01 Design: Interior Electrical Systems
• UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings
• UFC 4-010-02 DoD Minimum Standoff Distances for Buildings (FOUO)
• UFC 4-023-03 Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse
• USAF Installation Force Protection Guide
• General Services Administration (GSA):
• Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100, Chapter 8.
• Other "official use only" documents may be obtained from the Office of the Chief
Architect
• GSA Guidelines for Progressive Collapse
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA):
• Physical Security Design Manual for VA Facilities: Mission Critical Facilities
317
• Physical Security Design Manual for VA Facilities: Cost Estimates for Physical
Security Enhancements
• Department of State:
• Architectural Engineering Design Guideline (5 Volumes) (For Official Use Only)
• Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998 (For Official Use Only)
• Structural Engineering Guidelines for New Embassy Office Buildings, August
1995 (For Official Use Only)
• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA):
• FAA Order 1600.69 Security Risk Management
• Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA):
• FEMA 386-7 Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning
• FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against
Buildings
• FEMA 427 Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings to Mitigate Terrorist
Attacks
• FEMA 428 Primer to Design Safe School Projects in Case of Terrorist Attacks
• FEMA 429 Insurance, Finance, and Regulation Primer for Terrorism Risk
Management in Buildings
• FEMA 430 Site and Urban Design for Security
• FEMA 452 Risk Assessment - A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist
Attacks Against Buildings
• FEMA 453 Design Guidance for Shelters and Safe Rooms
Others
Major Resources
318
WBDG
Security Centers
Trade Journals/Magazines
• Architectural Design for Security and Security and Technology Design by Donald
M. Rochon. June 1998.
319
• Designing for Crime and Terrorism, Security and Technology Design by Randall
I. Atlas. June 1998.
• Government Security
• Security Magazine
• Security Solutions Online: Access Control and Security Systems
• Security through Environmental Design, Security and Technology Design by
Robert Pearson. September 1997.
Training Courses
Others
Sustainable
by the WBDG Sustainable Committee
Overview
Building construction and operation have an enormous direct and indirect impact on the
environment. As illustrated in the figure below, buildings not only use resources such as
energy and raw materials, they also generate waste and potentially harmful atmospheric
emissions. As economy and population continue to expand, designers and builders face a
unique challenge to meet demands for new and renovated facilities that are accessible,
secure, healthy, and productive while minimizing their impact on the environment.
Recent answers to this challenge call for an integrated, synergistic approach that
considers all phases of the facility life cycle. This "sustainable" approach supports an
increased commitment to environmental stewardship and conservation, and results in an
optimal balance of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits while meeting the
mission and function of the intended facility or infrastructure.
The main objectives of sustainable design are to avoid resource depletion of energy,
water, and raw materials; prevent environmental degradation caused by facilities and
321
infrastructure throughout their life cycle; and create built environments that are livable,
comfortable, safe, and productive.
EPA's New England Regional Laboratory (NERL) achieved a LEED Version 1.0 Gold
rating. From conception the project was charged to "make use of the best commercially-
available materials and technologies to minimize consumption of energy and resources
and maximize use of natural, recycled and non-toxic materials." Chelmsford, MA
human health and the environment when compared with competing products or
services that serve the same purpose." As such, they contribute to improved
worker safety and health, reduced liabilities, reduced disposal costs, and
achievement of environmental goals.
• Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of a building has a significant impact on
occupant health, comfort, and productivity. Among other attributes, a sustainable
building should maximize daylighting; have appropriate ventilation and moisture
control; and avoid the use of materials with high-VOC emissions. Additional
consideration must now be given to ventilation and filtration to mitigate chemical,
biological, and radiological attack.
• Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices
Incorporating operating and maintenance considerations into the design of a
facility will greatly contribute to improved working environments, higher
productivity, and reduced energy and resource costs. Designers are encouraged to
specify materials and systems that simplify and reduce maintenance requirements;
require less water, energy, and toxic chemicals and cleaners to maintain; and are
cost-effective and reduce life-cycle costs.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Information in these Sustainable pages must be considered together with other design
objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high—
performance buildings.
• 01 10 00 (01100) Summary
• 01 30 00 (01300) Administrative Requirements
• 01 74 19 (01351) Construction Waste Management
• 01 40 00 (01400) Quality Requirements
• 01 41 00 (01411) Regulatory Requirements
• 01 42 00 (01421) References
• 01 50 00 (01500) Temporary Facilities & Controls
• 01 78 53 (01780) Sustainable Design Close-Out Documentation
• 01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning
• 01 79 11 (01821) Environmental Demonstration and Training
• 01 78 23 (01830) Operation & Maintenance Data
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Federal Agencies
Publications
Organizations
Others
Overview
326
Green roofs can effectively absorb most rainfall events, reverse the urban heat island
effect, and provide wildlife habitat. Chicago City Hall. Chicago, IL.
Photo courtesy of Don Horn.
Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection. The location of a building
affects a wide range of environmental factors—as well as other factors such as security
and accessibility—like the energy consumed by occupants for commuting, the impact on
local ecosystems, and the extent to which existing structures and infrastructures are
utilized. If possible, locate buildings in areas of existing development and consider
renovating existing buildings and historic properties. It is imperative that Federal
agencies maximize the restorative impact of site design and building infrastructure while
meeting the project's other requirements.
Sustainable site planning should consist of a whole system approach that seeks to:
Recommendations
Minimize Development of Open Space
Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters, Bldg. 33: Formerly a gun turret
plant at the Navy Yard in Washington, DC, this facility was renovated into a 4-story
office building featuring energy efficient envelope, lighting, and HVAC systems as well
as environmentally preferable materials.
• Maximize the use of existing trees and other vegetation to shade walkways,
parking lots, and other open areas. Ensure that site work and landscaping are
integrated with security and safety design. See also WBDG Balancing
Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives for Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED). Integrate landforms and landscaping into the
site planning process to enhance resource protection.
• In hot, dry climates, like the southwestern states, consider covering walkways,
parking lots, and other open areas that are paved or made with low reflectivity
materials. Ensure that shading devices do not block critical ground level sight
lines for security.
• Finish the facility's roof with light-colored materials to reduce energy loads and
extend the life of the roof, particularly in warm climates; consider incorporating
328
green roofs into the project. Use a roofing product that meets or exceeds Energy
Star standards.
Energy Star® Roof-compliant, high-reflectance, and high emissivity roofing can lower
roof surface temperature by up to 100°F, decreasing the amount of heat transferred into a
building.
• Keep land disturbance to a minimum and retain prime vegetation features to the
extent possible.
• Reduce building and paving footprints.
• Limit site disturbance to a minimal area around the building perimeter, including
locating buildings adjacent to existing infrastructure.
• Plan construction staging areas with the environment in mind.
• In northern climates, site parking and pedestrian areas so that they have sun
exposure for assistance in melting the snow or ice.
• Use non-toxic snow and ice removal methods. See also PROACT Fact Sheet on
de-icing.
• Site the building with public transportation access in mind and limit on-site
parking.
• Use porous alternatives to traditional paving for roads and walkways.
• Make provisions for bicycling, walking, carpool parking, and telecommuting; and
provide refueling/recharging facilities for alternative fuel/electric vehicles.
Emerging Issues
Smart Growth is an issue that concerns many communities around the country. It relates
to controlling sprawl, reusing existing infrastructure, creating walkable neighborhoods,
and locating places to live and work near public transportation. It is more resource-
efficient to reuse existing roads and utilities than build new ones far out from cities in
rural areas. Smart growth preserves open spaces and farm lands and strengthens the
development of existing communities and their quality of life.
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to all building types. Applicable to the following space types, Parking:
Outside/Structured, Parking: Surface
330
Design Objectives
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism
Standards Tool
and the accelerated consumption and fragmentation of open land. This website is
hosted by The Conservation Fund in partnership with USDA Forest Service.
• Maryland Department of the Environment, Brownfields Redevelopment and
Directed Growth
• Smart Growth Network
• Xeriscape.org
• USACE Technical Note ERDC TN-05-DRAFT No-Water Urinals, January 2007.
running propane buses were designed to shuttle the park's 2.5 million annual
visitors throughout the area. Automobile traffic, which was causing damage to the
air and ecosystem of the park, was minimized. See also Case Study: Zion
National Park.
Smart Growth
Others
Overview
333
On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 42% of America's energy and
68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings generate 35% of the carbon dioxide (the
primary greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and
25% of the nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is
produced from nonrenewable, fossil fuel resources. With America's supply of fossil fuel
dwindling, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply and
specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising,
it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel
resources in federal facilities.
During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
Recommendations
Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive
Design and Conservation Practices
• Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape
elements with solar geometry and building load requirements in mind.
• Use high-performance building envelopes; select walls, roofs, and other
assemblies based on long-term, insulation, and durability requirements.
• Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR
434. For Department of Defense facilities, use refer to the standards within UFC
3-400-01, Design for Energy Conservation.
• Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient
lighting.
• Use Energy Star® approved products or products that meet or exceed Department
of Energy standards.
• Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool, in-coming ventilation
air in commercial and institutional buildings.
• Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-
generation, fuel cells, and off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) and Microturbines.
Emerging Issues
Increased security of energy supply and distribution systems have become an important
component of national security after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Today, power generation is
still mostly handled by massive centralized plants, which are inevitable targets, and
electricity moves on vulnerable lines. Measures to minimize energy consumption can
contribute to increased energy security directly and indirectly. For example, energy
conservation and efficiency results in using less energy far more efficiently to do the
same tasks. In addition, obtaining more energy from sources that are inherently
invulnerable because they are dispersed, diverse, and increasingly renewable (see WBDG
Distributed Energy Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV), Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) is an essential part of a
comprehensive energy security strategy. More
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as
Health Care Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing:
Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet
Design Objectives
• 01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning
• 03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete
• 03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete
• 04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry
• 07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection
• 07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing
• 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing
• 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
• 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
• 08 50 00 (08500) Windows
• 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment
• 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment
• 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
337
Project Management
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism
Standards Tool. See also Tools: Energy Analysis.
Others
Overview
On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 42% of America's energy and
68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings generate 35% of the carbon dioxide (the
primary greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and
25% of the nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is
produced from nonrenewable, fossil fuel resources. With America's supply of fossil fuel
dwindling, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply and
specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising,
it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel
resources in federal facilities.
During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
Recommendations
Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive
Design and Conservation Practices
• Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape
elements with solar geometry and building load requirements in mind.
340
• Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR
434. For Department of Defense facilities, use refer to the standards within UFC
3-400-01, Design for Energy Conservation.
• Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient
lighting.
• Use Energy Star® approved products or products that meet or exceed Department
of Energy standards.
• Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool, in-coming ventilation
air in commercial and institutional buildings.
• Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-
generation, fuel cells, and off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) and Microturbines.
Emerging Issues
341
Increased security of energy supply and distribution systems have become an important
component of national security after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Today, power generation is
still mostly handled by massive centralized plants, which are inevitable targets, and
electricity moves on vulnerable lines. Measures to minimize energy consumption can
contribute to increased energy security directly and indirectly. For example, energy
conservation and efficiency results in using less energy far more efficiently to do the
same tasks. In addition, obtaining more energy from sources that are inherently
invulnerable because they are dispersed, diverse, and increasingly renewable (see WBDG
Distributed Energy Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated
Photovoltaics (BIPV), Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) is an essential part of a
comprehensive energy security strategy. More
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as
Health Care Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing:
Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet
342
Design Objectives
• 01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning
• 03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete
• 03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete
• 04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry
• 07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection
• 07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing
• 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing
• 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants
• 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors
• 08 50 00 (08500) Windows
• 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment
• 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment
• 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment
• 12 10 00 (12100) Art
• 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
• 48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
• 48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment
• 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators
• 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment
• 23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution
• 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting
Project Management
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism
Standards Tool. See also Tools: Energy Analysis.
343
Others
Overview
Within the federal sector, alone, it is estimated that expenditures for water and sewer run
between $0.5 billion and $1 billion annually. Reducing water consumption and protecting
water quality are key objectives of sustainable design. This is critical because
consumption of water in many areas of the country exceeds the ability of the supplying
aquifer to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, federal facilities should
increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site.
Water conservation strategies implemented at the Post Office in Ft. Worth, TX include
landscaping with native, or indigenous, plantings and rainwater catchment basins.
Photo courtesy of Don Horn.
The protection and conservation of water must be considered throughout the life of the
building, and federal agencies must seek to:
Recommendations
Reduce, Control, and Treat Surface Runoff
345
• Install water quality ponds or oil grit separators as storm water runoff filtration
systems.
• Eliminate materials that are lead-polluting.
• Use non-toxic bathroom and kitchen cleaning products.
The International Storm Water Best Management Practices (BMP) Database, developed
under a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, contains best
management practices, and study references for the effective design of storm water
management systems.
Emerging Issues
Dry Fire Hydrants
One of the synergistic technologies for achieving water conservation and fire safety is a
dry fire hydrant. Dry hydrants are non-pressurized suction pipe systems that are
permanently installed in ponds or lakes and use the untreated water, instead of municipal
water, to fight fires. Utilized in areas that lack conventional fire protection; areas that
cannot handle the large volumes of water due to antiquated systems; or during peak use
seasons when there is low water pressure, dry hydrants allow fire departments to be much
more efficient by providing close water sources to fire risks. Since dry hydrants are
installed below frost line and do not require electricity, they are capable of supplying
water in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes and tornadoes when electricity
lines are knocked down, or during extreme cold or hot weather where conventional
hydrant pipes can freeze or break. Also, dry fire hydrants help to save precious drinking
water and conserve energy by using rainwater that does not need to be processed to be
used for fighting fires. More
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high water users such as
Health Care Facilities, Hospitals, Research Facilities, Clinic / Health Unit, Laboratory:
Dry, Laboratory: Wet
Design Objectives
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism
Standards Tool
Federal Agencies
348
Publications
• Beneficial Landscaping Guidance (PDF 1.5 MB, 35 pgs) by the U.S. Coast Guard
Environmental Management Division (G-SEC-3).
• EPA NPDES General Permit for Storm Water Discharges From Construction
Activities—Fact Sheet (PDF 461 KB, 38 pgs).
• EPA Permitting Stormwater Discharges from Federal Facility Construction
Projects—Fact Sheet (PDF 108 KB, 3 pgs).
• EPA Storm Water Management for Construction Activities: Developing Pollution
Prevention Plans and Best Management Practices (PDF 4.2 MB, 39 pgs) by U.S.
EPA. 1992.
• FEMP Product Energy Efficiency Ratings (PEER) by U.S. Department of Energy.
Pages for water efficient fixtures include faucets, showerheads, urinals.
• GSA LEED® Applications Guide
• GSA LEED® Cost Study
• High Performance Building Guidelines by New York City Department of Design
and Construction. April 1999. Chapter on Water Management (PDF 182 KB, 6
pgs)
• Minnesota Sustainable Building Guidelines by Regents of the University of
Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, College Design, Center for Sustainable Buidling
Research. Section on Water
• The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting (PDF 1.9 MB, 88 pgs) by Texas
Water Development Board.
Organizations
Others
the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal
Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-
stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information
focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.
• Green Seal—Standards for environmentally responsible products including water
efficient fixtures
• International Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP) Database—
Developed under a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
BMP Database contains best management practices, and study references for the
effective design of stormwater management systems.
• Low Impact Development, EPA
• Smart Communities Network—Water Efficiency, DOE
• Strategic Computing Complex (SCC)—case study on the WBDG
• Water Efficiency, Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)
• Water Wiser—The Water Efficiency Clearinghouse
Overview
The composition of materials used in a building is a major factor in its life-cycle
environmental impact. Federal facilities must lead the way in the use of environmentally
preferable products and processes that do not pollute or unnecessarily contribute to the
waste stream, do not adversely affect health, and do not deplete limited natural resources.
As the growing global economy expands the demand for raw materials, it is no longer
sensible to throw away much of what we consider construction waste. Using a "cradle-to-
cradle" approach, the "waste" from one generation can become the "raw material" of the
next.
During the facility design and development process, federal projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
350
Recommendations
Renovate Existing Facilities, Products, and Equipment
• Consider trade offs among multiple environmental impacts (e.g., global warming,
resource depletion, indoor air quality) when determining environmental
preferability. That is, look at the "big picture" rather than simply shifting
problems from one impact to another. Employing LCA Tools like ATHENA and
BEES can simplify the process and give more credible results. See WBDG
Energy Analysis Tools.
• Consider trade offs among life-cycle stages (i.e., raw materials acquisition,
manufacturing, transportation, installation, use, and waste management) when
determining environmentally preferability. That is, look at the "big picture" rather
than simply shifting problems from one life-cycle stage to another.
• Use timber products obtained from sustainably managed forests, certified through
third-party agencies.
• Evaluate the substitution of bio-based materials or products, such as agricultural-
fiber sheathing, for inert or non-recycled alternatives.
Eliminate the Use of Materials that Pollute or are Toxic During Their
Manufacture, Use, or Reuse
352
• Within an acceptable category of product, use materials and assemblies with the
lowest level of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). See WBDG Evaluating and
Selecting Green Products.
• Eliminate the use of asbestos, lead, and PCBs in all products and assemblies. See
WBDG High-Performance HVAC.
• Eliminate the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons
(HCFCs) as refrigerants in all HVAC systems.
• Evaluate the use of materials and assemblies whose manufacture does not pollute
or create toxic conditions for workers. See also WBDG Secure/Safe—Ensure
Occupant Safety and Health > Provide Good Indoor Air Quality and Adequate
Ventilation and > Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials.
• Evaluate the use of locally produced products to stimulate local economies and
reduce transportation burdens.
• Evaluate the use of materials and assemblies that require minimum "embodied"
energy for raw materials acquisition, manufacture, transport, installation, and use.
Emerging Issues
Balancing Sustainability and Security/Safety
To ensure that security strategies are appropriately implemented for the desired level of
protection, designers are encouraged to conduct threat/vulnerability assessments and risk
analysis. To prevent unnecessary use of resources in a project, include only the security
measures identified by assessment and analysis. Evaluate the cost of comparable security
measures before making your final decision. For high-risk and critical facilities, the
increased use of materials and products is inevitable. In such cases, designers and
builders are encouraged to specify and use environmentally preferable products to the
maximum extent feasible. For example, as part of the Pentagon renovation work after the
9/11 terrorist attacks concrete rubble from damaged parts of the building were crushed
into gravel and reused as aggregate under concrete slabs. More
Section 9002 of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (Public Law 107-
171, May 13, 2002) confers Federal purchasing preference to bio-based products on the
basis of five criteria: environmental performance, cost performance, bio-based content,
technical performance, and availability. In support of this legislation, a Federal rule is
under development specifying that the USDA will establish a new "USDA Certified Bio-
based Product" label. To qualify for the label, bio-based products must be evaluated for
life-cycle environmental and cost performance by the NIST BEES tool.
353
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
Project Management
Tools
Others
Overview
In the struggle to build cost-effective buildings, it is easy to forget that the ultimate
success or failure of a project rests on its indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Healthy,
comfortable employees are invariably more satisfied and productive. Unfortunately, this
simple, compelling truth is often lost, for it is simpler to focus on the first-cost of a
project than it is to determine the value of increased user productivity and health. Federal
facilities should be constructed with an appreciation of the importance of providing high-
quality, interior environments for all users.
During the facility design and development process, federal projects must have a
comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:
• Facilitate quality IEQ through good design, construction, and operating and
maintenance practices;
• Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views and the integration of
natural and man-made elements;
• Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of personal control over
temperature and airflow;
• Supply adequate levels of ventilation and outside air to ensure indoor air quality;
• Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi through heating, ventilating, air-
conditioning (HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling indoor
humidity, and building envelope design that prevents the intrusion of moisture;
• Avoid the use of materials high in pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) or toxins;
• Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of sound absorbing material
and equipment isolation;
• Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of
cleaning products;
• Create a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration
of natural and artificial light sources; and
• Provide quality water.
358
Note: IEQ encompasses indoor air quality (IAQ), which focuses on airborne
contaminants, as well as other health, safety, and comfort issues such as aesthetics,
potable water surveillance, ergonomics, acoustics, lighting, and electromagnetic
frequency levels.
Recommendations
Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design, Construction, and O&M
Practices
Acceptable IEQ is often easiest to achieve if "source control" is practiced, not only during
building construction, but also over the life of the building. For example, the designer
may select building products that do not produce noxious or irritating odors; and design
exterior entrances with permanent entryway systems to catch and hold dirt particles. The
Operations & Maintenance (O&M) and cleaning staff can also avoid creating IEQ
problems by choosing less noxious materials during repair and cleaning activities. While
HVAC systems may be designed to isolate operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from
other occupancies, the O&M staff ensures that pressure differentials are maintained to
avoid the undesirable flow of contaminants from one space to another. See also WBDG
Sustainable O&M Practices.
• Appreciate the importance of providing windows in all occupied spaces for view
and natural ventilation. See also WBDG Aesthetics and Productive—Promote
Health and Well-Being.
• Design spaces around basic human needs, ancient preferences, and connections to
the patterns of nature and the mind. See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of
Space.
• Demand that individual buildings or facilities are consciously integrated into their
natural and man-made context. See also WBDG Sustainable—Optimize Site
Potential.
• Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for
Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
• Implement a construction management program that ensures key ventilation
components are protected from contamination during construction.
• Commission HVAC systems to ensure they operate and perform as designed. This
will ensure that adequate ventilation rates have been achieved prior to initial
occupancy. HVAC system should be installed with filters with a Minimum
Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 7.
• Investigate the use of separate outside air and conditioned air distribution systems.
A good description of various types of heating and ventilation systems can be
found at: WBDG High-Performance HVAC and Natural Ventilation.
• Ensure fresh air intakes are located away from loading areas, exhaust fans, and
other contamination points.
• Ensure parking lot/garage usage cannot generate pollutants that affect fresh air
intake or pedestrian traffic. Prevent vehicles idling near the facility during normal
operations.
• Consider installing loading dock purge fans.
• Investigate the use of a permanent air quality monitoring system. ASHRAE
acceptable level of carbon dioxide (CO2) for an indoor office environment is 1000
ppm ("normal" CO2 outside level is about 300 to 400 ppm). Carbon monoxide
(CO) levels in office environments should be below 2 ppm. OSHA regulates
levels of CO for industrial locations.
• Coordinate ventilation and air filtration with chemical, biological, and
radiological concerns and locate outside air intakes so they do not conflict with
physical security requirements. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.
• During operation, replace filters on periodic basis.
Prevention of mold and fungi is dependent upon effective HVAC and building envelope
design and construction. The HVAC system must be able to control interior humidity
conditions over a wide range of outdoor conditions. The system must be designed to have
the capacity to dehumidify at the 1% Humidity Ratio and mean coincident dry bulb
temperature, and control interior humidity at both extreme and low load conditions. The
building envelope must be carefully designed to prevent intrusion of water and to dry if
intrusion should occur. It must also incorporate barriers that control vapor and air
infiltration.
• Limit the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in such products as cleaners,
paints, sealants, coatings, and adhesives. See also WBDG Evaluating and
Selecting Green Products.
• Avoid products containing formaldehyde, i.e., carpet, wall panels, cabinetry.
• Remove asbestos-containing material or contain it in a manner that precludes the
possibility of future exposure.
• In areas where it is prevalent, include measures to control and mitigate radon
buildup.
• Create safe, convenient, and secure storage spaces for housekeeping chemicals.
See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
• If an area in an occupied building is being renovated, consider isolating and
negatively pressurizing the construction area if work is being performed that
would result in dust, fumes, or odors. If conditioned air is required due to high
end finishing work, the air should be directly exhausted to the exterior
environment and not returned to the fan.
• Ensure office equipment installed emit minimal odors or pollutants.
• Directly exhaust copying and housekeeping areas, and provide added return air
grills in these areas. This will help limit lower atmosphere ozone generation,
commonly associated with duplicating and printing processes. Ozone acts as a
power oxidant. It can attack surfaces of certain elastomers, plastics, paints, and
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pigments; and aid in sulfide and chloride corrosion of metals. Possible health
hazards caused by ozone include eye and mucous membrane irritation as well as
chronic respiratory disease.
• Minimize disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of
cleaning products.
• Ensure maintenance procedures are in place to remove all trash and recyclables
from the building on a regular basis rather than storing them within the building
for prolonged periods of time.
• Prohibit smoking in all areas of the building. Environmental Tobacco Smoke
(ETS) is a known carcinogen.
• In special cases where smoking is permitted, e.g., federal judge's private
chambers, ensure that the spaces:
o Have lower pressure than adjacent areas;
o Comply with ASHRAE Standard 62 for proper ventilation;
o Are isolated from the return air system of surrounding areas to prevent
pollutants from spreading to other areas.
• Comply with EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) for the levels of various
metals and bacteria in potable water systems.
• For newly installed or temporarily suspended domestic water systems, follow
"start-up" procedures by flushing all down stream outlets.
• Conduct periodic 'maintenance flushing' to proactively control drinking water
issues.
• Control domestic water temperature to avoid temperature ranges where
legionellae grow: keep domestic water temperatures above 140°F (60°C) in tanks
and 122°F (50°C) at all taps (faucets and showers).
• Design cooling tower and building air intake placement so air discharged from the
cooling tower or evaporative condenser is not directly brought into the facility's
air intake.
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• Consider a closed loop system instead of an open system to reduce the potential of
exposure at the cooling tower.
Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) are generated by forces associated with electric
charges in motion, and by microwaves, radio waves, electrical currents, and transformers.
EMF are thought to cause cancer, however there is insufficient evidence to prove this.
There are no federal standards limiting occupational or residential exposure to EMF at
this time, only various U.S. and International voluntary occupational exposure guidelines.
Nevertheless, facility designers and managers should consult the following resources to
find out the latest scientific research and recommendations on dealing with EMF
exposure:
Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, building owners and occupants have placed greater
emphasis on facility security and safety. However, security and safety measures must be
considered within a total project context, including the project's environmental goals.
Several indoor environmental quality strategies, such as dedicated ventilation systems
and tight building envelopes, can be employed to help designers achieve an integrated,
high performance facility. See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability
Objectives.
Major Resources
WBDG
Applicable to most building types and space types, especially for Child Development
Centers, Training Facility, Federal Courthouse, Health Care Facilities, Libraries, Office
Building, Auditorium, Conference / Classroom, Courthouse: Courtroom, Library (Space
Type), Office
Design Objectives
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
Others
• Air Force: Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for
Prevention of Mold in Air Force Facilities.
• Indoor Environmental Standards Organization (IESO)—IESO is a non-profit
organization that provides a national forum for the development and publication
of voluntary consensus standards for the assessment of indoor environments.
IESO also offers certification programs to promote awareness and compliance to
the established standards. The IESO Standards of Practice, Volume 1 for the
assessment of indoor air quality includes seven standards on two topics: Mold
Sampling and Assessment of Mold Contamination.
• OSHA, Molds & Fungi website
• Cleaning Products Pilot Project (CPPP), EPA (PDF 388 KB, 25 pgs)
• Environmentally Preferable Purchasing, EPA
• Greenguard Environmental Institute Certified Products
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Publications
• How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.
• HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K.
Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford,
T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish
Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.
ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.
• IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish
Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.
ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.
• Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppänen, Fellow
ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D.
ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
368
Overview
No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can
only remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. The use of toxic
cleaning products can deteriorate indoor air quality; failure to test sensor control points
can compromise energy efficiency; and poor training can lead to early system failures.
Buildings must be operated and maintained with the security, safety, health, comfort, and
productivity of their occupants in mind, and with an understanding of the next
generation's need to reuse and recycle building components.
Throughout the building's life cycle, operations and maintenance should seek to:
Recommendations
Train Building Occupants, Facilities Managers, and Maintenance Staff in
Sustainability Principles and Methods
• Develop a Pest Control Plan, which includes information about: materials and
equipment for service; method for monitoring and detection; service schedule for
each building or site; any structural or operational changes that would facilitate
the pest control effort; and commercial pesticide applicator certificates or
licenses.
• Where unavoidable, use non-toxic outdoor fertilizers and pesticides.
• Consider composting/recycling yard waste.
• Minimize site disturbance. See also WBDG Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential.
• Use landscaping products with recycled content as required by EPA's
Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) for landscaping products.
• See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.
Major Resources
WBDG
Design Objectives
• 01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning
371
Project Management
Building Commissioning
Tools
LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism
Standards Tool
• Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers by
U.S. EPA and National Institute for Safety and Health.
• Energy Star®, EPA
373
Publications
• HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K.
Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford,
T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.
374
Architecture
by Julie Gabrielli, NCARB, LEED and Amy E. Gardner, AIA
University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation
Introduction
The modern profession of architecture echoes with its origins, its rich history, and the
fast-paced changes of the 21st century. Through antiquity, architecture and construction
were united by the cultural intentions of a "Master Builder," who balanced art, science,
materials, form, style and craft to achieve his vision.
Roger K. Lewis illustrates that architects balance ideas, form, and function.
(Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)
"The regulated profession of architecture is relatively new. Yet there have been architects
for as long as societies have built, with little distinction between designers and builders.
In ancient, traditional cultures and languages, the same word was used for both architect
and builder. Construction was an integrated craft in which the master mason or master
carpenter knew how to design, to assemble labor and materials, to estimate costs, to
manage the construction process, and to erect structures from foundation to roof."
(Roger K. Lewis, p.149, from Architect? A Candid Guide to the Profession)
Beginning in the seventeenth century, with the rise of professionalism, the discipline of
architecture became increasingly specialized. With the nineteenth century expansion of
scientific knowledge, the evolution of other technically oriented disciplines such as
375
This specialist role now forms the basis of most widely accepted modern definitions of
architectural practice. For instance, the United States Department of Labor defines
architects as licensed professionals who transform space needs into concepts, images, and
plans of buildings to be constructed by others. Still, echoes of the "Master Builder"
remain, as architects are usually responsible for orchestrating and coordinating the work
of many disciplines during the design phases. It is not unusual for architects also to be
involved in the early stages of project feasibility, to help clients define a program, choose
the site, and otherwise decide on highest and best uses.
Description
Legal and Cultural Definitions
The discipline of architecture has both legal and cultural definitions. In the United States,
all states have regulations that govern conditions of licensure, registration, use of the title
"architect" and the provision of professional services, succinctly summarized by The
American Institute of Architects. Each state or jurisdiction creates its own requirements
for each of these aspects of the discipline. While legal definitions mandate the ways in
which the profession is responsible for safeguarding the health, safety, and welfare of the
public, cultural definitions characterize the ways in the discipline responds to social,
aesthetic, and ethical aspects of making cities, buildings, and landscapes. A "whole
building" approach must necessarily incorporate both sets of disciplinary definitions.
Architect's Role
376
Sometimes beauty and functionality are in tension, as seen by Roger K. Lewis. (Courtesy
Roger K. Lewis)
Today, the required legal, technical, and cultural knowledge base has such breadth and
depth that it is no longer in the best interest of the project for one discipline to hold,
implement, and be responsible for all building-related knowledge, as did the Master
Builder of old. Professional malpractice concerns have led liability insurance companies
to encourage, even implicitly force, architects to limit activities to design. For example,
"construction supervision" became "construction observation," moving the architect
further away from the risks associated with construction activities.
According to some industry analysts, such as Carl Sapers, the architect's role has been
further limited by the idea that buildings are commodities, consisting of assemblies of
standard materials and systems best understood by their suppliers and constructors. New
forms of project delivery, including "design/build", "bridging", and "construction
management", come out of a belief that architects are no longer able to stay abreast of
complex information in order to lead the design process on the owner's behalf. (Carl
Sapers, "Toward Architectural Practice in the 21st Century," in Harvard Design
Magazine, Fall 2003/Winter 2004)
With whole building design, the project team can be guided once again by a collective
vision. This structure, along with the process by which the design team works together,
has been termed byBill Reed as the "Composite Master Builder". The term recasts the
377
The cast of specialists is potentially quite large, and depending on the complexity of the
project, can include:
A cast of specialists worked together to design building systems using the building
section as a tool. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist
(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation)
Architects in the United States have historically been bound by comprehensive legal
requirements and responsibilities for the building design. They are legally obligated to
safeguard the public health, safety, and welfare. This presumes that architects maintain at
minimum a clear overview of the project team's work. Arguably, the most effective way
to discharge this public duty is to oversee and coordinate the work of the project team.
378
The profession emphasizes comprehensive training in the arts and sciences, as well as a
holistic approach to design problems. Architectural education teaches both abstract and
concrete problem-solving. Its core skills are learned and re-learned, in an iterative process
that incorporates history, theory, technology, and other social and cultural factors.
Architects are both specialists and generalists, which ideally enables them to
communicate effectively with other specialists while maintaining the "big-picture" view
of the project goals.
In addition to health, safety, and welfare considerations, buildings incorporate the culture
that created them. The built environment is both "mirror and lamp", shaping while acting
as a repository of cultural meaning. As Churchill said, "We shape our buildings;
thereafter they shape us." With their knowledge of the arts and culture, architects hold a
comprehensive understanding of the project context and can help the design team move
beyond mere problem-solving.
As leaders and participants in the design process, architects need to understand and work
collaboratively with other disciplines. To this end, architects need to pursue education
and training throughout their professional careers. Many excellent examples of
interdisciplinary design studios exist in the United States. These studios involve students,
faculty, practicing design and engineering professionals, and even clients and regulatory
officials. Some studios participate in service-learning projects to build structures for
deserving clients. Everyone involved—students, professionals and members of the
community—benefits from the process itself, as well as the cross-pollination of ideas and
techniques. Examples include Studio 804 at the University of Kansas School of
Architecture and Urban Design, and Architecture 600/611 Comprehensive Studio and
Advanced Technology at the University of Maryland's School of Architecture, Planning,
and Preservation.
this education involves technical training, management courses, legal and liability issues,
and learning about new materials and products. The practice of seeking out training in the
various aspects of leadership of an integrated design team, such as workshop facilitation,
is not yet common. However, critical skills are needed to assume this role, which was
addressed in a recent article in Environmental Building News. Current practitioners of
integrated design, such as Terry Brennan of Camroden Associates, observe that architects
have the intention to become cooperative but lack the skills. "The lead designer must be
skilled in nurturing and giving form to the collective vision, rather than expressing his or
her own vision. Not all architects are comfortable with this role, which is more akin to
that of a midwife than to that of an individual artist." (EBN, November 2004, "Integrated
Design" feature article)
Project charrettes for the Kingman Island Environmental Education Center establish early
and regular interaction among design team members.
(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation)
In daily practice, early and regular, structured interaction of the "Composite Master
Builder," is critical to establishing a project vision and maintaining momentum
throughout the design and construction process. Activities might include charrettes,
workshops, peer review, and post-occupancy review.
• accessibility
• aesthetics
• cost-effective solutions
• functional and operational considerations
• preservation of cultural artifacts
• productive environment for users
• safety and security
• environmental sustainability.
Emerging Issues
Evolution of Building Types
380
The context of architectural practice is always evolving. Beginning with the subject of
buildings themselves, the cataloguing of building types is a practice as old as the
discipline. It is common to see evolution of building and program types, and adaptive
reuse of waning types, as a mirror of a culture. Building types evolve in response to
cultural change—new programmatic needs, recent events that challenge norms of an
equitable accessibility as well as secure facilities and environments, and changes in
practice to accommodate a diverse populace. Department stores, train stations, shopping
malls, airports, high-rise apartment buildings, living machines, and recycling centers have
changed our building and urban landscapes.
Left: Cultural preservation and resource conservation in action at the Bradley residence,
designed by Amy E. Gardner AIA.
(Photo by the authors)
And Right: In the Brown residence designed by Julie Gabrielli, sustainable design takes a
"cradle-to-cradle" view, combining antique timbers with 21st century technologies—a
"wondrous hybrid".
(Photo by the authors)
In fact, the tilt towards a sustainable practice might well be thought of as an expected
standard of practice, encompassing issues such as those connected to planning, zoning,
and building codes; building science and performance; energy sources, management, and
use; material resource management, science, and invention; and broad concepts of waste
and renewal of natural and technical systems. Discussions of these concepts is
persuasively argued by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in Cradle to Cradle.
Impact of Technology
A significant current trend in computer programs for building design and documentation,
for example, is the move towards Building Information Modeling. The initial purpose of
computer drawing systems was to automate two dimensional drafting. It did so through
representing three dimensional building elements with an assemblage of two dimensional
symbols such as lines. However, Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an object-
oriented CAD system, in which two-dimensional symbols that stood for building
elements are replaced by three-dimensional objects with embedded information, capable
of representing elements of construction. This allows for multiple views to be generated,
for multiple building systems to be coordinated, for materials and quantities to be known
and referenced to each other, all during the design and documentation phases of a project.
These qualities allow for a degree of interconnectedness during design and
documentation phases not readily achievable in two-dimensional CAD systems.
Industry experts predict that BIM will revolutionize not only the delivery of design and
documents, but also the relationship between design team members, owners, and
construction entities and the relationship between design and construction activities.
However, Ken Sanders, FAIA, observes in the September 2004 issue of Architectural
Record: that "the critical path isn't BIM, but rather process innovation squarely focused
on people, partnerships, shared expertise, and timely decision making." Nevertheless
changes in the way that design teams conceive, develop, and communicate information
about buildings are positioned to have a dramatic impact on the practice of architecture.
Currently, three project delivery methods dominate in the United States: design-bid-build,
design-build, and construction management. In order to assist owners and the
construction industry by establishing accepted definitions of project delivery methods,
the AIA and the Associated General Contractors of America jointly created a document
entitled "Primer on Project Delivery", offering information on these methods for owners
and architects. However, each method may be summarized to capture a flavor of the
intent. Design-bid-build is a method by which project delivery is separated into three
distinct phases: a project is designed and documented with drawings and specifications,
competitively bid to multiple general contractors, and then built by the general contractor,
guided by a contract with the owner of the project. Design-build is a project delivery
method in which a single entity (for example a general contractor in a joint venture with a
design team including architects and engineers) holds a single contract with an owner for
both the design and construction of a project. Finally, the construction management
method is a process that involves the coordination and management of the entire process
via a single entity—from site survey through occupation. It encompasses the evaluation,
selection, and management of all contractors, as well as the administration of the project
budget relative to the implementation of design.
Contracts
Both project delivery methods and internal project management roles are evolving in a
manner commensurate with evolutions in digital technologies, building technology, and
construction case law. Similarly, contracts evolve following events in construction and
professional case law. Currently, more than 90 documents authored by The American
Institute of Architects constitute an industry standard for contracts and project
administration forms—according to the AIA, "a significant body of case law concerning
contracts for design and construction is based largely on the language of AIA standard
forms."
Conclusion
384
Since at least the Code of Hammurabi in the 18th Century BC, there have been codes
governing the design and construction of buildings. While Hammurabi had rather onerous
requirements for quality (for instance, if the owner is killed by a building, its builder is
sentenced to death), many subsequent codes were established in reaction to dramatic
events such as fires, earthquakes, and floods. Some codes, such as the Code of Napoleon,
18th Century AD, provided for loss replacement as a sort of insurance policy. Still other
codes established rules for materials or systems: the Lord Mayor of London in 1189
required party walls between buildings, and the Charlestown General Assembly in 1740
required brick and stone for exterior walls.
Until recently, most building codes have been prescriptive, effectively casting design
professionals in the role of negotiators between the owner's ideas and the realities of
codes. High-performance, integrated building design recently started leading design
teams away from this "just barely legal" approach. As a tool to aid in this process, the
new performance-based building codes give the design team more flexibility in meeting
requirements.
385
1. List of Codes
The international Code Council (ICC) was formed from the joining of publishers of
National and Standard Building Codes, Building Officials and Code Administrators
International, the Southern Building Code Congress International, and the International
Conference of Building Officials. The result of their merging was the International Code
Series—part of the U.S.'s first unified comprehensive and coordinated building codes.
B. Codes:
Many of these organizations have voluntary standards for quality assurance. Others
publish standards that are referenced by the LEED Green Building Rating Guide, for
meeting requirements of various credits.
• American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA) (formerly the National Forest
Products Association)
• American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• APA - The Engineered Wood Association (APA)
386
Major Resources
Professional Associations
Related Organizations
Bibliography
History/Theory
• A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, 2nd edition by Spiro Kostof and
Greg Castillo. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995.
• A History of Architectural Theory: From Vitruvius to the Present by Hanno-
Walter Kruft. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994.
• Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968 by Harry
Mallgrave. New York, NY: Cambrige University Press, 2005.
• Sir Banister Fletcher's History of Architecture by Sir Banister Fletcher. New
York, NY: C. Scribner's Sons, London, UK: B.T. Batsford, 1945.
388
Practice
Digital Technologies
Webliography
• Building Envelopes.org
• Building Science Corporation
• DOE: Building Energy Codes
• ebuild
• HUD User: Building Technology
• Toolbase Services
• Whole Building Design Guide—Mandates/References
• Whole Building Design Guide—Construction Criteria Base
b. Materials:
391
• BuildingGreen.com
• Built Green
• Center for the Built Environment
• Center for Resourceful Building Technology
• Development Center for Appropriate Technology
• DOE: Building Energy Codes
• Eco-Home™ Network
• Green Building Alliance
• Green Matrix
• Greener Buildings
• Greenroofs.com
• High-Performance Buildings Research
• Institute for the Built Environment
• NAHB Research Center: Guide to Developing Green Builder Programs
• OIKOS: Green Building Source
• Sustainable Buildings Industry Council
• Sustainable Sources
d. Recycling:
• GreenGoat
• Recyclers' World
• ReDo: Reuse Development Organization
• Steel Recycling Institute
Journals
• AIArchitect
• Architecture
• Architecture Week
• Architectural Digest
• Architectural Record
• Architectural Review
• Archis
• Building Design and Construction
• Detail
• Dwell
• Ecotecture.com
• Environmental Building News
• Environmental Design and Construction
• Fine Homebuilding
• Harvard Design Magazine
• Metropolis
• Residential Architect
• Traditional Building
• Wood Design and Building
• Energy-10
• IES "Virtual Environment" (IES (USA) Limited)
• REScheck (U.S. DOE Building Energy Codes Program, Residential Compliance)
• TRNSYS - (TRaNsient SYstem Simulation Program)
• VisualDOE (Architectural Energy Corporation)
Training
Acknowledgements
–Credit and gratitude to Roger K. Lewis FAIA for wisdom, insight, and the use of his
cartoons
–Credit and gratitude also to George Holback AIA for the ideas in the section on the the
History of Building Codes
394
Tools
Welcome to the Tools section of the Whole Building Design Guide. These pages offer
information on a variety of desktop or Web-based tools used in the building industry.
Browse Alphabetically
Browse by Category
Code Compliance
Cost-Estimating
Design & Analysis
Energy Analysis
Life-Cycle Costing / Assessment
Life-Cycle Management / Maintenance
Professional & Construction Services
Program & Project Management
Specification Aids