1851665676

STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO
REPEATED LOADING
Stability and Strength

STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO REPEATED
LOADING
STABILITY AND STRENGTH
A Series of Books Reviewing Advances in Structural Engineering
Edited by R.Narayanan, The Steel Construction Institute,
Silwood Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7QN, UK
The inspiration for this series comes from the recognition of the significant
advances made in our understanding of the behaviour of structures as a result of
research during the past decade. These advances have, in turn, set new trends and
caused major changes in the design codes in many countries. Even the
philosophy of design has seen a major shift from the permissible stress basis to
the concepts of limit state.
Much research effort continues to be directed towards a better understanding of
the complex behaviour of structures in the post-elastic, post-buckling and
ultimate stages. Nevertheless, the ultimate benefit to be derived from the
substantially improved knowledge depends on its effective implementation.
Much needs to be done to bridge the gap between the results of research and
their effective use by practitioners of the art. The purpose of these books is to
explain the current theories and to present material which has been (or will be)
influential in the generation of design specifications.
Each volume in the series is devoted to a central theme and contains a number
of papers of the ‘state-of-the-art’ type on various topics within the selected
theme. The aim is to present articles concerned with current developments along
with sufficient introductory material, so that a graduate engineer with some basic
analytical background and familiarity with structural stability concepts can
follow it without having to undertake any substantial background reading. An
effort has been made to limit the treatment to advances of practical significance
and avoid lengthy theoretical discussions.
Throughout the series emphasis has been given to the international aspects of
structural steel research. In terms of both design codes and safety parameters, the
experiences and practices in Europe, North America and Japan are widely
referenced. All the authors are well known experts who are internationally
recognised for their contributions in the relevant fields.
Titles of published volumes:
(1) Axially Compressed Structures
(2) Plated Structures
(3) Beams and Beam Columns
iii
(4) Shell Structures

(5) Steel Framed Structures
(6) Concrete Framed Structures
(7) Steel-Concrete Composite Structures
(8) Structural Connections
STRUCTURES
SUBJECTED TO
REPEATED LOADING
Edited by
R.NARAYANAN
M.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D., D.I.C., C.Eng., F.I.C.E.,
F.I.Struct.E.,
Manager (Education and Publications), The Steel
Construction Institute,
Ascot, United Kingdom.
and
T.M.ROBERTS
B.Sc., Ph.D., C.Eng., M.I.C.E, M.I.Struct.E
School of Engineering, University of Wales
College of Cardiff,
United Kingdom.
ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE

LONDON and NEW YORK
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
Crown House, Linton Road, Barking, Essex IG11 8JU, England
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of
thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”
Sole Distributor in the USA and Canada
ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHING CO., INC.
655 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10010, USA
WITH 18 TABLES AND 153 ILLUSTRATIONS
© 1991 ELSEVIER SCIENCE PUBLISHERS LTD
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Structures subjected to repeated loading.
1. Structures. Loads. Effects
I. Narayanan, R. II. Roberts, T.M. III. Series
624.172
ISBN 0-203-97504-9 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 1-85166-567-6 (Print Edition)
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Structures subjected to repeated loading: stability and strength
edited by R.Narayanan and T.M.Roberts.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Structural stability. 2. Strength of materials.
I. Narayanan. R. II. Roberts. T.M., 1946-
TA656.S78 1991
624.1′7–dc20 90–14075
CIP
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or
operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.
Special regulations for readers in the USA
This publication has been registered with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. (CCC), Salem,
Massachusetts. Information can be obtained from the CCC about conditions under which
photocopies of parts of this publication may be made in the USA. All other copyright
questions, including photocopying outside the USA, should be referred to the publisher.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.
PREFACE
It gives us great pleasure to write a short preface to the book on Structures

Subjected to Repeated Loading, the ninth in the series of volumes on Stability
and Strength of Structures.
Understanding fatigue damage consequent on repeated loading of structures,
becomes extremely important in view of the relatively low margins of safety
implicit in present day designs using Limit State Codes. Fatigue is a complex
phenomenon, influenced by a large number of independent and often
unquantifiable variables. Much research has been carried out in recent years,
with a view to developing satisfactory techniques of quantifying fatigue effects,
which would aid in safe and acceptable designs. The book begins with an
introduction to fatigue assessment and fracture mechanics applicable to
structures; this is followed by state-of-the-art reports on several facets of the
effect of repeated loading.
As with other books in the series, the book is aimed at the graduate student
and the designer; it can be followed by anyone with a basic knowledge of
structural analysis. We have continued the practice of inviting internationally
acclaimed experts to make contributions on several selected areas.
As Editors, we wish to express our gratitude to all the contributors for their
willing cooperation in producing this volume. We sincerely hope that the book will
be stimulating and useful to its readers.
R.NARAYANAN
T.M.ROBERTS
CONTENTS
Preface vi
List of Contributors viii
1. Fatigue Assessment and Fracture Mechanics in Structural 1

Engineering
I.F.C.SMITH
2. Fatigue Damage Accumulation under Varying-Amplitude Loads 22
F.J.Z.WERNEMAN
3. Effect of Residual Stresses on the Fatigue of Welds 48
S.SARKANI
4. Fatigue Cracking in Plate and Box Girders 63
Y.MAEDAY.KAWAI & I.OKURA
5. Fatigue Strength of Adhesively Bonded Cover Plates 90
P.ALBRECHT
6. Fatigue of Tubular Joints in Offshore Structures 111
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
7. Case Studies and Repair of Fatigue-Damaged Bridge Structures 158
J.W.FISHER & C.C.MENZEMER
8. Reinforced-Concrete Frames Subjected to Cyclic Load 182
C.MEYER
9. Unstiffened Steel Plate Shear Walls 210
G.L.KULAK
Index 245
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
P.ALBRECHT
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park,
Maryland 20742, USA
J.W.FISHER
ATLSS Engineering Research Center, Lehigh University, Pennsylvania
18075, USA
Y.KAWAI
Research and Development Center, Kawasaki Steel Corporation, Chiba,
Japan
G.L.KULAK
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton,
Canada, T6G 2G7
Y.MAEDA,
Emeritus Professor, Osaka University, 2–1, Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka
565, Japan
C.C.MENZEMER
ATLSS Scholar, Lehigh University, Pennsylvania 18015, USA
C.MEYER
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia
University, New York 10027, USA
I.OKURA
Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka University, 2–1, Yamadaoka,
Suita, Osaka 565, Japan
S.SARKANI
Department of Civil, Mechanical and Environmental Engineering, The
George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
ix
I.F.C.SMITH
ICOM, Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
Offshore Engineering Division, The Steel Construction Institute, Silwood
Park, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7QN, UK
F.J.ZWERNEMAN
School of Civil Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater,
Oklahoma 74078–0327, USA
Chapter 1
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT AND
FRACTURE MECHANICS IN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
I.F.C.SMITH
ICOM, Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland
SUMMARY
Although fatigue is a complicated phenomenon, special conditions in
structural engineering create opportunities for simplification. Variations in
material properties of steels and environmental conditions are usually of
secondary importance owing to built-in stresses, discontinuities and stress
gradients. Thus, the two most important factors affecting the fatigue life of
a structure are geometry and stress range. Also, structures which are
subject to fatigue loading need to be designed, fabricated, erected,
inspected and maintained according to special criteria.
A summary of basic fracture-mechanics principles is presented and
some applications in structural engineering are examined. Although
fracturemechanics concepts are gaining acceptance in structural
engineering, they should be used with caution when assessing large
structures. Often, the complexity of the design problem precludes the use
of sophisticated approaches which are employed in other fields. Aside from
their obvious utility for strength calculations, fracture-mechanics
principles increase the qualitative understanding of structures containing
cracks. Also, fracture-mechanics methods enable quantitative analyses to
be undertaken for associated problems which were previously solved more
subjectively—such as decisions regarding inspection and repair.
NOTATION
a Crack length
ai Initial crack length
2 I.F.C.SMITH
acr Critical crack length

a0 Detectable crack length
′a Crack length increment
A Crack-growth constant
CTOD Crack-tip-opening displacement
d Crack opening
E Young’s modulus
J J integral
K Stress-intensity factor
′K Stress-intensity factor range
′ Kth Threshold stress intensity factor range
l Length of attachment
m Crack growth constant
n Number of inspections
N Number of cycles
r Polar coordinate from crack tip
t Plate thickness
W Correction for stress field
Y Correction for crack shape and plate edges
′ Polar coordinate from crack tip
v Poissons’s ratio
σ Stress remote from a crack
σy Effective yield strength
σ yy Local stress in y-direction
′σ Stress range
1.1
INTRODUCTION
Fatigue cracking may threaten structures and consequently fatigue has long been
recognised as a design constraint. Failures may occur in bridges, cranes, gantry
girders, chimneys, transmission towers and marine platforms. The cost of
repairing a fatigue-damaged structure may exceed the initial capital investment.
Therefore, fatigue assessments should be based upon a rational evaluation of all
factors which are relevant to the intended use.
Although standard fatigue-assessment methods provide sufficient information
for good design under most cases of repeated loading, their simplicity precludes
explicit consideration of all factors. For example, standard methods cannot
evaluate the effects of cracks in structural elements. Fracture-mechanics
(henceforth FM) principles enable a more detailed assessment of such elements
to be carried out.
This chapter reviews fatigue assessments for cases of large structures and
discusses considerations necessary for good fatigue design and effective
FATIGUE ASSESSMENT AND FRACTURE MECHANICS 3
management during post-design stages. Also, basic fracture mechanics concepts

are described. Some problems which are particular to structural engineering are
outlined, and examples of FM applications are presented.
Although the occurrence of fatigue cracking in concrete structures is
increasing, discussions in this chapter are limited to steel structures for two
reasons. Firstly, there is general agreement in the engineering community
regarding fatigue assessment of steel structures, while corresponding procedures
for concrete structures vary greatly. Secondly, FM analyses for steel structures
are better verified and probably more versatile than for concrete structures.
1.2
FACTORS AFFECTING FATIGUE LIFE OF
STRUCTURES
1.2.1
Four Categories of Factors
The factors which influence the fatigue life of structures can be placed into the
following four categories:
– geometry,
– stresses,
– environment,
– material properties.
Geometrical factors determine where and how quickly fatigue failure occurs.
These factors incude span, spacing between elements, orientation of elements,
joint geometry, stress concentrations, as well as small discontinuities such as
scratches, surface pitting, grinding marks, non-fatigue cracks, and welding-
process discontinuities.
Factors in the stress category influence whether or not fatigue cracking occurs.
Unfortunately, stress parameters often possess the greatest statistical uncertainty
in a fatigue analysis. Stress range, mean stress, residual stresses, stress sequence,
impact stresses, lack-of-fit stresses, stresses due to thermal gradients, and
movement-induced stresses are important factors.
Environmental factors can induce fatigue cracking in an otherwise safe
structure and can accelerate fatigue cracking through corrosion and
creep mechanisms near the crack tip. Environmental factors include the effects
of corrosive liquids or gases, temperature, humidity, hydrogen and irradiation.
Fortunately in most cases, environmental factors can be neglected if protection is
provided.
Material properties determine how the structure reacts to factors in the other
three categories. Material properties include stress-strain behaviour, grain size
4 I.F.C.SMITH
and shape, hardness, energy absorption, chemical composition, homogeneity and

microstructural discontinuities.
Different combinations of these factors create a wide range of fatiguecracking
conditions. Design strategies for one case may not be appropriate for other cases
if the most dominant factors are not the same. For example, it would be unwise
to employ a given fatigue-design strategy for bridge design because it is known
that the strategy suffices for aircraft. Fortunately, the factors associated with
fatigue cracking in large structures create a situation where simplifications are
possible. These factors are discussed next.
1.2.2
Simplifications for Large Welded Steel Structures
In large welded steel structures, it is very difficult to avoid built-in stresses at
crack locations. Residual stresses due to welding, stresses caused by unwanted
deformations during fabrication, and lack-of-fit problems during erection can
create situations where stresses near possible crack locations approach the tensile
yield strength of the material. In addition, the configuration of the structure may
contribute to high stresses. Fig. 1.1 shows three magnitudes of geometrical
effects. The highest magnitude, the overall structural configuration, can be such
that differential settlement of supports, thermal gradients in the structure, and the
behaviour of expansion joints contribute to these built-in stresses.
Considering all these factors leads to the conclusion that even without applied
loading, real levels of stress are unknown in all but very simple structures.
Furthermore, it should be assumed that at possible crack locations, stresses near
the tensile yield strength of the steel are present. Applied mean stress levels and
stress sequence have little importance under such conditions. Therefore, applied
stress range becomes the only significant factor in the stress category. Many
international and national design documents already incorporate this
simplification, e.g. ECCS (1985), Fisher (1977), SIA (1979), BSI (1980a).
Other simplications are possible owing to the special geometrical factors for
the middle and smallest magnitudes of Fig. 1.1. For the middle magnitude, local
stress concentrations are caused by details such as welded attachments.
Generally, effects of such attachments are very important; they may magnify the
applied stress by more than five times. Fortunately, such magnification is
extremely localised in an area that, for typical stress ranges, is only tens of grains
large. Elsewhere, the stress ranges are not magnified to similar degrees. This
means that the structure behaves elastically during fatigue loading.
For the smallest magnitude (Fig 1.1) small weld-induced discontinuities are
unavoidable. Even rigorous quality requirements have been unsuccessful in
removing crack-like discontinuities less than 0·1 mm deep (Smith & Smith, 1982).
Such discontinuities are not easily detectable (their depth equals the thickness of
an average piece of paper) but their presence eliminates any significant period of
crack nucleation and short-crack growth (sometimes called crack initiation). This
FIG. 1.1. Three magnitudes of geometric effects.
is especially true when built-in stresses are high; as discussed above, this is
generally the case.
The combination of these factors has two more important consequences.
Firstly, the fatigue process in the presence of crack-like discontinuities subject to
elastic stress ranges, sometimes called long-crack propagation, leads to
propagation rates which are known to be indepen dent of steel quality and yield
strength for steels employed in large welded structures (Rolfe & Barsom, 1977).
Therefore, changes in material properties do not affect fatigue life—provided that
the steel is of standard structural quality. This provides an important
simplification as well as a justification for international harmonisation of design
guidelines.
Secondly, the presence of crack-like discontinuities and predominantly elastic
conditions reduces the effect of changes in environmental conditions. Exposure
to a mildly corrosive environment, such as the humidity under a bridge over a
river, does not usually mean that the fatigue life is reduced. For the same reason,
the usual initial corrosion which is expected of weathering steels does not reduce
fatigue lives of unpainted structures made from this type of steel.
1.2.3
The Two Most Important Factors
From the above discussion, it can be concluded that only two factors affect the
fatigue life of large welded steel structures: stress range and geometry. This has
been verified experimentally (e.g. Hirt et al., 1971). Figure 1.2 summarises the
6 I.F.C.SMITH
FIG. 1.2. Special conditions leading to simplifications of fatigue assessments.
reasons behind this conclusion. Note that such simplifications are possible only
under certain conditions; generalisation to all cases of fatigue cracking is not
justified. For example, assessment of offshore structures requires a more detailed
consideration of environmental effects.
Since many factors have a reduced influence upon fatigue lives of large
structures, the relative importance of stress range and geometry is increased.
Moreover, applied stress ranges are increasing in structures owing to the trend
toward use of higher-strength steels. Also, an unanticipated increase in use
generally increases the number and magnitude of stress ranges during the life of
the structure. Therefore, geometrical factors are becoming even more important
to the integrity of structures subject to fatigue loading.
In large structures, the severity of geometrical effects can be minimized by
judicious selection of dimensions and configurations for the largest and middle
magnitudes of Fig. 1.1. Such selection can be called ‘fatigue-resistant design’
and it is discussed further in the next section.
1.3
FATIGUE-RESISTANT DESIGN
Good design practice involves special considerations in three areas: structural
systems, detailing, and factors affecting fabrication and erection. The following
discussion provides recommendations for good fatigue design according to these
areas. These recommendations provide examples for bridges only; a complete
documentation for all types of structures is beyond the scope of this chapter.
1.3.1
Fatigue-Resistant Structural Systems
Structures need to be designed so that they are not subject to large numbers of
high stress ranges. For example, a railway-bridge structure should not be sensitive
to wheel loads and dynamic effects. Wheel-load sensitivity can be minimised
through avoiding short members, employing composite construction and using
ballast. On highway bridges, dynamic effects are reduced if smooth surfaces
over joints can be maintained throughout the life of the structure. This may
require a review of foundation-design criteria and specification of reliable
expansion joints. Also, the number of expansion joints should be kept to a
minimum; they should be employed only if analysis demonstrates a need.
Continuousspan bridges need fewer expansion joints and, therefore, they
experience less dynamic stress magnification.
Components in structures should be analysed correctly for their service
behaviour. For example, partial fixity provided at the connection between two
members should be included in the assessment. Although such fixity, such as
that between a beam and a diaphragm in a bridge, is ignored for ultimate-limit-
state assessments, service stresses can induce fatigue cracking at such
connections. The model used during analysis should also be able to cope with
deformation-induced stresses. For example, simplified force models do not
usually provide enough information for analysis of skew bridges.
It is important that structures subjected to fatigue loading are designed so that
they are easy to inspect and to maintain. Fatigue critical details should be
identified and remain accessible for regular inspection. The structure should be
protected from corrosive effects of rain water, de-icing salts and drainage which
does not feed directly into the ground. Decks which are correctly sealed and
drainage pipes which avoid contact of the structure with rain water prevent
corrosion-induced fatigue cracking.
Finally, structures should be designed to be tolerant of potential fatigue
cracks. Certain structural systems can redistribute loads; in the event of local
fatigue cracking, this redistribution may provide an early warning of a potential
overall failure. Other engineering fields have termed this ‘fail-safe design’.
Several damage scenarios should be investigated, and the remaining redundancy
of the structure after fatigue cracking has occurred should be evaluated.
Furthermore, local failure may lead to unacceptable service behaviour; for
example, fatigue cracking of a railway-bridge element supporting a rail may lead
to derailment.
1.3.2
Fatigue-Resistant Detailing
In general terms, details should be designed so that they have low stress
concentrations and small discontinuities. This is achieved through avoiding
8 I.F.C.SMITH
details such as: web gaps at the end of stiffeners, sudden changes in stiffness,
partial-penetration welds, load-carrying fillet welds, and intermittent welding.
Note that non-load-carrying attachments may in fact carry enough load to induce
cracking. In such cases, built-in defects caused by lack of penetration are
potential fatigue-crack sites.
In all cases, the key to fatigue-resistant detailing is a rational consideration of
factors affecting fatigue life early in the design process. A fatigue check
performed after details have been designed to other criteria may result in a costly
and inadequate structure.
1.3.3
Factors Affecting Fabrication and Erection
At the design stage, fabricators and contractors should be consulted. Such
consultation identifies the most appropriate specifications for criteria such as
quality assurance. Also, this contact provides an opportunity to point out areas
which are most sensitive to fatigue cracking, and to discuss special precautions.
Finally, and probably most important, establishing communication links at an
early stage encourages the transfer of new information concerning the structure
during post-design stages. Such information may originate from modifications
during erection, or from last-minute decisions regarding a change in use of the
structure. In all cases, the designer should monitor closely fabrication and
erection procedures. No modifications to designs should be made without
approval of all parties.
1.4
FRACTURE MECHANICS IN STRUCTURAL
ENGINEERING
Originally, most structural-engineering applications of FM were limited to in-
service assessments of structures. Sizes and shapes of discontinuities have been
correlated to fabrication quality levels (BSI, 1980b). Consequently, code-drafting
committees have employed FM calculations in order to evaluate specifications
for quality assurance. Furthermore, when no specifications were applicable, FM
has been used directly by the engineer for evaluating non-destructive inspection
(henceforth NDI) results.
Currently, FM analyses are used to examine a range of other structural-
engineering problems. For example, recommendations have been made for FM
calculations of inspection intervals (ECCS, 1985) and researchers are performing
parametric studies in order to identify important geometric effects. Also,
application of FM to failure of concrete structures is being investigated (Wittman,
1984).
In spite of all this activity, FM remains a method of analysis which is used
primarily by mechanical engineers. Originally used to explain the rupture of
glass specimens (Griffith, 1921), the development of FM began in the 1940s

after several catastrophic failures of ships and pressure vessels. Today, FM is
used to assess elements in SPacecraft, robotic structures, turbine blades,
pipelines, automotive parts, and many other components. Academic journals,
conference proceedings, trade magazines, and several organizations propose a
multitude of design approaches.
Unfortunately, much of this information cannot be used by structural
engineers. In order to decide what portion of the information is relevant to the
particular application, design engineers are often confused by complicated
mathematics, an array of formulae, many empirical constants, and different
boundary conditions. In addition, a traditional structural-engineering education
does not provide the competence to choose the most appropriate approach.
Therefore, there is a risk that insufficient information and inappropriate use may
result in unsafe and costly decisions.
1.5
BASIC FRACTURE-MECHANICS CONCEPTS
For simplicity, discussions are limited to cases where the load is applied remote
from crack locations, and normal to crack surfaces (mode 1). Review articles
provide more detailed information (e.g. Rolfe, 1977) and several mechanical-
engineering books dealing with FM principles and applications have been
published recently (e.g. Broek, 1986).
1.5.1
How to Account for a Crack
Five cases of a plate containing a crack are shown in Fig. 1.3. It requires no
knowledge of FM to agree that cases 1 to 5 are placed in order of increasing
severity. Considering case 1 to be the basis for comparison, the following
important FM parameters can be identified: (i) a longer crack (case 2); (ii) the
crack location at a plate edge (case 3); (iii) the effect of bending (case 4), all of
which weaken the plate. Case 5 is of greatest practical importance. A sharp stress
concentration, such as an abrupt change in section, in combination with a crack
may weaken a plate to a fraction of its uncracked strength. These cases illustrate
fundamental parameters considered in all FM analyses. Note also that for these
cases, allowable stress criteria used with net-section stresses are unreliable and
often dangerous.
A magnification of the area around a crack tip in an infinitely wide plate is given
in Fig. 1.4. This resembles closely the conditions of case 1 when the crack length
is small compared to the plate width. When a remote stress σ is applied, the crack
opens a certain distance d. The separated crack surfaces cannot carry any stress.
The stress which this cross-sectional area would have carried is diverted to the
uncracked area of the plate. This diversion creates a high concentration of stress
10 I.F.C.SMITH
FIG. 1.3. Five different cases of a plate containing a crack.
FIG. 1.4. A crack in an infinitely wide plate.
in the vicinity of the crack tip. Theoretically, this stress is infinite at the crack tip
but, in real materials, plastic zones are formed because the strain exceeds the
material’s ability to behave elastically. This process, whereby an applied load: (i)
causes a crack to open, (ii) relieves crack surfaces of stresses, and (iii) creates
crack-tip plastic straining is the fundamental mechanism which weakens
structures containing cracks or crack-like discontinuities.
How can one describe the stress field near the crack tip? Ignoring plasticity, a
mathematical development employing special stress functions provides a
solution using the coordinates r and ′ . When ′=0, the stress in the y-direction is
(1.1)
provided that the crack length a is much larger than the distance r from the crack
tip. The numerator in eqn (1.1) determines the gradient of the (theoretical)
stresses as they rise to infinity when r approaches zero.
This numerator is called the stress intensity factor K:
(1.2)
The advantage of this model is that any combination of stress and crack length
can be characterised by a single parameter. Other analytical solutions exist for
particular geometrical configurations and loading conditions; these are
summarised in handbooks (Tada et al., 1985) and compendia (Rooke &
Cartwright, 1976). However, many practical cases cannot be solved analytically.
In such instances, the following expression is used to approximate K:
(1.3)
where Y corrects for the presence of plate edges and curved crack fronts, while W
corrects for non-uniform local-stress fields caused by the presence of residual
stresses, stress concentrations, stress gradients due to thermal effects, etc.
Usually, such correction factors are determined using numerical methods.
Equation (1.1) is based on linear-elastic material properties and cannot
account for the presence of plasticity at the crack tip. Furthermore, stress
redistribution due to plasticity alters the stress field outside the crack-tip plastic
zone. Nevertheless, if this zone is much smaller, say less than 2% of plate
thickness, crack length, and size of uncracked ligament, the stress intensity factor
K remains an acceptable model.
These limitations are violated in many practical situations. For example, when
stress concentrations cause localised plasticity, elasticplastic analyses may be
required. The most common analyses use either expressions such as J in order to
model the change in potential energy with respect to crack length, or the crack-
tip opening displacement value, CTOD. Further description of elastic-plastic
analyses is available elsewhere (Broek, 1986).
Occasionally, an equivalent K is calculated (Irwin, 1983):
(1.4)
where E is Young’s modulus and σ y is the effective yield strength. When plate
dimensions are large enough to restrict behaviour to essentially two-dimensional
straining (plane strain), the material constant E is replaced by E/(1−v2) where v is
Poisson’s ratio.
A further restriction on K exists for small crack lengths where all of the
approaches explained above lose their validity. When the size of the crack or
initial discontinuity is of the order of the grain size, microstructural properties,
such as grain orientation, may influence crack growth (Lankford, 1985).
Microstructural FM models may then become necessary. These models are not
yet well defined and no generally accepted design rules are available. Usually, if
the crack length is greater than about five grain diameters, the models which
12 I.F.C.SMITH
assume an isotropic continuum, e.g. those employing K or J, are sufficiently

accurate.
1.5.2
Fatigue Crack Growth
Fatigue cracking results from repeated loading and occurs most commonly in
structures such as bridges, towers and cranes. Although today’s steel structures
use higher-toughness materials and thus are more fracture resistant than ever
before, many structural elements remain equally susceptible to fatigue-crack
growth. Consequently, if the fracture limit state is attained, it is most likely due
to f atigue-crack growth after many years of trouble-free service. Such an
occurrence is covered by the definition of the fatigue limit state.
In addition to higher-toughness properties, developments of low-alloy and
fine-grain microstructures have increased the yield strengths of steels available
for construction. Consequently, higher service stresses have been allowed in
recently built structures. Furthermore, previous practices of bolting and riveting
have been replaced by welding, thereby lowering fatigue strengths of
connections. Therefore, modern structures can be more susceptible to fatigue
cracking than older structures. Nevertheless, the number of old structures which
have exceeded their design life is growing exponentially. The combined effect of
these two trends is increasing the importance of fatigue assessments of new and
existing structures.
All structural elements contain metallurgical or fabrication-related
discontinuities, and most include severe stress concentrators such as weld toes.
Therefore, fatigue failure is often the result of slow crack growth from a
discontinuity at a stress concentration. This growth may begin before the
structure is put in service. The stress intensity factor can also represent fatigue-
crack growth by adapting eqn (1.3) to account for repeated loading.
For a constant-amplitude stress range, ′ σ this becomes
(1.5)
Equation (1.5) is related empirically to the crack-growth rate, da/dN, which is
obtained from the slope of the curve of crack-growth measurements—see
Fig. 1.5(a). This slope becomes the ordinate when plotted against ′ K in a double-
logarithmic representation—see Fig. 1.5(b). The values of ′ K are calculated
using eqn (1.5) for particular magnitudes of crack length, a. At very low growth
rates, the curve for crack growth (in steel) becomes vertical, indicating a crack-
growth threshold at ′ Kth, the threshold stress intensity factor. At higher values of
′ K, the curve straightens to a near-constant slope and becomes vertical again
when the fracture toughness is approached at the maximum stress in the cycle.
Material properties, stress level, and environment have a greater influence on
the vertical ends of the curve shown in Fig. 1.5(b) than in the middle. In this
centre portion, the Paris law is useful (Paris & Erdogan, 1963):
FIG. 1.5. The stress-intensity factor and fatigue-crack growth. (a) Crack length vs number
of cycles. (b) Crack-growth rate vs the stress-intensity factor range. (c) Magnification of
the lower portion of the curve in (b).
(1.6)
where A and m are constants which are determined by means of a regression
analysis of test data. These constants are reliable when similar materials,
loadings, and environments are studied. Also, the regression analysis is
dependent upon the domain of crack-growth rates considered since the centre
portion of the curve in Fig.l.5(b) is not perfectly straight.
Many structural applications involve repeated loading of over one million
cycles and this requires a precise knowledge of slow crack-growth rates near
′ Kth—see Fig. 1.5(c). Conservative assessments result when eqn (1.6) is
extrapolated into this region. The error resulting from the extrapolation is
dependent upon the magnitude of the stress ratio R. This ratio is often used to
examine the effects of mean stress on crack growth.
When ′ K is much larger than ′ Kth, eqn (1.6) can be integrated to calculate the
crack-propagation fatigue life N:
(1.7)
where ai and acr are the initial and critical crack lengths.
14 I.F.C.SMITH
Variable-amplitude loading may be assessed in a cycle-by-cycle integration.

This integration may follow a procedure comparable to the calculation of the
equivalent constant-amplitude stress range which is recommended in some
design codes. In doing so, interaction effects, called either crack acceleration or
crack retardation, are ignored. Many models have been proposed when these
effects are important. Further work is needed to identify those models which are
most useful for structural-engineering applications.
Small crack sizes and excessive plasticity may invalidate models which
employ the stress intensity factor. Non-conservative calculations may result if so-
called short-crack behaviour occurs (Suresh & Ritchie, 1984). Fortunately, such
situations are not common when assessing large structures. Usually, the stress
intensity factor remains a useful characterising parameter for conditions of
fatigue-crack growth since discontinuities are large and a high percentage of
crack growth occurs under conditions where K is valid. Also, structural-
engineering applications have particular characteristics which reduce the
occurrence of this anom alous behaviour. Some of these characteristics are
presented in the following section.
1.6
STRUCTURAL-ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
Structural-engineering applications of FM must consider many variables which
are difficult to determine accurately. This difficulty influences the degree of
sophistication possible in FM analyses. The following paragraphs outline
particular loading and fabrication factors, and discuss the consequences for
design assessments.
An accurate definition of the loading on a structure can be the greatest
challenge in design. Often, the structure is not analysed in detail at the design
stage. Usually, impact and other dynamic loadings are poorly defined and out-of-
plane movements as well as other so-called secondary effects are neglected.
While this may be adequate for traditional static assessments, such omissions are
not recommended for FM evaluations. Cracks are very sensitive to local stresses.
At typical structural details, local stresses are high in a very small region around
potential crack sites.
Stresses due to imposed deformations must be considered. Temperature
effects due to the sun and other heat sources can transform nominally
compressive stresses into tensile stresses. Furthermore, support settlement, frost,
and erosion can lead to unexpected tensile stresses in some structures.
Discontinuities exist in every structure. Some discontinuities are very sharp,
having root radii which were measured by Smith & Smith (1982) to be less than
5μ m. Even if a connection appears to be free of any discontinuity, tiny crack-like
imperfections may exist—see Fig. 1.6(a). Post-weld treatments which remove
these discontinuities, such as grinding, appear effective (Fig. 1.6(b)). However,
FIG. 1.6. Weld-toe discontinuities. (a) As-welded. (b) After burr grinding. (c)
Magnification of (b).
usual quality-assurance procedures may not be able to guarantee that new

discontinuities are not introduced (Fig. 1.6(c)).
Generally, non-destructive detection of surface discontinuities is impossible if
they are less than 0·5 mm deep and difficult if they are less than 5 mm deep.
Furthermore, access to the connection can be so restricted that detection of even
larger discontinuities is not practicable using the equipment available. Therefore,
it is important that designs include detail configurations which avoid inspection
difficulties. In any case, it is prohibitively expensive to prove that a large
structure is completely free of discontinuities.
Most steel structures contain welded connections and attachments. The welding
process introduces tensile residual stresses in areas where crack-like
discontinuities may exist. Attempts to reduce residual stresses by stress-relieving
procedures are not always effective. Furthermore, plate deformations are
unavoidable and attempts to correct them may not be successful. Unwanted
deformations may lead to lack of fit and additional tensile residual stresses.
The previous discussion demonstrated that an accurate FM analysis is
complicated in structural engineering. Determination of all stresses is very
important; this includes stresses due to all loading events, residual stresses due to
fabrication, erection, and service loads, as well as stresses due to imposed
deformations. Discontinuities are always present and, consequently, their sizes
16 I.F.C.SMITH
must be measured accurately. In many designs, a poor definition of such

important information precludes a high level of analytical sophistication.
Fatigue-strength assessments in structural engineering must remain simple for
similar reasons. Unknown static-load levels have two conse quences for FM
assessments of fatigue-crack growth. First, the effect of compressive loading
cannot be excluded from the stress range unless it can be proved that this loading
never causes any crack opening. Secondly, the intrinsic threshold stress intensity
should be used regardless of the applied mean stress.
The possibility of sharp discontinuities prohibits consideration of a crack-
initiation stage. Also, steep stress gradients at stress concentrations preclude
short-crack-growth effects during typical service loading. Stress concentrations
may be high but steep gradients cause their effects to diminish as the cracks
increase in length. Thus, simple linear-elastic fracture-mechanics models are
sufficient for most structural-engineering designs.
1.6.1
Fracture Mechanics Used as a Qualitative Design Tool
Engineering designers rarely use FM as a design tool. Older concepts, such as
stress-range (hereafter SN) models, remain the most practical design tools for
evaluating many structures. Nevertheless, the concepts of FM enable the
designer to increase his qualitative understanding of structures containing crack-
like discontinuities. Since more parameters are explicit in FM analyses,
designers can identify more easily those parameters which influence the strength
of the structure.
SN curves do not exist for every possible structural shape and detail. In design
guidelines, it is often possible to identify details which are similar to the one
under consideration for a given structure. A parametric study using FM is able to
determine whether the identification is correct or what extra effects are to be
considered. For example, approximately ten years ago, FM analyses showed that
increasing the plate thicknesses of connections employing transverse fillet welds
(cruciform joints) reduced the fatigue life (Gurney, 1979). After testing verified
this trend (e.g. Berge, 1983) new code provisions were proposed (HMSO, 1984).
A comparison of theoretical and experimental studies is shown in Fig. 1.7.
Relative fatigue lives were calculated by dividing the fatigue life by the value
corresponding to a thickness of t=12·5 mm for each case. Similarly, a FM study
revealed an increase in fatigue life with increasing plate thickness for
longitudinal fillet-welded attachments (Smith & Gurney, 1986). Again, some
testing has supported the trend predicted by FM (Hirt, 1979, unpublished data).
Initially, a typical fatigue crack propagates very slowly into the plate thickness
from the surface, taking the form of a so-called thumbnail crack. The stress
concentration, modelled by the parameter W in eqn (1.5), affects the crack-
growth rate. Connections classified in different detail categories (ECCS, 1985)
may have different crack-propagation characteristics for the same fatigue life-see
FIG. 1.7. The effect of thickness on fatigue life: comparison of theoretical and
experimental studies.
FIG. 1.8. Comparison of fatigue crack-growth behaviour for two different details having
the same fatigue life.
Fig. 1.8. The detail with a lower-severity stress concentration (butt-welded plate)
consumes a greater percentage of the total fatigue life during the propagation of a
crack to a size a than the detail with a higher-severity stress concentra tion
(attachment). Thus, the same size crack may be identified earlier at the
attachment than at the butt weld. Other factors, such as differences in inspection
feasibility, influence the exact timing of crack identification. Nevertheless, such
crack-growth behaviour should be considered when fixing inspection intervals.
1.6.2
Quantitative Design Using Fracture Mechanics
Many documents provide guidelines for employing FM during structural
assessments. The damage-tolerant-design concept is the major justification for
18 I.F.C.SMITH
the use of FM. This concept accepts the possibility that an element remains useful
when it has been subject to damage upon fabrication, transportation, or even
after several years in service.
Damage tolerance is now a standard design concept in some engineering
fields; acceptance of certain aspects is apparent in structural engineering. For
example, the following terms imply that structural engineers recognise that
structures may contain cracks or crack-like discontinuities:
(a) Fitness for purpose (acceptance levels)

(b) Engineering critical assessment
(c) In-service inspection for cracks
(d) Remaining fatigue life
(e) Strengthening and repair of cracked elements
(f) Local vs general fatigue failure
(g) Fail-safe fatigue and fracture design
Each term implies considerations and calculation which FM can rationalize. A

few examples are provided below.
The concepts of fitness for purpose and engineering critical assessment imply
that discontinuities exist in structures after fabrication. Discontinuities are often
rejected during standard fabrication controls although, in reality, the presence of
many types of discontinuites does not influence the performance of the structure.
The economic consequences of remedial measures can be severe. Quality-
assurance clauses in many codes are based more upon accepted standard practice,
experience, and detection capability than upon scientific accuracy. FM provides
a more analytical method.
Often, determination of intervals between in-service inspections does not
consider the behaviour of the structure if it were to contain a crack. Crack-
growth curves can be predicted for all critical details in a structure, as shown
schematically in Fig. 1.9. Between the crack lengths when first detection is
FIG. 1.9. Inspection intervals which shorten according to the time in service.
possible, a0, and the critical crack size acr, a set number of inspections, n, should
be performed. A constant crack-length increment ′ a should be fixed rather than
a constant time interval. The number of inspections should be determined using
reliability considerations which include crack-detection probabilities and the
consequences of failure. More frequent inspections are needed as the structure
ages; current practice in some engineering applications reflects this. Therefore,
FM calculations offer a more rational approach to an empirical field.
As the number of structures which approach or exceed their design life grows
exponentially each year, so does the number of structures which have a high
probability of containing fatigue cracks. FM analysis will become an essential part
of the assessment of these structures and, consequently, the decisions concerning
their strengthening, repair and replacement. Recently, cracking in several North-
American steel bridges was reviewed in a collection of case studies (Fisher,
1984).
Fatigue-life improvement methods give the designer the possibility of using an
otherwise unacceptable structural detail (instead of reducing the stresses). The
fatigue life of such a detail can be increased by more than ten times when using
an appropriate improvement method. However, the exact amount of improvement
is not always known, as it depends upon the type of detail, the steel strength, and
fabrication conditions. Standard SN curves found in codes cannot accommodate
such parameters. FM analysis may provide an alternative in many situations.
Also, FM can be used to examine the performance of some improvement
methods in order to develop quality-assurance technology for these applications.
Finally, FM analyses may assist in the assessment of complex structures not
covered by test results. SN test data of small specimens may be inapplicable to
large structures and to complex loading. This is particularly true for offshore
structures, some of which have been analysed thoroughly using FM.
20 I.F.C.SMITH
1.7
CONCLUSIONS
1. The two most important parameters in fatigue assessments of large

structures are geometry and stress range.
2. Achieving fatigue-resistant design requires careful and deliberate
consideration of all factors which affect fatigue life. A concentrated effort is
needed to design fatigue-resistant structural systems, to produce good detail
configurations, and to ensure adequate consideration of fatigue during post-
design stages.
3. Fracture-mechanics concepts are primarily mechanical-engineering design
tools, and therefore, special considerations are needed for civil-engineering
structures.
4. In terms of fracture-mechanics applications, large structures need particular
attention. In steel structures, there may be poorly defined loading, imposed
deformations, high built-in tensile stresses, and many sharp discontinuities.
Often, these circumstances cannot justify the use of concepts more
sophisticated than simple linear-elastic approaches.
5. Fracture mechanics permits a greater qualitative understanding of
parameters which influence fatigue, such as size effects and crack growth.
6. Calculations using fracture-mechanics models help to determine inspection
intervals, evaluate structures containing crack-like discontinuities, develop
improvement methods, perform remaining-life calculations, assess complex
design problems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is grateful to the Swiss National Science Foundation which sponsors
research at ICOM in the area of fatigue, as well as Professor M.A.Hirt who co-
authored the following articles from which this chapter is derived: ‘Fatigue
design concepts’, IABSE Surveys S-29,1984; ‘Fracture mechanics in structural
engineering’, Steel Structures: Recent Research Advances and Their
Applications to Design, Elsevier, 1986; and ‘Fatigue resistant steel bridges’, J.
Construct. Steel Research, 12, 1989. Also, the staff at ICOM, particularly
G.J.Kimberley, are thanked for their help in preparing this chapter.
REFERENCES
BERGE, S. (1983) Effect of Plate Thickness in Fatigue of Cruciform Welded Joints.

Report, MK/R 67, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim.
BROEK, D. (1986) Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics. Martinus Nijhoff, The
Hague.
BSI (1980a) BS 5400: Steel Concrete and Composite bridges. Part 10: Code of Practice
for Fatigue, British Standards Institution, London.
BSI (1980b) BSI PD 6493: Guidance on Some Methods for the Derivation of Acceptance
Levels for Defects in Fusion Welded Joints. British Standards Institution, London.
Eccs (1985) Recommendations for the fatigue design of structures. Publication No. 43.
European Convention for Constructional Steelwork, Brussels.
FISHER, J.W. (1977) Bridge Fatigue Guide. American Institute of Steel Construction,
New York.
FISHER, J.W. (1984) Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges. Wiley, New York.
GRIFFITH, A.A. (1921) The phenomena of rupture and flow in solids. Phil. Trans. Royal
Soc., London, A221, 163–98.
GURNEY, T.R. (1979) Theoretical Analysis of the Influence of Attachment Size on the
Fatigue Strength of Transverse Non-Load-Carrying Fillet Welds. Members Report
91/1979, Welding Institute, Cambridge.
HIRT, M.A, YEN, T.Y. & FISHER, J.W. (1971) Fatigue strength of rolled and welded
steel beams. J. Structural Div., ASCE, 97(ST7), 1897–911.
HMSO (1984) Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design and Construction. HMSO,
London.
IRWIN, G.R. (1983) A summary of fracture mechanics concepts. J. Testing &
Evaluation, 11, 56–65.
LANKFORD J. (1985) The influence of microstructure on the growth of small fatigue
cracks. Fatigue Fracture Eng. Materials Structures, 8, 161–75.
PARIS, P. & ERDOGAN, F. (1963) A critical analysis of crack propagation laws. Trans.
ASME (Series D), 85, 528–34.
ROLFE, S.T. & BARSOM, D.J.M. (1977) Fracture and fatigue control in steel structures.
Eng. J. Am. Inst. Steel Constr., 14, 2–15.
ROOKE, D.P. & CARTWRIGHT, D.J. (1976) A Compendium of Stress Intensity Factors.
HMSO, London.
SIA (1979) Steel Structures. SIA 161. Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects.
SMITH, I.F.C. & GURNEY, T.R. (1986) Changes in the fatigue life of plates with
attachments due to geometrical effects. Welding J. 65,244s-250s.
SMITH, I.F.C. & SMITH, R.A. (1982) Defects and crack-shape development in fillet-
welded joints. Fatigue of Engineering Materials and Structures, 5, 151–65.
SURESH, S. & RITCHIE, R.O. (1984) Propagation of short fatigue cracks. Int. Metals
Rev., 29, 445–76.
TADA, H., PARIS, P. & IRWIN, G. (1985) The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook.
Paris Productions Inc., St. Louis.
WITTMANN, F.H. (ed.) (1984) Fracture Mechanics of Concrete. Elsevier Applied
Science, Amsterdam.
Chapter 2
FATIGUE DAMAGE ACCUMULATION
UNDER VARYING-AMPLITUDE LOADS
F.J.ZWERNEMAN
School of Civil Engineering, Oklahoma State University, USA
SUMMARY
Fatigue tests conducted in the laboratory have traditionally been
performed using loads which vary sinusoidally with time at a constant
amplitude. Loads carried by a structure in service also vary with time, but
amplitudes of load cycles generally are not constant. To estimate the
service life of a structure, an engineer must convert the variable-amplitude
service loads to a form compatible with experimental data. In this chapter,
methods are described for assessing, on the basis of constant-amplitude
data, fatigue damage caused by variable amplitude load-time histories.
NOTATION
a Crack length
ac Current crack length
an Total crack length after n cycles
ap Crack length plus width of overload plastic zone
ao Original crack length
ao1 Crack length at end of overload application
A Empirical constant equal to the N-axis intercept on a plot of the logarithm
of stress range versus the logarithm of number of cycles to failure
C Empirical constant equal to the da/dN axis intercept on crack-growth-rate
plots
Cp Retardation parameter
C1 Constant dependent on plane stress or plane strain conditions

da/dN Crack growth rate
FATIGUE DAMAGE ACCUMULATION 23
Ei Total number of cycles per block equal to or exceeding pi times the

maximum stress in the cycle
σK Stress-intensity range
′ Keff Effective stress-intensity range
m Empirical constant equal to the slope on a plot of the logarithm of
stress range versus the logarithm of number of cycles to failure;
also the slope on a crack-growth-rate plot
m′ Shaping exponent
n Number of sizes of minor cycles or total number of cycles
NB Number of complex cycles to failure
NC Number of constant amplitude cycles to failure at the major cycle
stress range
Ni Number of cycles to failure at stress range Sri
ni Number of cycles applied at stress range Sri
Nt Total number of cycles to failure
Pi Ratio of minor cycle range to major cycle range
Reff Effective stress ratio
Ry Extent of current yield zone
Ryap Plastic zone size needed to expand the current plastic zone outside
the overload plastic zone
Ryo1 Overload plastic zone size
Sreff Effective stress range
Sri Stress range of the ith cycle
σ ap Stress required to produce Ryap
(σ c)max Current maximum stress
(σ c)max,eff Maximum effective stress
(σ c)min,eff Minimum effective stress
σ res Residual stress
σy Yield stress
(′ σ c)eff Effective stress range
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Fatigue damage is produced by loads which vary cyclically with time, such as
the loads applied to a bridge as a vehicle crosses or to an aircraft in flight. A record
of service load versus time for such structures contains cycles of widely varying
amplitudes and mean levels. Load-time histories used in laboratory tests, in most
cases, bear only a vague resemblance to service load-time histories. In the
laboratory, fatigue tests are generally conducted using loads which vary
sinusoidally with time at some constant amplitude. To estimate the service life of
a bridge or an aircraft, the engineer must either conduct fatigue tests using the
24 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
FIG. 2.1 Conversion of service load-time history to constant-amplitude history.
applicable load-time history or convert the applicable history to a form

compatible with available constant-amplitude data. Since conducting fatigue
tests is expensive and time consuming, it is preferable to make use of available
constant-amplitude data.
A variety of techniques have been developed to make the transition from
variable-amplitude service loads to constant-amplitude laboratory data.
Generally, the variable-amplitude cycles are analytically reduced to equivalent
constant-amplitude cycles. Empirical models are then used to assess and sum the
damage produced by the equivalent constantamplitude cycles. The process is
illustrated in Fig. 2.1.
In this chapter, a number of the more popular cycle-counting techniques and
damage models will be described. A discussion of the strengths and weaknesses
of the various techniques will be presented to assist the designer in making the
best choice for a specific application. Recommendations for design and
suggestions for additional work are also presented.
2.2
CYCLE COUNTING
Fatigue-life estimates for structures in service are based on stress range versus
number of cycles to failure curves or crack-growth-rate curves (see Fig. 2.2). In
most cases these curves are generated in experimental laboratories using
constant-amplitude load-time histories. Unfortunately, service loads seldom vary
sinusoidally with time at a constant amplitude. An analytical method must be
employed to reduce the variable-amplitude service load-time history to a
combination of constant-amplitude cycles or to a single equivalent constant-
amplitude cycle. These constant-amplitude cycles should produce the same
fatigue life as the service history they are replacing. Many such analytical
techniques have been proposed. For the current discussion, the techniques will be
categorized as peak counting, level crossing, and range counting (Schijve, 1963).
Peak-counting techniques involve the counting of all maximum and minimum
peaks in the load-time history. Minimum peaks on the positive side of the datum
and maximum peaks on the negative side of the datum are ignored. A load range
is defined as the difference between the peak and the datum. The technique is
illustrated in Fig. 2.3. One weakness of this technique is that it artificially
increases the range of some small load cycles. A variation to the basic peak-
counting technique involves counting only absolute maximum and minimum
peaks between consecutive datum crossings. This variation does away with the
problem of increasing the size of small cycles, but creates the opposite problem
of excluding some cycles from the count.
The level-crossing technique involves counting each time the varying load
crosses predetermined load levels. The restriction may be imposed that only
crossings with a positive slope are counted on the positive side of the datum and
only crossings with a negative slope are counted on the negative side of the
datum. The technique is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. The number of peaks and range of
cycles cannot be determined on the basis of level-crossing counts.
Range pair, rainflow (Endo et al., 1974), and reservoir counting are three
essentially identical range-counting techniques (Dowling, 1972; Hoadley, 1982).
The rainflow technique is illustrated in Fig. 2.5. The load-time history is rotated
so that the abscissa is vertical, with time increasing in the downward direction.
An imaginary raindrop starts at the inside tip of each peak or valley and flows
down the sloped ‘roof’. The raindrop falls until it comes opposite a peak or
valley greater than the one from which it started, or until it contacts the path of
another raindrop started from a higher peak or valley. A half-cycle is counted for
each raindrop. The load range for a half-cycle is the difference between the load
at the starting point of a raindrop and the load at the termination point. Half-
cycles are counted between points 1 and 2, 2 and 5, 3 and 4, 4 and 3′, 5 and 8, 6
and 7, and 7 and 6′. Full cycles are formed by combining half-cycles of the same
load range, but opposite in flow direction.
26 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
FIG. 2.2 Fatigue-life and crack-growth-rate curves. (a) Stress range versus number of
cycles to failure (S–N curve). (b) Crack growth-rate curve.
Range-counting techniques are generally preferred over peak-counting and
level-crossing techniques. Range-counting techniques count each cycle without
altering the range of any cycles and allow a mean load level to be assigned to
each cycle.
2.3
DAMAGE MODELS
Once the variable-amplitude history has been reduced to a combination of
constant-amplitude cycles at known mean load levels, an empirical model can be
used to assign a degree of damage to each cycle. This damage takes the form of
either an increment of crack growth or a percentage reduction in remaining
fatigue life. Damage produced by individual cycles is summed to arrive at an
FIG. 2.3 Peak counting. All maximum peaks above the datum and all minimum peaks
below the datum are counted.
FIG. 2.4 Level crossing. Positive-slope crossings are counted on the positive side of the
datum and negative-slope crossings are counted on the negative side of the datum.
estimate of fatigue life. Models discussed here are grouped into categories of
linear damage models, non-linear damage models, and interaction models.
28 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
FIG. 2.5 Rainflow counting.
2.3.1
Linear Damage Models
In the context of fatigue-damage models, the word ‘linear’ refers to the amount of
damage attributed to individual load cycles in variableamplitude load-time
histories relative to the amount of damage attributed to these individual cycles in
constant-amplitude load-time histories. When a linear damage model is used, the
user is assuming that the damage produced by individual cycles in a variable-
amplitude history can be calculated directly from the fatigue-life equation (N=A
Sr−m) or the crack-growth-rate equation (da/dN=C ′ Km). To determine total
damage produced by the history, damage produced by individual cycles making
up that history is added linearly. It is assumed that all cycles are damaging and
that cycles of different sizes do not interact to retard or accelerate growth.
The best-known and most widely used fatigue-damage model is the Palmgren-
Miner (Palmgren, 1924; Miner, 1945) linear damage model. According to this
model, failure occurs when
(2.1)
where ni is the number of cycles applied at stress range Sri, and Ni is the number
of cycles to failure at Sri. Use of the model is illustrated in Fig. 2.6. To improve
clarity in the figure, the numbers of cycles used in this illustration are much
lower than would be encountered in practice.
The Palmgren-Miner model can be combined with the standard fatigue-life
equation to produce an expression for effective stress range. Effective stress
range is the stress range of a constant-amplitude load-time history which will
produce the same fatigue damage as a variableamplitude history, for the same
number of cycles (Schilling et al., 1978). The method is demonstrated below:
(2.2)
where Nt is the total number of cycles to failure. Setting where Sreff is the
effective stress range:
(2.3)
The concept is illustrated in Fig. 2.7. If the mean stress level of the cycles has a
significant effect on fatigue life, this can be accounted for by allowing the N-axis
intercept, A, to vary with the mean.
Barsom (1973) and Schilling et al. (1978) conducted an extensive series of
fatigue and crack-growth rate tests and concluded that a good fit to their data could
be achieved by using m=2·0. If m is taken to be 2·0, the model is referred to as
the root mean square (RMS) model. The drawback to using m equal to 2·0 is
that, from the derivation, m should equal the slope of the S–N curve. The slope of
this curve for most structural details is 3·0 (Keating & Fisher, 1987). If m is
taken to be 3·0, the model is referred to as the root mean cube (RMC) model.
Fisher et al. (1983) used the RMC model to accurately estimate crack-growth
rates for a series of variable amplitude tests. Fatigue-life estimates based on the
RMC model are shorter than estimates based on the RMS model, but accuracy
relative to experimental data is not substantially different for the two models.
The effective stress range calculated with either the RMS or RMC model should
not be confused with the RMS of the stress history. The relevant quantity in eqn
(2.3) is the range of stress under varying load, not the stress magnitude.
To apply a linear damage model, the question of how to deal with cycles
whose stress ranges are below the fatigue limit must be addressed. Fisher et al.
(1983), Swensson (1984), Schijve et al. (1985), Heuler & Seeger (1986) and
30 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
FIG. 2.6 Palmgren-Miner linear damage model.

Dowling (1988) conducted tests with a large percentage of the cycles below the
fatigue limit and concluded that these cycles are damaging when they are part of
a variable-amplitude history containing some cycles above the fatigue limit.
Fisher & Swensson have recommended that all cycles in a variable-amplitude
history be linearly added in the damage summation. In accordance with this
recommendation, the variable Sri in eqn (2.3) includes all cycles in the history,
not just cycles above the fatigue limit.
The linear damage models described above are relatively easy to use and
understand, which probably accounts for much of the popularity and widespread
FIG. 2.7 Effective stress range. (a) Variable-amplitude history. (b) Equivalent constant-
amplitude history.
use of these models. The major weakness of linear models is that they do not
account for the effects of cycle interaction. Damage produced by individual
cycles in variable-amplitude load-time histories is strongly affected by prior
loading history. Linear damage models used indiscriminately can produce
fatigue-life estimates significantly in error. Whether this error is conservative or
unconservative depends on the load-time history.
2.3.2
Non-linear Damage Models
Non-linear damage models are based on the assumption that all cycles in a
variable-amplitude history do not cause the same damage they would if they
were part of a constant-amplitude load-time history. Damage produced by a
cycle may be assumed to depend on such things as the range of that cycle
relative to the range of other cycles in the history, the mean level of cycles within
the history, or the crack length at the time that cycle is applied. This type of
model is still not an interaction model, because damage is not treated as a
function of prior load history on a cycle-by-cycle basis.
A non-linear model proposed by Albrecht & Friedland (1979) essentially
ignores damage produced by cycles below the constant-amplitude fatigue limit.
Albrecht calculates a Palmgren-Miner effective stress range based only on cycles
above the fatigue limit. The number of cycles to failure at this effective stress
range is then determined from a constantamplitude S–N curve. The total number
32 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
FIG. 2.8 Number of cycles to failure for a variable-amplitude stress-time history. (a) S–N
curve for constant-amplitude loading. (b) Variable amplitude load-time history.
of variable amplitude cycles to failure, including cycles below the fatigue limit,
is calculated by dividing the number of cycles to failure at the effective stress
range by the percentage of cycles above the fatigue limit. One drawback to this
technique is that an accurate knowledge of the fatigue limit is required. There is
a relatively small amount of data available in the vicinity of the limit, and there
tends to be a great deal of scatter in the available data.
If the S–N curve can be defined as in Fig. 2.8(a), Albrecht’s model can be
used to calculate fatigue life for the stress-time history shown in Fig.2.8(b).
Notice that 1/5 of the cycles in the variable amplitude history are above the
fatigue limit and 4/5 are below. Assuming cycles below the fatigue limit are non-
damaging, as proposed by Albrecht:
N=(4×1012)(200)−3=5×105
Sreff=[(1·0)(200)3]1/3=200 N=(5×105)/(1/5)=2·5×106
(cycles above fatigue
MPa (all cycles)
limit)
If it is assumed that all cycles are damaging and the Palmgren-Miner model is
applied:
Sreff=[(4/5)(50)3+(1/5)(200)3]1/3=119 N=(4×1012)(119)−3=2·35×106(all
MPa cycles)
In this example, Albrecht’s model estimates fatigue life to be 6% longer than the
Palmgren-Miner model with the assumption that all cycles are damaging.
The effect of Albrecht’s model on the S–N curve is shown in Fig. 2.9. When
all cycles in the variable-amplitude history are above the fatigue limit, the S–N
curve plots as a straight line. When all cycles are below the limit, the eifective
FIG. 2.9 Effective stress range versus number of cycles to failure based on non-linear
damage models.
stress range is zero and the fatigue life is infinite. Between these two extremes,
the S–N curve is non-linear on a log-log plot. Albrecht has used this technique to
accurately predict fatigue life for a limited number of tests.
An approach supported by Haibach (1970) and by Tilly & Nunn (1980)
involves a fracture-mechanics-based modification to the Palmgren-Miner
approach. The amount of crack growth produced by a load cycle depends on load
range and crack length. For a constant load range, the amount of crack growth per
cycle increases as the crack length increases. If a small cycle is applied to a
sufficiently small crack, there will be no growth. This corresponds to the crack-
growth threshold in growth rate tests and to the fatigue limit in S–N tests. If the
same size cycle is applied to a larger crack, a growth increment may occur. The
modification to the Palmgren-Miner approach proposed by Haibach and by Tilly
& Nunn involves predicting, on the basis of a fracture-mechanics analysis, which
cycles are damaging and including only those cycles in the damage summation.
In a variable-amplitude history, it is assumed that only the large cycles drive the
crack when the crack is small; as the crack increases in length the smaller cycles
become damaging. A small cycle is omitted from the damage summation when
the fatigue crack is small and included when the crack has grown to near failure.
The rationale behind this technique is not difficult to understand, but

application is considerably more complex than application of the linear models.
To use the technique directly, it is necessary to calculate the stress intensity
range for changing crack lengths and to use this information to determine
whether a cycle is damaging. Calculation of the stress intensity range for
components encountered in normal engineering practice can be extremely difficult
and stress intensity range thresholds are not well-defined. To overcome these
difficulties, proponents of the technique recommend using a bilinear S–N curve
to predict number of cycles to failure for inclusion in damage summations. As
illustrated in Fig. 2.8(a), the slope of the S–N curve is changed from m to some
value greater than m (Haibach proposes (2m−1) and Tilly & Nunn propose (m
+2), both of which reduce to 5·0 if m is taken to be 3·0) for cycles below the
34 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
constant-amplitude fatigue limit. The technique still suffers from the need for
accurate knowledge of the fatigue limit.
If the fatigue limit can be defined as in Fig. 2.8(a), Haibach’s model can be
used to calculate number of cycles to failure for the stress-time history shown in
Fig. 2.8(b):
(2.4)
where NB is the number of complex cycles to failure. A complex cycle is
composed of the major cycle and any number of minor cycles. Complex cycles
in Fig. 2.8(b) are composed of one major and four minor cycles. Considering
only cycles below the fatigue limit:
N1=4×1016(50)−5=128×106
Considering only cycles above the fatigue limit:

N2=4×1012(200)−3=0·5×106
Combining cycles above and below the limit:
NB(4/128×106+1/0·5×106) NB=492308(complex N=(5)(492 308)=2·46×106
=1·0 cycles) (all cycles)
It was shown earlier that for the same stress-time history, if all cycles are
assumed damaging, fatigue life is estimated at 2·35×106 cycles or 5% less than
the estimate based on Haibach’s model.
As seen in Fig. 2.9, changing the slope of the S–N curve for long fatigue lives
produces an effect similar in appearance to that produced by the Albrecht model.
When the stress range is high, all cycles are above the fatigue limit and are
included in the damage summation. When the stress range is low, some of the small
cycles are initially below the crack growth threshold and are not included in the
summation. Omitting some of the cycles from the summation for some portion
of the fatigue life increases the predicted fatigue life, moving the lower portion
of the curve in Fig. 2.9 to the right. The curve is not shifted as far to the right for
this model as for the Albrecht model because the Albrecht model assumes that
cycles below the fatigue limit are never damaging, while this model assumes that
the damage produced by small cycles is reduced. Accuracy of the technique has
been demonstrated for a limited series of tests.
A model completely independent from the Palmgren-Miner approach has been
proposed by Gurney (1981, 1983). Gurney performed fatigue tests using the load-
time histories shown in Fig. 2.10. Each of the different histories in the figure is
treated as one complex cycle. In Gurney’s fatigue tests, a complex cycle was
applied repeatedly until the specimen failed. The Palmgren-Miner model
significantly underestimated fatigue lives for these tests.
Gurney noted from his data that the logarithm of the number of complex
cycles to failure varied linearly with the ratio of minor cycle stress range to
major cycle stress range. Based on this observation, Gurney showed that the
number of complex cycles to failure can be calculated as:
FIG. 2.10 Load-time histories used by Gurney.
(2.5)
where NB is the number of complex cycles to failure, NC is the number of

constant-amplitude cycles to failure at the major cycle stress range, n is the
number of sizes of minor cycles, Ei is the total number of cycles per block equal
to or exceeding pi times the maximum stress in the cycle, and Pi is the ratio of
minor cycle range to major cycle range. Fatigue lives for Gurney’s data are in
better agreement with eqn (2.5) than with the Palmgren-Miner damage model.
The models proposed by Albrecht, Haibach, and Tilly & Nunn produce fatigue-
life estimates greater than or equal to the estimate produced by the Palmgren-
Miner model, so could be more unconservative for Gurney’s data than is the
Palmgren-Miner model.
Tests performed by Joehnk (1982) and Zwerneman (1983, 1985) confirm
Gurney’s finding that the Palmgren-Miner model can be unconser vative for some
load-time histories. Zwerneman has proposed that crack growth caused by minor
cycles in a variable-amplitude load-time history is dependent on the mean level
of that cycle relative to the mean of the major cycle and on the number of minor
36 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
cycles between major cycles. Fatigue life is unconservatively estimated by the

Palmgren-Miner model if the mean level of the minor cycles is high and there are
few minor cycles between major cycles. This dependence on mean load level is
much greater than observed by conducting multiple constant-amplitude tests with
each test at a different mean. The dependence has been observed even in tests on
steel weldments, where it has been demonstrated (Fisher et al., 1970) that the
mean level of cycles in constant-amplitude tests has no effect on fatigue life.
This ‘mean stress effect’ has not been formally incorporated in a damage model.
Non-linear damage models described in this section are capable of improving
fatigue-life estimates for some load-time histories. The models tend to work very
well for experimental data generated by the researcher proposing the model, but
can be seriously inaccurate when applied to data from other researchers using
different load-time histories. Use of these models is justified only if the load-
time history under consideration matches the history used in developing the
model.
2.3.3
Interaction Models
An infinitely sharp crack and fully elastic behavior are assumed in deriving
expressions for the stress intensity factor. As shown in Fig. 2.11, tbese
assumptions result in elastic normal stresses at the crack tip approaching infinity.
This obviously cannot occur in a real material with a finite yield stress. High
stresses near the crack tip must cause the material in this area to yield. The stress
distribution that would exist for a finite-yield material is labeled as elastic-
perfectly plastic in the figure.
The plastic zone shown ahead of the crack tip is the zone of material which
has yielded under the applied tensile stress. To simplify this discussion, the
plastic zone is assumed to be circular. Notice that the plastic zone extends
beyond the point where the elastic curve intersects the yield stress line. In order
to satisfy statics, the lost elastic stress near the crack tip must be replaced by this
extension of the plastic stress zone.
The stress distribution near the crack tip becomes more complex when cyclic
loads are applied (Rice, 1967). In cyclic loading, the first half-cycle involves
application of a force, while the second half-cycle involves removal of that
force. The removal of a tensile force is equivalent to the concurrent application
of a compressive force of the same magnitude as the tensile force. The fictitious
compressive force completes the unloading half of the load cycle by cancelling
the tensile force.
The application of the compressive force will theoretically produce an infinite
negative stress at the crack tip, in the same way as the tensile force produced an
infinite positive stress at the tip. Of course, the compressive stress cannot
actually reach infinity. The material at the crack tip must yield in compression.
Compression yielding due to unloading is illustrated in Fig. 2.12.
FIG. 2.11 Stress distribution in an elastic-perfectly plastic material.

The unloading plastic zone shown in Fig. 2.12(a) is much smaller than the
loading plastic zone. The size of the plastic zone depends on the amount of stress
the material can withstand before yielding. Going from tensile yield to
compressive yield requires twice as much applied stress as going from zero
stress to tensile yield stress. Therefore, the unloading plastic zone is smaller than
the loading plastic zone.
If the cyclic loading continues with the reapplication of a tensile half-cycle,
stress in the small plastic zone must go from compressive yield to tensile yield.
This small plastic zone is referred to as the reverse plastic zone, since the stress
direction in this zone reverses as load is applied and removed. The larger plastic
zone which forms ahead of the crack tip with the initial application of load is
referred to as the forward plastic zone. Both the forward and reverse plastic
zones move ahead of the crack tip as a crack grows across a plate.
The plastic zones ahead of the crack tip are generally small relative to the
overall plate width. The bulk of the plate, which has not experienced stresses of a
sufficient magnitude to cause yielding, responds elastically to the application and
removal of load. When external load is removed, the elastic material seeks to
return to its original undeformed position. In the plastic zones, however, zero
38 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
FIG. 2.12 Stresses and strains produced by cyclic loading. (a) Stress distribution for
loading and unloading. (b) Cyclic stress-strain curve for material near crack tip.
stress does not mean zero deformation. As can be seen in Fig. 2.12(b), when
crack tip unloading stress is zero, crack tip strain is greater than zero. A
compressive force is required to reduce crack tip strains back to zero. This
compressive force is supplied by the elastic material surrounding the plastic zone.
The plastic and elastic portions of the plate must exist in a state of
equilibrium. The plastic zone seeks to remain in its expanded form by spreading
apart the surrounding elastic material. The elastic material seeks to return to its
original form by compressing the expanded plastic zone. The important end
result is that for an externally unloaded specimen, the material immediately
ahead of the crack tip exists in residual compression.
Residual stresses and strains ahead of the crack tip are believed to be the cause
of a crack-growth phenomenon known as retardation. Retardation is a reduction
in growth rate following the application of an isolated overload. The
phenomenon is illustrated in Fig. 2.13. The application of an overload causes
FIG. 2.13 Crack growth retardation caused by an overload. (a) Load-time history. (b)
Crack length versus number of cycles. (c) Crack-growth rate versus stress-intensity range.
plastic deformation ahead of the crack tip in excess of plastic deformations

produced by constant-amplitude cycling. This, in turn, results in higher than
normal compressive stresses ahead of the tip.
Three popular retardation models incorporate this idea of plastic deformation
at the crack tip as the cause of retardation. The residual stress model attributes
retardation to the high compressive residual stresses which develop ahead of the
crack tip following the application of an overload (Hudson & Hardrath, 1961,
1963). The crack tip blunting model attributes crack growth retardation to
blunting of the crack tip by an overload (Rice, 1967). The stress concentration
produced by a blunt crack is less than that produced by a sharp crack, resulting in
a retardation of growth rate. The crack closure model (Elber, 1971), like the
residual stress model, attributes retardation to residual deformations ahead of the
crack tip. The difference in the two models is the way in which these residual
deformations are assumed to act as growth retarders. The residual stress model
maintains that residual deformations retard crack growth by producing residual
40 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
compressive stresses ahead of the crack tip. The crack closure model maintains
that residual deformations retard growth by closing the crack behind the tip. In
the closure model, retardation occurs after the crack has advanced into the
overload plastic zone. The deformed material behind the tip causes the crack to
close at a stress greater than zero.
An analytical model developed by Wheeler (1972) employs the residual stress
model to account quantitatively for retardation due to cycle interaction.
Development of the Wheeler model begins with the basic crack-growth-rate
equation:
(2.6)
When applying this equation to a variable amplitude load-time history,
consideration must be given to the fact that load is a discontinuous variable.
Since load is a discontinuous variable, it is not possible to rearrange and integrate
the crack-growth-rate equation to find number of cycles to failure (Paris &
Erdogan, 1963). Wheeler solves this problem by summing crack growth cycle by
cycle:
(2.7)
where an is the total crack length after n cycles, a0 is the original crack length,
and ′ Ki is the stress intensity range for cycle i.
To account for crack-growth retardation, Wheeler introduces a retardation
parameter Cpi:
(2.8)
This retardation parameter varies from zero immediately following an overload

to 1·0 when no overload is influencing crack growth. The retardation parameter
is calculated as shown below:
Cp=(Ry/(ap−a))m′ for (a+Ry)<ap Cp=1.0 for (a+Ry)>ap (2.9)
where Ry is the extent of the current yield zone, ap is the crack length plus the
width of the overload plastic zone, a is crack length, (ap−a) is the distance from
crack tip to elastic-plastic interface, and m′ is the shaping exponent. The physical
meaning of these terms is illustrated in Fig. 2.14.
It can be seen that Cpi is a minimum immediately after the application of the
overload when (ap−a) has its maximum value. As a approaches ap, Cp increases.
The influence of the overload vanishes when the current yield zone moves
through the overload yield zone.
Wheeler was able to fit his model to crack-growth-rate data by adjusting the
value of the shaping exponent m′. The major weakness of the Wheeler model is
in this shaping exponent. The exponent must be determined empirically for every
material used in fatigue applications. Also, there is some variation of m′ with
load spectra. The need for this empirical shaping exponent in the Wheeler model
seriously damages the model’s usefulness for ordinary analysis purposes.
A model developed by Willenborg (Engle & Rudd, 1974) is conceptually
similar to the Wheeler model, but the Willenborg model avoids the shaping
exponent problem. Development of the Willenborg model begins with the
expression for the radius of the plastic zone at the tip of a fatigue crack:
(2.10)
where C1 is a constant dependent on plane stress or plane strain conditions, K is

the stress intensity, and σ y is the yield stress. Referring to Fig. 2.14:
ap=ao1+Ryo1 (2.11)
where ao1 is the crack length immediately after the overload application, and Ryo1
is the overload plastic zone radius. The overload is effective in retarding crack
growth until the current crack length, ac, plus the current plastic zone is greater
than ap.
To this point, the Willenborg and Wheeler models are conceptually identical.
Both models retard crack growth with a compressive residual stress zone. The
retardation is maximum immediately following the overload. The effect of the
overload decays as the crack moves through the overload plastic zone.
The models differ in the way the overload effect is forced to decay. Wheeler
employs an empirical reduction factor while Willenborg bases the decay on the
difference between the stress needed to expand the current plastic zone outside
the overload plastic zone and the stress currently being applied. The technique is
demonstrated below:
(2.12)
where Ryap is the plastic zone size needed to expand the current plastic zone
outside the overload plastic zone, and σ ap is the stress required to produce Ryap.
Willenborg then makes the assumption that residual stress due to the overload is
equal to ′ ap minus the current maximum stress, (σ c)max:
σres=σap−(σc)max (2.13)
The residual stress is subtracted from the current maximum and minimum
stresses to calculate effective applied stresses:
42 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
(2.14)
Notice that the effective stress range is reduced below the applied stress range only
if the minimum and/or the maximum effective current stress falls below zero.
The effective stress intensity range shown above is used in the standard crack-
growth-rate equation:
(2.15)
In addition to a possible reduction in stress range, the compressive residual
stresses could reduce growth rate by lowering the mean level of the stress cycle.
This effect would be accounted for through the constant C in the crack-growth-
rate equation. This constant varies with the ratio of minimum stress to maximum
stress in a cycle for some materials.
The Willenborg model has been used as the basis for a program developed by
Engle & Rudd (1974) to estimate fatigue life of aircraft. Engle’s program has
been used to estimate fatigue lives for specimens tested under isolated overload,
block load, and service stress-time histories. Specimens used in these tests were
made from aluminum and steel alloys. The Willenborg model predicted fatigue
lives within 200% for the isolated overload and service stress-time histories. This
level of accuracy corresponds to the scatter band generated in constant-amplitude
tests on similar samples. The model was less accurate for the block load stress-
time histories.
The crack closure model has been analytically reproduced by Newman (1977,
1981) using two different approaches. The first approach, based on two-
dimensional elastic-plastic finite-element methods, shows that compressive
yielding occurs in material behind an advancing crack tip at load levels above the
minimum. Significant strain does not occur ahead of the tip until sufficient load
is applied to remove these compressive stresses. The second approach is based
on stress superposition and strip-yield approximations. The finite-element model
more accurately matches observed behavior, but computation time required to
solve problems of interest prohibits the use of the method for the general case.
The second approach is less computationally sophisticated and has been used to
predict crack growth under aircraft spectrum loading. Unfortunately, the model’s
reliance on several empirical constants limits its usefulness.
FIG. 2.14 Wheeler residual stress model.
2.4
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DESIGN
To count cycles, the range pair method described in Section 2.2 is preferred over
other methods. This method counts the entire load-time history and allows mean
load levels to be calculated for each cycle. The disadvantage to this technique is
that it obscures sequence effects.
The choice of damage models is dependent on the load-time history being
considered. If the load-time history contains few large cycles separated by many
small cycles and the minimum load level for the small cycles is near the bottom
of the load-time history, the non-linear models proposed by Albrecht, Haibach,
or Tilly & Nunn could be appropriate. If a higher level of computational
sophistication is desired, the Willenborg model as described by Engle could be
used. The Willenborg model provides especially good correlation with
experimental data when crackgrowth retardation is significant. All of these models
provide fatigue-life estimates greater than or equal to the estimate that would be
provided by the Palmgren-Miner model.
44 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
If the load-time history is made up of large cycles separated by few small

cycles and the mean level of the small cycles is at or above the mean of the large
cycle, the non-linear model proposed by Gurney is appropriate. Gurney’s model
provides fatigue-life estimates that are less than or equal to estimates provided by
the Palmgren-Miner model.
Unfortunately, current understanding of fatigue-crack growth is not sufficient
to specify how many cycles make up ‘many’ or ‘few’ so that precise criteria can
be established for selecting between the models proposed by Albrecht, Haibach,
and Tilly & Nunn, and the model proposed by Gurney. For the general case, the
non-linear and interaction models increase the level of sophistication of
calculations without providing a parallel improvement in accuracy of fatigue-life
estimates.
In general, the Palmgren-Miner model is the preferred fatigue-damage model.
The model is very simple to understand and apply, and the accuracy of fatigue-
life estimates is comparable to those of the more sophisticated models. If the
model is applied to a history containing an isolated overload, the fatigue life
estimate will be conservative; the same is true for the non-linear models. If the
model is applied to a history containing large cycles separated by few small
cycles, and the mean of the small cycles is high relative to the mean of the large
cycles, the fatigue life estimate will be unconservative; the same is true for the
interaction models and the non-linear models proposed by Albrecht, Haibach,
and Tilly & Nunn. If, however, the model is applied to a general service load-
time history such as could be measured on a highway bridge and all cycles in the
history are assumed to be damaging, the fatigue life estimate will be acceptably
accurate.
2.5
SUGGESTIONS FOR ADDITIONAL RESEARCH
To improve our present ability to estimate fatigue life under variable amplitude
loads, additional crack-growth studies are needed. These studies should be
conducted on both the macroscopic and the microscopic level. On the macroscopic
level, conventional crack-growth-rate tests can be used to better define the
transition between the accelerated growth rates observed by Gurney, Joehnk, and
Zwerneman, and the retarded growth rates observed by Albrecht, Haibach, and
Tilly & Nunn. On the microscopic level, cycle-by-cycle monitoring of damage
produced by variable-amplitude loading could provide information relevant to
the influence of the mean level of cycles on growth produced by those cycles.
Cycle-by-cycle monitoring could also help to resolve the question of whether
cycles below the crack growth threshold are damaging when they are part of a
variable-amplitude load-time history. Such cycle-by-cycle monitoring would be
difficult for tests conducted at or near threshold growth rates, but may be
possible with the aid of scanning electron microscopy or through the study of
acoustic emissions emitted during cycling.
REFERENCES
ALBRECHT, P. & I.M.FRIEDLAND. (1979) Fatigue-limit effect on variable-amplitude

fatigue of stiffeners. J. Structural Div. ASCE, 105(ST12), 2657–75.
BARSOM, J.M., (1973) Fatigue-crack growth under variable-amplitude loading in ASTM
A514-B steel. In Progress in Flaw Growth and Fracture Toughness Testing, ASTM
STP 536. American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 147–67.
DOWLING, N.E., (1972) Fatigue failure predictions for complicated stress-strain
histories. Journal of Materials. 7(1), 71–87.
DOWLING, N.E., (1988) Estimation and correlation of fatigue lives for random loading.
Int. J. Fatigue.10(13), 179–85.
ELBER, W., (1971) The significance of fatigue crack closure. Damage Tolerance in
Aircraft Structures. ASTM STP 486. American Society for Testing and
Materials.pp. 230–42.
ENDO, T.,MITSUNAGA, K., TAKAHASHI, K.,KOBAYISHI, K., & MATSUISHI, M.
(1974) Damage evaluation of metals for random or varying load—three aspects of
rainflow method. Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Proceedings of the 1974
Symposium on the Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, The Society of Materials
Science, Japan.
ENGLE, R.M. & RUDD, J.L., (1974). Analysis of crack propagation under variable
amplitude loading using the Willenborg retardation model. AIAA/ASME/ SAE 15th
Structures, Structural Dynamics and Materials Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada,
April, AIAA Paper No. 74–369.
FISHER, J.W., FRANK, K.H, HIRT, M.A. & MCNAMEE, B.M., (1970) Effect of
Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Report 102, Highway Research Board, National Research
Council, Washington, D.C.
FISHER, J.W., MERTZ, D.R. & ZHONG, A., (1983). Steel Bridge Members Under
Variable Amplitude Long Life Fatigue Loading. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Report 267. Transportation Research Board, National Research
GURNEY, T.R. (1981). Some Fatigue Tests on Fillet Welded Joints Under Simple Variable
Amplitude Loading. Research Report, The Welding Institute.
GURNEY, T.R. (1983). Fatigue Tests on Fillet Welded Joints to Assess the Validity of
Miner’s Cumulative Damage Rule. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, A386, 393– 408.
HAIBACH, E. (1970) (Contribution to Discussion) In Fatigue of Welded Structures,
Proceedings of the Conference. The Welding Institute, Brighton, England, Vol. 2,
pp. xx–xxii.
HEULER, P. & SEEGER, T. (1986) A criterion for omission of variable amplitude
loading histories. Int. J. Fatigue. 8(4), 225–30.
HOADLEY, P.W. (1982) Estimation of the Fatigue Life of a Welded Steel Highway
Bridge from Traffic Data. Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, The
University of Texas at Austin.
HUDSON, C.M. & HARDRATH, H.F. (1961) Effects of Changing Stress Amplitude on
the Rate of Fatigue Crack Propagation in Two Aluminum Alloys. NASA Technical
Note D-960, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.
46 F.J.ZWERNEMAN
HUDSON, C.M. & HARDRATH, H.F. (1963) Investigation of the Effects of

VariableAmplitude Loadings on Fatigue Crack Propagation Patterns. NASA
Technical Note D-1803, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Washington, D.C.
JOEHNK, J.M. (1982) Fatigue Behavior of Welded Joints Subjected to Variable
Amplitude Stresses. Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, The
KEATING, P.B. & FISHER, J.W., (1987) Fatigue behavior of variable loaded bridge details
near the fatigue limit. In Bridge Needs, Design, and Performance. Transportation
Research Record 1118, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C.
MINER, M.A. (1945) Cumulative damage in fatigue. J. Appl. Mech., Trans. ASME, 67,
pp. A159-A164.
NEWMAN, J.C., Jr. (1977) Finite element analysis of crack growth under mono tonic and
cyclic loading. Cyclic Stress-Strain and Plastic Deformation Aspects of Fatigue
Crack Growth, ASTM STP 637, American Society for Testing and Materials,
pp. 56–80.
NEWMAN, J.C., Jr. (1981) A crack-closure model for predicting fatigue crack growth
under aircraft spectrum loading. Methods and Models for Predicting Fatigue Crack
Growth Under Random Loading. ASTM STP 748. (J.B.Chang & C.M.Hudson, eds).
American Society for Testing and Materials, pp. 53–84.
PALMGREN, A. (1924) Bertschrift des Vereines Ingenieure, 58, 339.
PARIS, P.C. & ERDOGAN, F.E., (1963) A critical analysis of crack propagation laws. J.
Basic Eng. Series D. Trans. ASME, 85, 528–34.
RICE, J.R. (1967) Mechanics of crack tip deformation and extension by fatigue. Fatigue
Crack Propagation. ASTM STP 415. American Society for Testing and Materials,
pp. 247–311.
SCHIJVE, J. (1963) The analysis of random load-time histories with relation to fatigue
tests and life calculations. Fatigue of Aircraft Structures, Symposium on Fatigue of
Aircraft Structures, Paris, 1961. (W.Barrois & E.L.Ripley, eds). MacMillan.
SCHIJVE, J., VLUTTERS, A.M., ICHSAN, & PROVO KLUIT, J.C. (1985) Crack
growth in aluminium alloy sheet material under flight-simulation loading. Int. J.
Fatigue, 7(3), 127–36.
SCHILLING, C.G., KLIPPSTEIN, K.H., BARSOM, J.M. & BLAKE, G.T., (1978)
Fatigue of Welded Steel Bridge Members Under Variable-Amplitude Loadings.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 188. Transportation
Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
SWENSSON, K.D. (1984) The Application of Cumulative Damage Theory to Highway
Bridge Fatigue Design. Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, The
TILLY, G.P. & NUNN, D.E., (1980) Variable amplitude fatigue in relation to highway
bridges. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Appl. Mech. Group. 194(27), 259–67.
WHEELER, O.E. (1972) Spectrum loading and crack growth. J. Basic Eng. Trans.
ASME, March, pp. 181–6.
ZWERNEMAN, F.J. (1983) Influence of the Stress Level of Minor Cycles on Fatigue
Life of Steel Weldments. Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil Engineering, The
ZWERNEMAN, F.J. (1985) Fatigue Crack Growth in Steel Under Variable Amplitude
Load-Time Histories. Ph.D. Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering, The
Chapter 3
EFFECT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES ON
THE FATIGUE OF WELDS
S.SARKANI
Department of Civil, Mechanical and Environmental Engineering,
The George Washington University, USA
SUMMARY
This chapter deals with the effect of residual stresses due to welding on
fatigue life under both constant- and variable-amplitude loadings. It is
shown that residual stresses can significantly alter the S–N curve for
welded joints. In particular, it is shown that, under constant-amplitude
loading, residual stress affects the mean stress of small-amplitude cycles.
Using simple hypotheses for the initial stress state and simple stress-strain
behavior, the effect of mean stress for small amplitudes, using both the
modified Goodman and the Gerber formulae, is investigated. Finally it is
shown that consideration of residual stresses changes the S–N curve
enough to cause substantial modification of variable-amplitude fatigue-life
predictions by the commonly used Rayleigh approximation method.
NOTATION
A* Largest stochastic amplitude

Ay Applied stochastic stress amplitude equal to the yield stress
Dj Fatigue damage due to cycle j
K Constant of the S–N curve
m Inverse slope of the S–N curve
N Number of cycles to fatigue failure
Ny Number of cycles to fatigue failure when the applied stress range is twice
the yield stress
S Constant-amplitude stress range having tensile mean

S′ Equivalent constant-amplitude stress range having zero mean
EFFECT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES ON THE FATIGUE OF WELDS 49
Se Equivalent stress range having zero mean

Sr Applied stress range having tensile mean stress
Sv Variable-amplitude stress range having tensile mean
S′v Equivalent variable-amplitude stress range having zero mean
T Time at which fatigue failure is expected
t Time
X(t) Stochastic stress
v0 Rate of zero crossing of stochastic stress
σ Standard deviation (SD)
σ Stress (subscripts: a, applied; m, mean; u, ultimate; y, yield)
3.1
INTRODUCTION
Fatigue is a common mode of failure for a broad range of civil engineering
structures, particularly when such structures are made up of members that are
connected by welds. Highway bridges and offshore structures are two examples
which are generally made up of welded members and for which fatigue failure
can be disastrous. Unfortunately, there are many uncertainties involved in
predicting fatigue failure for such structures under service load conditions.
Welded joints provide a particular challenge since they contain one of the more
common locations for fatigue-crack growth, and there also exists uncertainty
regarding the initial stress distribution and the physical properties of the weld
material.
In order to predict fatigue life under service load, use is generally made of the
results of laboratory tests using constant-amplitude loadings. Such constant-
amplitude tests are run at each of two or more amplitude levels, and the results
are plotted as the so-called S–N curve. The service fatigue life is predicted by
dividing the variable-amplitude service loadtime history into cycles of constant
amplitude and then using the S–N data to predict the damage done by each
constant-amplitude cycle. Despite a large volume of work carried out to date,
there are still questions as to the best way to do each of these steps in variable-
amplitude fatigue prediction, but they are secondary to the present discussion.
This chapter deals with the determination of the S–N curve and with the extent
to which variable-amplitude fatigue-life predictions can be affected by the
procedures used in getting that curve. More specifically, it deals with the nature
and magnitude of the effects of residual stresses which may be introduced by
welding. Using simple hypotheses about the residual stress distribution and
stress-strain behavior of the material, it is shown that residual stresses can have a
significant effect on the mean stress at critical locations in a joint when that joint
is subsequently subjected to small-amplitude cyclic loading. The change in mean
stress then alters the resulting S–N curve significantly. Finally, using the
Rayleigh approximation, it is shown that the variable-amplitude fatiguelife
50 S.SARKANI
predictions can be substantially altered for loadings that have small standard
deviations.
3.2
BACKGROUND
In order to predict the fatigue life of a structure due to any complicated loading
history, one needs to know the fatigue behavior of that structure under constant-
amplitude loadings. The constant-amplitude results are usually designated the S–
N curve, where S denotes the range (double amplitude) of either the loading
process or the response and N denotes the number of cycles until failure.
Empirical data of this type can usually be approximated quite well by an
equation of the form
N=KS−m (3.1)
where K and m are constants related to the material properties. Equation (3.1)
ignores the existence of any fatigue limit (or endurance limit) which gives a
minimum range necessary to cause damage. This shortcoming is considered to be
relatively unimportant in predicting fatigue life for realistic variable-amplitude
loadings, provided that there remain many cycles which are above the fatigue limit.
Knowledge of the S–N relationship enables one to compute the average
incremental damage Dj caused by a single cycle with stress range Sj:
(3.2)
Note that this gives the accumulated damage to be unity at the time of failure in
the constant-amplitude tests. The Palmgren-Miner hypothesis (Palmgren, 1924;
Miner, 1945) is that variable-amplitude failure also occurs when the accumulated
damage is unity when eqn (3.2) is used to find the damage in each cycle. This
implies that the damage due to any loading cycle is a function of the stress range
in that cycle only.
Under variable-amplitude laoding, in order to use eqn (3.2) one must first
identify the cycles and determine their ranges. This is quite easy for a very
narrowband process, but is much less obvious in other situations.
The probabilistic form of eqn (3.2) is
(3.3)
in which E(Dj) is the expected or mean value of the incremental damage per
cycle and fs(s) is the probability density function of the stress ranges. The
corresponding approximation of the number of cycles to failure is
(3.4)
Finding the time t=T at which failure is expected requires an estimate of the
number of cycles per unit time in the variable-amplitude process.
One of the simplest and most widely used analytical techniques for estimating
fatigue life under variable-amplitude loading is the so-called Rayleigh
approximation method (Miles, 1954). This technique is based on the assumption

that the damage caused by any stochastic stress X(t) is the same as the damage
caused by a very narrowband normal stress with the values of standard deviation,
σ x, and rate of zero-crossing, v0, equal to those of the original process. Since the
peaks of a very narrow-band normal process are Rayleigh distributed, one has
(3.5)
in which fA(a) is the probability density function of the peaks. Finally, the
magnitude of a stress range is taken to be twice the value of a. Based on the
above assumptions, the expected value of the damage is
(3.6)
where ′ (•) denotes the gamma function, and the estimated failure time is
(3.7)
3.3
INFLUENCE OF RESIDAL STRESS
The above discussion has said nothing about the effects of mean stresses. When
applied loading is symmetric about zero, it is natural to begin with the
assumption that mean stresses are also zero. It is logical to expect, though, that
the welding may have left considerable residual stress, so that the material at
some particular point in a specimen might have a significant mean stress. In
particular, it seems likely that the thermal shrinkage of the weld material caused
very large tensile residual stresses in the base metal immediately adjacent to the
weld. This is particularly significant for fatigue, since the fatigue cracks are
typically initiated at the weld toe, which is part of this postulated region of
tensile residual stress.
Even though it is very difficult to accurately determine the magnitude and
distribution of residual stresses around the weld toe, recent experimental
measurements (Sarkani & Lutes, 1988; Berge & Eide, 1982) indicate that the
magnitude of these weld-toe residual stresses is close to the yield stress of the
base metal, and decreases rapidly as the distance from the weld-toe is increased.
Thus, for a joint geometry in which the cracks initiate around the weld toe, it is
important to determine the combined effect of residual stresses and the applied
loading on the fatigue of the joint.
Figure 3.1 shows the effect of the residual stresses on two different load
cycles, under the simplifying assumptions that the base metal has an elastic,
perfectly plastic stress-strain curve and that the yield stress has not been affected
by the welding. Two cases are considered: (a) when the amplitude of the applied
52 S.SARKANI
FIG. 3.1 Hypothesized effect of residual stresses.
nominal stress at the weld-toe is near the yield stress, and (b) when the applied
nominal stress at the weld-toe is less than the yield stress of the base metal. It is
assumed that the gross behavior of the specimen is linear, even though localized
yielding occurs. Thus, the changes in strains (both nominal and local) are
proportional to the load and the nominal stress.
Consider Fig. 3.1(a), where the applied cyclic nominal stress has amplitude
close to the yield stress. Upon the application of the first quarter-cycle of the
loading, i.e. from A to B, even though the nominal stress is varied from zero to
yield, the local weld-toe stress remains the same as before while the local strain
is increased from point A to point B. As the second and third quarter-cycles of
the loading are applied, i.e. from B to D, the weld-toe local stress and nominal
stress both change from tensile yield stress to compressive yield stress. Note that
it is being assumed that unloading is linear, both nominally and at the weld-toe
of the specimen. Application of further cycles of the loading would cause the
weld-toe stress to vary between points D and B. Thus, the weld-toe mean stress
is zero.
Figure 3.1.(b) illustrates the effect of application of a loading cycle with
amplitude less than the yield stress of the base metal. Similar to the previous
case, upon application of the first quarter-cycle of loading, i.e. from A to B, the
local weld-toe stress remains at yield as the local strain is increased from A to B.
However, in this case, upon application of the second and third quarter-cycles of
the loading, the local weld-toe stress varies from yield to point D, which is equal
to the yield stress minus the stress range of the applied loading cycle. Again,
application of further cycles of loading will continue to vary the local weld-toe
stress between points D and B. In this case the mean weld-toe stress remains
equal to
σm=σy−σa (3.8)
where
σ m=weld-toe mean stress;
σ y=yield stress of base metal;
σ a=amplitude of applied nominal stress cycles.
Based on Fig. 3.1(a), it is reasonable to assume that weld residual stresses
should not effect the fatigue life of a specimen subjected to a symmetric loading
containing large tensile nominal stresses. This generally applies to the large
constant-amplitude loadings used to define the low-cycle end of the S–N curve.
However, for stresses on the high-cycle end of the S–N curve (nominal stress
amplitude less than yield), the presence of tensile residual stress causes a tensile
mean stress level, as shown in Fig. 3.1(b). Such tensile mean stresses can
significantly reduce the fatigue life.
There are a number of methods available to account approximately for the
effect of mean stress on fatigue life of a specimen subjected to cyclic loading.
These methods are based on experimental observations. For a given stress range
and mean stress, such methods provide the methodologies for calculating an
equivalent stress range with zero mean stress. The most widely used correction
methods are the modified Goodman (Goodman, 1899; Muvdi & McNabb, 1980)
and the Gerber parabola (Gerber, 1874; Muvdi & McNabb, 1980). The modified
Goodman correction is based on the following equation:
(3.9)
The Gerber equation is
(3.10)
where
Sr=applied stress range having tensile mean stress;
Se=equivalent stress range having zero mean;
σ m=mean stress;
σ u=ultimate stress of the material;
σ y=yield stress of the material.
In order to examine the magnitude of the change for typical welded joints, the
S–N curve of eqn (3.1) is rewritten as
(3.11)
in which Ny is the fatigue life when the applied stress range is Sy i.e. twice the
yield stress of the specimen material. Comparison of eqns (3.1) and (3.11)
indicates that Using the models previously presented for taking into account the
effect of residual stresses, eqn (3.11) can be converted to an equivalent zero-
mean S–N curve as follows:
54 S.SARKANI
FIG. 3.2 Influence of mean stresses on S–N curve.
(3.12)
Setting f=1 and 2 would represent the equivalent zero-mean S–N curve based on
the modified Goodman and the Gerber corrections, respectively. Note that when
f is set equal to a large positive number, eqn (3.12) reduces to the original S–N
curve of eqn (3.11).
Close examination indicates that eqn (3.12) is no longer a straight line on the
log-log plot. However eqn (3.12) is attractive because it can easily be
implemented for variable-amplitude fatigue-life predictions, as will be
demonstrated later. Equation (3.12) is plotted in Fig. 3.2 for three different f
values which would correspond to corrections based on the modified Goodman,
the Gerber and no correction for mean stresses. In these plots, σ y=50 ksi, σ u=77·5
ksi, Ny=20000 and m is set equal to 4. These are typical values for welded joints.
(Note: 1 Ksi=6·9 N/mm2)
In order to determine which one of the above correction procedures more closely
predicts the effect of mean stresses on the fatigue of welded joints, Sarkani and
Lutes (1988) carried out an experimental investigation. The specimens they used
were welded plate tees. Their study began by obtaining the S–N curve as is done
customarily in fatigue studies. However, in addition to the usual S–N curve tests,
they tested several specimens under constant-amplitude loading which had
previously been subjected to a few large cycles, so that residual stresses were
FIG. 3.3 Influence of residual stresses on S–N curve.
redistributed or ‘wiped out’ at the point of crack initiation. The few large cycles
had the nominal stress amplitude equal to the yield stress of the specimen
material, whereas all the other cycles until failure had a smaller nominal stress
amplitude equal to 40% of the yield stress.
Because of the effect of the few large-amplitude cycles, the new data points
were considered to represent fatigue with no mean stress effect. They then
corrected their original S–N for the effect of residual stresses by employing the
simplified model presented above in conjunction with modified Goodman
method and the Gerber parabola. The original and corrected S–N curves are
shown in Fig. 3.3. Also shown in Fig. 3.3 are the data points which are
considered to be fatigue lives with no mean stress effect. It was concluded that
the Gerber correction adequately predicts the effect of residual stresses on the
constant-amplitude fatigue lives in terms of elevated mean stresses.
3.4
VARIABLE-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE-LIFE
PREDICTIONS
From the preceding discussion, it is clear that residual stresses present in welded
specimens alter the S–N curve predicted for specimens without residual stresses.
Futhermore, this change is particulary significant for the small-stress portion of
the S–N curve. The next step is to determine whether the alteration in the S–N
curve is large enough to significantly effect the fatigue lives predicted under
variable-amplitude situations.
56 S.SARKANI
The three S–N curves to be considered are that corrected by the modified
Goodman method, that by the Gerber method and the one obtained by assuming
that residual stresses have no effect (eqn (3.11)). Recall that these three S–N
curves are supposed to give the fatigue lifetime without means stress, in spite of
the different assumptions made in obtaining the curves. When considering the
effect of residual stresses, it is reasonable to use one of the corrected S–N curves
and consider mean stresses in any variable-amplitude loading for which fatigue
life is to be predicted. If one uses the uncorrected S–N curve, then it is consistent
to ignore mean stresses in the variable-amplitude loadings as well.
The common Rayleigh approximation will now be used to predict variable-
amplitude fatigue lives using the three S–N curves. Comparison of the results
will give an indication of the consequences of the assumptions about residual
stress. Even though this ignores questions about the accuracy of the Rayleigh
approximation for certain service loads, the comparison of the S–N curves and
the relative effects of residual stresses is nonetheless valid.
Probabilistic fatigue-life prediction can be considerably more complicated if
one uses any of the correction methods to obtain an equivalent stress range for
each range in a variable-amplitude time history, since Rayleigh distribution of
stress ranges will be lost. However, one can still use the S–N curve of eqn (3.11)
to obtain variable-amplitude fatigue-life estimates. Also, if the mean stress at any
specific time is taken to be a function of the largest cycle prior to that time, then
the damage will be non-stationary. These complications can be simplified if the
residual stresses at the crack-initiation point are assumed to have been removed.
Since variable-amplitude loadings contain large stress cycles, then this large
cycle, if applied early during the loading process, can remove the residual
stresses and subsequently remove the mean stress on the following variable-
amplitude loading cycles.
Let Ay denote the applied stress amplitude that brings the nominal stress in the
specimen to the yield level of the material. Recall that the assumed stress-strain
behavior gives removal of the residual stress at the location of crack initiation
upon application of a stress of amplitude Ay. It is pertinent to consider how
frequently one should expect the stress amplitude to exceed Ay or any specified
fraction of Ay. These numbers for the recurrence interval of Ay, 0·75Ay, 0·50Ay
and 0·25Ay, have been computed from the assumed Rayleigh distribution of
amplitudes with various standard deviation (Sd) values and are given in
Table 3.1.
From Table 3.1 it is clear that when Sd is small it is much less likely that an
amplitude of Ay will occur early in the stochastic loading. For Sd/Ay=0·15, for
example, on average an amplitude equal to Ay will occur once in every 447×107
cycles.
Now for a given variable-amplitude stress range Sv, assuming that the largest
stress amplitude that occurs throughout the loading process is A* and
furthermore assuming that A* occurs early during the loading process, allows
one to obtain the equivalent zero-mean stress range Sσv as follows:
(3.13)
Now the Palmgren-Miner hypothesis is employed to calculate the fatigue damage

caused by Sσv. To accomplish this, use is made of the zero-mean
TABLE 3.1
RECURRENCE INTERVAL FOR STRESS EQUAL TO A*
A*=0·25Ay A*=0·5Ay A*=0·75Ay A*=Ay
0·05 268×103 518×1019 721×1046 723×1084

0·10 23 268×103 164×1010 518×1019
0·15 4 259 268×103 447×107
0·20 2 23 1131 268×103
0·25 2 7 90 2981
0·30 1 4 23 259
S–N curve of eqn (3.12). In particular, a constant-amplitude stress range S can be

converted to an equivalent zero-mean constant amplitude stress range S′ given by
(3.14)
Now setting the right-hand side of eqns (3.13) and (3.14) equal to each other and
solving for S in terms of Sv allows one to obtain the damage Dv due to a cycle Sv
in terms of the S–N curve of eqn (3.12). Setting f = 1 and 2, one can obtain S in
terms of Sv for both the modified Goodman and the Gerber correction methods as
follows:
(modified Goodman) (3.15a)
(Gerber) (3.15b)
(3.15C)
Using eqns (3.15a) or (3.15b) for equivalent constant-amplitude stress range, one
can obtain the damage Dv due to a variable amplitude cycle Sv. Assuming that
the original stress range, Sv i.e. not corrected for effect of residual stress, is twice
the amplitude, and that the amplitude is taken to have a truncated Rayleigh
probability distribution (since the largest amplitude that can occur is A*), results
in the following expression for the expected number of cycles to failure:
58 S.SARKANI
(3.16)
in which for the modified Goodman correction the mth moment of the stress
ranges can be calculated as
(3.17a)
for the Gerber correction, one gets
(3.17b)
in which
Note that fA(a) is the truncated Rayleigh distribution (see eqn (3.5)):
(3.18)
In the above formulation, it is explicity assumed that the largest amplitude

throughout the random loading does not exceed A* and furthermore that A*
occurs early during the loading process so that it results in some removal of the
residual stresses. Note that when A* reaches the yield stress of the specimen
material, then it is assumed that all the residual stresses are removed under the
variable-amplitude loading.
Let N0, N1 and N2 denote lifetimes predicted from eqn (3.16) using the
uncorrected stress ranges, i.e. neglecting the effect of residual stress, and those
corrected for the effect of residual stresses by the modified Goodman and the
Gerber methods, i.e. eqns (3.15a) and (3.15b). Tables3.2 and 3.3 represent values
of N0, N1 and N2 corresponding to various A* values (the largest amplitude of the
stochastic stress process) for several values of the standard deviation of the
stochastic stress. Also shown in Tables3.2 and 3.3 are the recurrence intervals of
A* which are given in the final column of these tables. Note that the results in
these tables are based on σ y=50 ksi, σ u=77·5 ksi and Ny=20000.
From Tables 3.2 and 3.3 it is clear that the effect of correction for residual
stress becomes much more significant when the SD of the stress process is
smaller and when A* approaches the yield stress of the base metal. The effect of
the modified Goodman correction is more severe that that of the Gerber
correction, particularly when the SD of the stochastic stress process is smaller.
On the other hand, one must note that when the SD is small, it also becomes
much less likely that a large value of A* will occur early in the stochastic loading.
For example, for m=3, SD/Ay=0·05 and assuming A*=Ay, ignoring the residual
stress in the variableamplitude fatigue-life calculations would cause a
conservative error of 283% if one used the Gerber correction. However, for this
situation, it is very unlikely that an amplitude equal to or larger than Ay would
actually occur. On the other hand, for SD/Ay=0·25 it is very likely that the
stochastic stress would exceed Ay long before fatigue failure. For this situation,
ignoring the residual stress would cause a conservative error of 48% based on the
Gerber correction.
One may also note that introduction of an endurance limit into S–N curves,
and subsequently into variable-amplitude fatigue-life calculations, would have a
significant effect on the damage predictions for small SD
TABLE 3.2
VARIABLE-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE- LIFE PREDICTIONS
N0 (cycles) N1 (cycles) N2 (cycles) N1/No N2/N0 A* recurrence
(neglecting (corrected for (corrected for interval
residual stress) residual stress, residual stress,
modified Gerber)
Goodman)
(a) m=3, A*=0·25σ y
0·05 42·6×106 84·1×106 67·2×106 1·98 1·58 268×103
0·10 7·1×106 9·8×106 8·8×106 1·39 1·24 23
0·15 4·4×106 5·7×106 5·2×106 1·28 1·17 4
0·20 3·8×106 4·7×106 4·4×106 1·25 1·15 2
0·25 3·5×106 4·4×106 4.1×106 1·24 1·15 2
0·30 3·4×106 4·2×106 3·9×106 1·23 1·14 1
(b) m=3, A*=0·50σ y
0·05 42·6×106 213·1×106 113·5×106 5·00 2·67 518×109
0·10 5·3×106 18·0×106 10·4×106 3·38 1·96 268×103
0·15 1·6×106 3·7×106 2·5×106 2·25 1·52 259
0·20 0·9×106 1·6×106 1·2×106 1·80 1·34 23
0·25 0·6×106 1·1×106 0·8×106 1·64 1·27 7
0·30 0·6×106 0·9×106 0·7×106 1·57 1·24 4
(c) m=3, A*=0·75σ y
0·05 42·6×106 423·8×106 149·4×106 10·17 3·51 721×1046
0·10 5·3×106 40·1×106 14·0×106 7·53 2·64 164×1010
0·15 1·6×106 8.3×106 3·2×106 5·27 2·02 268×103
0·20 0·7×106 2·4×106 1·1×106 3·54 1·62 1131
0·25 0·4×106 1·0×106 0·5×106 2·64 1·41 90
0·30 0·3×106 0·6×106 0·3×106 2·23 1·31 23
(d) m=3, A*=σ y
0·05 42·6×106 766·8×106 162·9×106 18·02 3·83 723×1084
0·10 5·3×106 75·2×106 15·4×106 14·14 2·90 518×107
0·15 1·6×106 16·9×106 3·5×106 10·71 2·23 447×109
0·20 0·7×106 5·1×106 1·2×106 7·70 1·77 268×103
0·25 0·3×106 1·8×106 0·5×106 5·29 1·48 2981
60 S.SARKANI
N0 (cycles) N1 (cycles) N2 (cycles) N1/No N2/N0 A* recurrence

residual stress) residual stress, residual stress,
modified Gerber)
Goodman)
0·30 0·2×106 0·8×106 0·3×106 3·84 1·32 259
TABLE 3.3
VARIABLE-AMPLITUDE FATIGUE-LIFE PREDICTIONS
N0 (cycles) N1 (cycles) N2 (cycles) N1/N0 N2/N0 A* recurrence
residual stress) residual stress, residual stress
modified Gerber)
Goodman)
(a) m=4, A*=0·25σ y
0·05 400·1×106 924·1×106 699·2×106 2·31 ·75 268×103
0·10 39·3×106 56·9×106 49·9×106 1·45 1·27 23
0·15 22·4×106 29·6×106 26·7×106 1·32 1·20 4
0·20 18·7×106 24·1×106 21·9×106 1·29 1·17 2
0·25 17·3×106 22·0×106 20·1×106 1·27 1·16 2
0·30 16·6×106 21·0×106 19·2×106 1·27 1·16 1
(b) m=4, A*=0·5σ y
0·05 400·0×106 3258·8×106 1415·1×106 8·15 3·54 518×1019
0·10 25·0×106 111·5 56·1×106 4·46 2·24 268×103
0·15 5·4×106 13·3×106 8·5×106 2·49 1·58 259
0·20 2·5×106 4·7×106 3·4×106 1·92 1·37 23
0·25 1·7×106 2·9×106 2·2×106 1·73 1·3 7
0·30 1·4×106 2·3×106 1·8×106 1·64 1·26 4
(c) m=4, A*=0·75σ y
0·05 400·0×106 8472·7×106 2050.5×l06 21·18 5·13 721×1046
0·10 25·0×106 336·0×106 84·1×106 13·44 3·36 164×1010
0·15 4·9×106 38·0×106 11·3 7·68 2·20 268×103
0·20 1·6×106 6·8×106 2·7×106 4·24 1·69 1131
0·25 0·8×106 2·2×106 1·1×106 2·92 1·44 90
0·30 0·5×106 1·2×106 0·6×106 2·40 1·32 23
(d) m=4, A*=σ y
0·05 400·0×106 18298.5×106 2303·7×106 45·75 5·76 723×1084
0·10 25·0×106 793·6×106 95·5×106 31·74 3·82 518×109
0·15 4·9×106 102·1×106 12·8×106 20·68 2·60 447×107
0·20 1·6×106 19·1×106 3·0×106 12·22 1·89 268×103
0·25 0·6×106 4·4×106 1·0×106 6·86 1·51 2981
N0 (cycles) N1 (cycles) N2 (cycles) N1/N0 N2/N0 A* recurrence

residual stress) residual stress, residual stress
modified Gerber)
Goodman)
0·30 0·3×106 1·5×106 0·4×106 4·44 1·26 259
values. In effect, the endurance limit would remove the damage caused by the
small-amplitude cycles and it is in this region that the correction for residual
stresses is most significant. Comparison of results in Tables 3.2 and 3.3 also
indicates that, as the value of m increases, the effect of residual stress becomes
more significant.
Overall, it appears that there exists a range of stochastic loads for which it is
likely that the mean stresses will be near zero throughout most of the variable-
amplitude fatigue life, and for which neglecting the effect of residual stresses gives
significant errors. On the other hand, for some other stochastic loadings, the
effect of residual stresses is not necessarily significant compared to other
uncertainties in practical fatigue-life prediction, but it could very well mask the
effect of other factors which could be of considerable research interest. For
instance, the bandwidth effects predicted by rainflow analysis (Lutes et al.,
1984; Wirsching & Light, 1980) and the experimentally measured effect of
weathering (Albrecht and Sidani, 1986) are generally of a smaller order of
magnitude than the effect of residual stresses as presented here.
It is not clear at this point whether the residual stress effect should be
considered in design codes. Even though the model presented here indicates that
the occasional application of yielding stress does extend fatigue life, it is not clear
that one should rely on this possible benefit in order to increase the allowable
level of design stress within a structure. Careful consideration must be given to
the probability of occurrence of large loads in the intended service conditions
and initial distribution and magnitude of residual stresses.
3.5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Several recent experimental investigations have concluded that the magnitude of
residual stress present at the crack-initiation location of welded joints is close to
yield stress of the base metal. Using simple hypotheses, the effect of residual
stress on the constant-amplitude fatigue S–N curve was investigated. It was
concluded that residual stress aifects the mean stress of applied loading on the
joint. Futhermore, the Gerber formula for correcting the resulting mean stress
gives results agreeing with experimental findings.
Finally, the effect of residual stress on variable-amplitude fatigue life was
investigated. It was shown that the effect of residual stress is particularly
62 S.SARKANI
significant for variable-amplitude loadings that have small SD values typical of

service conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to express his sincere thanks to Professor Loren D.Lutes
of Texas A&M University for initially introducing him to the topic of stochastic
fatigue. Some of the material presented here was drawn from a paper by the
author and Professor Lutes (Sarkani & Lutes, 1988). Thanks are also extended to
Mr. David P. Kihl, a doctoral student at George Washington University, for his
assistance throughout the preparation of this chapter.
REFERENCES
ALBERCHT, P. & SIDANI, M. (1986). Fatigue Strength of 8-Year Weathered Stiffeners

in Air and Salt Water. Civil Engineering Report, University of Maryland, College
Park, Maryland.
BERGE, S. & EIDE, O.I. (1982). Residual Stresses and Stress Interaction in Fatigue
Testing of Welded Joints. ASTM STP 776, pp. 115–131.
GERBER, W.Z.(1874). BAYER Archit. Ing. Ver., 6 101.
GOODMAN, J. (1899). Mechanics Applied to Engineering. Longman, Green and
Company, London.
LUTES, L.D., CORAZAO, M. HU, S-L.J. & ZIMMERMAN, J.J. (1984). Stochastic
fatigue damage accumulation. J. Structural Div. ASCE, Paper 19823, 110(ST11),
2585–601.
MILES, J.W. (1954). On structural fatigue under random loading. J. Aeronautical Sci.
753–62.
MINER, M.A. (1945). Cumulative damage in fatigue. J. Appl. Mech. 12 A159– A164.
MUVDI, B.B. & McNABB, J.W. (1980). Engineering Mechanics of Materials.
MacMillan, New York.
PALMGREN, A. (1924). Die Lebensdauer vo Kugallagern. Ver. Deut. Ingr., 68, 339–41.
SARKANI, S. & LUTES, L.D. (1988). Residual stress effects on fatigue of welded joints.
J. Structural Div. ASCE, Paper 22231, 114(ST.2), 462–74.
WIRSCHING, P.H. & LIGHT, M.C. (1980). Fatigue under wide band random stresses. J.
Structural Div. ASCE, Paper 15574, 106(ST7), 1593–607.
Chapter 4
FATIGUE CRACKING IN PLATE AND
BOX GIRDERS
Y.MAEDA
Emeritus Professor, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
Y.KAWAI
Research and Development Center, Kawasaki Steel Corp., Chiba,
Japan
&
I.OKURA
Department of Civil Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
SUMMARY
The fatigue behavior of plate and box girder structures subjected to
repeated loading is presented, based on the results of analyses, laboratory
tests and observations of model or actual structures carried out by the
authors. First of all, fundamental crack patterns occurring in thin-walled
plate girder bridges are discussed, including cracking at the connections
of cross-beams to the main girders of highway bridges. Secondly, fatigue
cracking of two types of box girder monorail guideways is considered.
Finally, the fatigue cracking observed in heavy-duty crane girders, such as
welded crane girders in workshops and apron girders of unloaders in
harbors, is discussed.
NOTATION
a Width of a rectangular plate or interval between adjacent vertical stiffeners
b Height of a rectangular plate or web depth

bfr Width of an upper flange of a runway rail
bfs Width of an inner flange of a stiffening frame
bie Effective width of an inner flange of a stiffening
frame
boe Effective width of skin plate as an outer flange of
a stiffening frame
Cv Coefficient related to contact pressure distribution
of a pneumatic tire
64 Y.MAEDA, Y.KAWAI AND I.OKURA
d Distance between a vertical loading point and a

webto-flange welded joint
Dc Flexural rigidity of a concrete slab
e Magnitude of rail misalignment
E Young’s modulus
If Moment of inertia of an upper flange
Ig Moment of inertia of a main girder
IQ Moment of inertia of a cross-beam
IR Moment of inertia of a rail
J JR+Jf+Jw
JR, Jf, Jw St. Venant’s torsional rigidities of a rail, upper
flange and web, respectively
k Factor ′ σ /′ P
kml, km3, kml23, kbl, kb3, kbl23 Constants
kv Maximum running speed of a monorail vehicle
l Span length of a plate girder
m, n Positive integers
Nc Number of cycles when fatigue cracks are
observed
po Air pressure of a pneumatic tire
P Magnitude of a wheel load
′P Load range
R Ratio of in-plane bending stresses σ o min/σ o max
Ri Radius-of-curvature of an inner flange of a
stiffening frame
s Spacing between main girders
tfr Thickness of an upper flange of a runway rail
tfs Thickness of an inner flange of a stiffening frame
tw Web thickness
tT Thickness of a tie-pad
w0′, w0 max Initial deflection and its maximum of a plate,
respectively
wp Width of a pneumatic tire
x, y Abscissa and ordinate, respectively

Z (IQ/Ig)[l/(2s)]3
σ Coefficient for adjusting the thickness of a tie-pad to its effective
thickness
σ Web slenderness ratio b/tw
σ Coefficient
′σ Local strain range
σ s0′σ g Rotations of concrete slab and of cross-beam, respectively
σ
FATIGUE CRACKING IN PLATE AND BOX GIRDERS 65
v Poisson’s ratio
σb Plate-bending stress at web panel boundaries
σ b max′ σ b min Maximum and minimum plate-bending stresses which are caused
by σ o max and σ o min, respectively
σd Local bearing stress at a flange-to-web weld
σe σ 2E/[12(1–v2)σ 2]
σ fb Plate-bending stress in an upper flange of a runway rail
σl Longitudinal stress in a lower flange
σm Membrane stress produced in a connection plate at a cross-beam
connection
σo In-plane bending stress at the junction of flange and web
σ o max′ σ o min Maximum and minimum of in-plane bending stress σ o,
respectively
σr Radial stress in a curved flange
σσ Circumferential stress in a curved flange
′ σ bf Fatigue strength of fillet welds subjected to platebending stress
′ σo Range of in-plane bending stress (σ o max–σ o min)
σ cr Shear buckling strength of a rectangular plate simply supported
along four edges
σo In-plane shearing stress
σ o max Maximum of in-plane shearing stress σ o
4.1
INTRODUCTION
During the past decade, a great deal of research has been carried out on the
effects of repeated loading on welded structures such as bridges, monorail
guideways, crane runways, etc. As well as knowledge obtained from the
observations of actual structures, these studies have led to a better understanding
of fatigue behavior of plate and box girders, and particularly to improvement of
fatigue provisions in bridge design codes like AASHTO (1989), BS5400 (1980)
and EUROCODE 3 (1990).
Traditionally, fatigue cracking and fatigue resistance of girders have been
considered in relation to design details and initial defects or cracks due to
geometrical discontinuities or poor quality welds during fabrication. A low-
fatigue-strength detail or built-in defects may produce only a single significant
crack. However, the behavior of secondary members has not always been as
obvious. These members interact with the main members and are subjected to
more cycles of a higher stress range than anticipated.
The most remarkable fatigue problem of girder structures in recent years is
cracking from secondary stresses due to the repetition of web deflection.
Interaction between the longitudinal girder and the transverse framing will
produce secondary and displacement-induced stresses at the connections to the

main members, which may cause many fatigue cracks simultaneously in the
overall structure, depending upon structural conditions.
The fatigue cracks of the secondary members and the displacement-induced
fatigue cracks are discussed and some recommendations are provided as to how
the problems may be avoided or minimized to insure the intended performance.
4.2
THIN-WALLED PLATE GIRDER
As pointed out by Goodpasture & Stallmeyer (1967), Maeda (1971), Mueller &
Yen (1968), Patterson et al. (1970), Toprac & Natarajan (1971), and Yen &
Mueller (1966), when a thin-walled plate girder is subjected to repeated loading,
there are possibilities of the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracks along the
fillet welds around the web panel boundaries. As shown in Fig. 4.1, the fatigue
cracks are classified as follows, depending on loading conditions.
(a) In girders under bending, the following three types of fatigue cracks occur.
– Type 1 crack. This crack is initiated at the toe on the web side of the fillet
weld connecting the web to the compression flange. It grows
FIG. 4.1. Fatigue cracks in thin-walled plate girders. (a) Girder in bending. (b) Girder
in shear.
gradually along the weld toe with loading cycles. As shown in Fig. 4.2, the
crack is caused by the plate-bending stress at the weld toe due to out-of-plane
deformation of the web under in-plane bending.
– Type 2 crack. This crack is observed at the toe on the web side of the fillet
weld connecting the vertical stiffener to the web. It propagates towards the
tension flange. Penetration of the crack into the tension flange leads to the
FIG. 4.2. Plate-bending stress due to web deflection.

collapse of the girder. As the crack is produced on the tension side of the
neutral axis of the girder, its propagation speed is faster than that of a Type 1
crack.
– Type 3 crack. This crack occurs at the fillet weld connecting the web to the
tension flange. Its initiation is due to incomplete penetration of the fillet weld
or to discontinuities on the weld surface.
(b) In girders under shear, Type 4 cracks are initiated at the toe, on the web side
of the fillet welds, near to the corners where a diagonal tension field is expected
to be anchored. They propagate along the weld toe, and then branch out into the
web in directions approximately perpendicular to the tension field. Then the
girder will lose its load-carrying capability because of the diminished tension
field action. The cause of cracking is, as shown in Fig. 4.2, the plate-bending
stress at the weld toe, due to out-of-plane deformation of the web under in-plane
shear.
Of the cracks mentioned above, Types 2 and 3 cracks are the most common
cracks in rolled beams or built-up girders. The allowable stress ranges for them
are specified in the fatigue design of various codes (AASHTO, 1989; BS5400,
1980; EUROCODE 3, 1990). Thus, it is possible to predict their initiation by
comparing the range of applied in-plane bending stress, estimated by beam
theory at each cracking point, with the corresponding allowable stress range.
However, it is still difficult to predict the initiation of Type 1 cracks, because
the relation between applied load and plate-bending stress is not clearly defined.
The characteristics of Types 1 and 4 cracks are peculiar to thin-walled plate
girders and the design parameters are described in subsequent sections.
4.2.1
Bending
The finite deflection analysis of a rectangular plate under in-plane bending was
carried out by the finite-element method (FEM) to show the effects of an initial
web deflection on the plate-bending stresses along the web panel boundaries
(Maeda & Okura, 1981, 1983). Referring to Fig. 4.3, the plate is simply
supported at x=0 and a, fixed at y=0 and b against out-of-plane deflection, and
FIG. 4.3. Rectangular plate under inplane bending.

free to move in the in-plane direction. It is assumed that the plate has an initial
deflection in the following form:
w0=w0 max sin(mπx/a) sin(nπy/b) (4.1)
where w0 and w0 max are the initial deflection and its maximum value respectively,
and m and n are positive integers.
Figure 4.4 shows the relation between the in-plane bending stress σ o and the
plate-bending stress (σ b, at the edge y=b of a square plate. The following notation
is used in the figure: σ e=σ 2E/{12(1−v2)/σ 2}, E= Young’s modulus, v=Poisson’s
ratio, σ =b/tw=web slenderness ratio, and tw=web thickness. It can be seen that the
initial deflection shape for m=1 restrains the increase in plate-bending stress,
while the initial deflection shapes for m=2 and 3 increase the plate-bending stress
greatly.
The condition to prevent Type 1 cracks is as follows:
(4.2)
where σ b max and σ b min are the maximum and minimum plate-bending stresses
which are caused by the maximum and mininum in-plane bending stresses σ o max
and σ o min, respectively, and ′ σ fb is the fatigue strength of fillet welds subjected
to plate-bending stress. The fatigue strength ′ σ fb was obtained by Maeda (1978)
and Mueller & Yen (1968).
The relation between the in-plane bending stress σ o and the plate-bending
stress ′ b was formulated for the initial deflection shapes defined by m=2 and 3 in
eqn (4.1) by Maeda & Okura (1984). Therefore, solving the σ o versus σ b relation
subject to eqn (4.2), the relation between the maximum in-plane bending stress
σ o max and the web slenderness ratio σ satisfying eqn (4.2), can be obtained. Since
the σ o versus σ b relation is non-linear, the σ o max versus σ relation varies with the
ratio R of the in-plane bending stresses defined by
R=σo min/σo max (4.3)
Therefore the range of in-plane bending stress ′ σ o to satisfy enq (4.2) is
expressed as
FIG. 4.4. Relation between in-plane bending stress and plate-bending stress.
∆σo=σo max−σo min=σo max(1−R) (4.4)
The variation of ′ σ 0 with R is smaller than that of σ o max for test girders (Okura
et al. 1991). Figure 4.5 shows the relation between ′ σ o and σ for the girders
tested in bending by Maeda (1971), Mueller & Yen (1968), Patterson et al
(1970), Toprac & Natarajan (1971), and Yen & Mueller (1966). Figures 4.5(a)
and (b) give the classification of cracking at 5×105 cycles and at 2×106 cycles,
respectively. The allowable stress ranges for Types 2 and 3 cracks, specified as
Detail Classes E and C respectively, in BS5400 (1980), are also given in the
figures.
For in each of Figs 4.5(a) and (b), Type 1 cracks do not occur below the
allowable stress ranges for Types 2 and 3 cracks. However, Type 1 cracks occur
below the allowable stress ranges for Types 2 and 3 cracks for σ >200, as shown
in Fig. 4.5(a), and below the allowable stress range for Type 3 cracks for σ >200,
as shown in Fig. 4.5(b). Therefore, it is necessary to limit the web slenderness
ratio to 200 for stiffened plate girders to prevent Type 1 cracks.
4.2.2
Shear
Actual plate girders which are subjected to shear are necessarily subjected to
coexistent bending. The finite out-of-plane deformation of a square plate under
combined in-plane shear and in-plane bending was analyzed by FEM (Okura &
Maeda, 1985). Figure 4.6 shows the relation between the in-plane shearing stress
σ o and the plate-bending stress σ b for the initial deflection shapes defined by (m,
n)=(1, 1), (2, 2), (2, 1) and (1, 2) in eqn (4.1). It is seen that the plate-bending
stresses become closer to one another with increase in the in-plane shearing
FIG. 4.5.Relation between ′ σ o and σ . (a) Classification for 5×105 cycles. (b)
Classification for 2×106 cycles.
stress. Hence, in plate girders under shear, the influence of the shape of initial
web deflection on the increase in the plate-bending stress, and on the cracking, is
small.
The relation between the in-plane shearing stress σ o and the plate-bending
stress σ b was formulated for the initial deflection defined by (m, n)=(1, 1) in eqn
(4.1) (Maeda et al., 1985; Okura & Maeda, 1985). From the equation for the σ o
versus σ b relation, Type 4 cracks may be prevented by keeping the applied
maximum in-plane shearing stress below the shear buckling strength of a
rectangular plate simply-supported along four edges (Okura et al., 1991).
FIG. 4.6. Relation between in-plane shearing stress and plate-bending stress.
Figure 4.7 shows the relation between σ o max/σ cr and σ for the girders tested by
Goodpasture & Stallmeyer (1967), Mueller & Yen (1968), Patterson et al.
(1970), Toprac & Natarajan (1971), and Yen & Mueller (1966). Here, ′ o max is
the applied maximum in-plane shear stress, and ′ cr is the shear buckling strength
of a rectangular plate simply-supported along four edges. In Fig. 4.7, Type 4
cracks were initiated at filled circles before 2×106 cycles, while they were not at
open circles. There is one filled circle below the horizontal line σ o max/σ cr=1·0. At
this filled circle (Toprac and Natarajan, 1971), Type 4 cracks were detected at
1·626×106 cycles, which is close to two million cycles. Moreover, there are
several open circles above the horizontal line and the shear buckling strength σ cr
generally represents a conservative estimate.
4.3
CONNECTIONS IN PLATE GIRDER HIGHWAY
BRIDGES
Fatigue cracks occurs at the connections of cross-beams to main girders in many
plate girder highway bridges in the urban area of Japan. The fatigue cracks
observed in the plate girder bridges of the Hanshin Expressway in Osaka are
classified as shown in Fig. 4.8.
– Type 1 crack. This crack is initiated at the end of a fillet weld between the
connection plate and the top flange of the main girder.
– Type 2 crack. This crack is initiated at the upper scallop of the connection
plate, and grows diagonally through the connection plate itself.
– Type 3 crack. This crack is initiated at the end of the fillet weld connecting
the connection plate to the main girder web, and grows downwards along the
weld toe on the connection plate side.
FIG. 4.7.Relation between σ o max/σ cr and σ .
FIG. 4.8. Fatigue cracks at a cross-beam connection in a plate girder highway bridge.
– Type 4 crack. This crack is initiated and grows along the toe on the web side
of the fillet weld between the top flange and the web of the main girder.
Field stress measurements were carried out for an existing plate girder bridge of
the Hanshin Expressway to determine the stress states at the cross-beam
connections (Okura et al., 1987; Okura & Fukumoto, 1988).
FIG. 4.9. Local stresses σ m and σ b.
FIG. 4.10. Rotations σ s0 and σ g.
It revealed that the membrane stress σ m and the plate-bending stress σ b, as

illustrated in Fig. 4.9, were the stresses governing the initiation of Types 1 and 4
cracks, respectively. Then, the relationship between the local stresses and the
rotations of the concrete slab and cross-beam was formulated as follows (Okura
et al., 1988);
where σ s0 is the rotation of the concrete slab due to the slab-deformation caused
by wheel loads (see Fig. 4.10), σ g is the rotation of the cross-beam due to the
vertical displacements of main girders (see Fig. 4.10), σ is a coefficient
depending on the position of a vehicle in the direction of the roadway width, and
Km1, Km3, Kml23, Kbl, Kb3 and Kbl23 are constants which relate the local stresses to
the rotations.
The structural parameters governing the cracking at the cross-beam connection
were deduced from eqn (4.5), and are as follows (Okura et al., 1989a,b):
(a) For the concrete-slab rotation:

Dc/s
(b) For the cross-beam rotation,
FIG. 4.11. Relationship between IQ/s2 and the number of bridges in which Type 1 cracks
were observed.
where Dc is the flexural rigidity of the concrete slab, s is the spacing between
main girders, IQ is the moment of inertia of a cross-beam, Ig is the moment of inertia
of a main girder, l is the span length of a main girder, and Z=(IQ/Ig){l/(2s)}3. The
plate girder bridges with smaller values of the above structural parameters are
more susceptible to cracking, since a decrease of the parameters increases σ s0 and
σ g, resulting in an increase in the local stresses ′ m and σ b.
Figure 4.11 shows the relationship between IQ/s2 and the number of bridges in
which Type 1 cracks were observed. The influence of σ g on the local stress σ m,
which causes Type 1 cracks, is small in plate girder bridges with IQ/s2=3·1 cm2
(Okura et al., 1989a,b). In Fig. 4.11, however, Type 11 cracks occur in the
bridges with This indicates that Type 1 cracks can be initiated by the concrete-
slab rotation σ s0 alone.
Figure 4.12 shows the relationship between IQ/s2 and the number of bridges in
which Type 4 cracks were observed. With the increase in IQ/s2, the number of
bridges suffering from cracking gradually decreases, since the influence of σ g on
the local stress σ b, which causes Type 4 cracks, becomes small. No cracks occur
in the bridges with
FIG. 4.12. Relationship between IQ/s2 and the number of bridges in which Type 4 cracks
were observed.
4.4
BOX GIRDERS FOR MONORAIL GUIDEWAYS
4.4.1
Straddle-type
Guideway girders for straddle-type monorails are now under construction in
Osaka, Japan. Prestressed concrete girders with a span length of 22 m are usually
used for the guideway girders. Steel girders are, however, built at the intersection
with an existing road, or at a crossing above a river. As shown in Fig. 4.13, they
are narrow box girders 660 mm wide and 2·2–3·3 m in height. The parallel
girders are connected by cross beams of I section. Wheels of monorail vehicles
run on the top flange of the girders.
Figure 4.14 shows schematically the bending moment and shearing force
acting on a cross-beam. As shown in Fig. 4.14(a), when the load is applied to
girder G1, the bending moment has the same magnitude but opposite sign at the
girders G1 and G2, and is zero at the middle of the cross-beam. When, as shown
in Fig. 4.14(b), the load is applied to the girder G2, the bending moment and
shear force have opposite signs to those in Fig. 4.14(a). Hence, alternating
FIG. 4.13. Guideway girders for straddle-type monorail.
FIG. 4.14. Bending moment and shearing force acting on a cross-beam.

stresses are induced at the cross-beam connections when monorail vehicles run
on the G1 and G2 girders alternately.
To investigate the fatigue strength of the cross-beam connections, as shown in
Fig. 4.15, three types of specimens were designed, based on the results of a FEM
analysis (Maeda et al., 1989). A part of the girder below the middle of the plate
for running of stabilizing wheels, and a part of the cross-beam with a length of
half the spacing between two girders, were included in the specimens. Models
CP and TP were proposed as connection details to improve the fatigue strength
at the cross-beam connection in Model ST. In Model CP specimens, a corner
plate, as shown in the figure, was provided at the intersection of the top flange of
FIG. 4.15. Three types of specimens.
the cross-beam with the track girder web. In Model TP specimens, it was
possible to conduct fatigue tests on the right and left sides of the same specimen.
The size of the corner plate of Model CP specimens, and the increased depth of
the cross-beams of Model TP specimens, were both limited by the clearance of
monorail vehicles. The top of the girder of the test specimens was fixed to a rigid
floor, and alternating loads were applied vertically to the end of the cross beam.
FIG. 4.16. ′ σ versus Nc relation.

In Model CP specimens, fatigue cracks were initiated at the upper edge of the
corner plate. Their initiation was very sensitive to the shape of the upper edge of
the corner plate.
On the other hand, in Model ST and TP specimens, fatigue cracks were
initiated at the intersection of the top flange of the cross-beam with the girder
web. Figure 4.16 shows the relation between ′ σ and Nc. Nc is the number of
cycles at which fatigue cracks were detected. ′ σ is the range of the local strain
measured at the cross-beam connection, which was obtained as follows:
Figure 4.17 shows the distributions of the strains measured near the
intersection of the top flange of the cross-beam with the girder web. The
distributions of the strains are linear from about 10 mm ahead of the weld toe.
The strain values at the weld toe, obtained by extrapolation of the straight lines,
were converted to the strain range ′ σ
The value of the factor k, defined as k=′ σ /′ P, is a measure of the
improvement of the connection detail. Here, ′ P is the range of load. A cross-
beam connection with larger values of k is more susceptible to cracking. The k
values for Models ST and TP are shown in Table 4.1. Except for Model TP2L,
the k values of Model TP specimens are about half of that for Model ST.
When a Model TP connection detail is used at the cross-beam connection, a
hole is required in the diaphragm for fabrication work. The influence of such a
hole on cracking was investigated in Model TP2L. The results showed that, as
illustrated in Fig. 4.18, fatigue cracks were
TABLE 4.1
VALUES OF k
Model k(μ /kN)
ST 5·0
FIG. 4.17. Measured strains at cross-beam connection.

Model k(μ /kN)
TPIR 2·9
TP1L 2·4
TP2R 2·8
TP2L 4·2
Note: k=′ σ /′ P
initiated at the corners of the hole in the diaphragm and along the fillet welds at
one corner of the diaphragm above the rib plate, after the fatigue cracks occurred
at the intersection of the top flange of the cross-beam with the girder web. Thus,
the improvement of the connection detail by Model TP is very effective, but the
hole for fabrication work must be covered by a steel plate.
4.4.2
Suspended-type
Two types of guideway girders for a suspended-type monorail are shown in
Fig. 4.19, with stiffening frames inside or outside the skin plate. Both are thin-
FIG. 4.18. Fatigue cracks observed in Model TP2L specimen.

walled open box girders with a longitudinal slit at the lower flange to let
suspension links of monorail vehicles pass through. Wheels of monorail vehicles
run on the runway rails. Lateral loads due to wind or meandering of the vehicles
act on the guideway rails. The skin plate acts as flanges and webs of the box
girder. The stiffening frames restrain the cross-sectional deformation of the box
girder and also support the runway rails.
It was pointed out by Hikosaka et al. (1982) that the stiffening frames and
runway rails were susceptible to cracking. As shown in Fig. 4.20, two types of
cracks may be initiated at the corner of the stiffening frame, produced by the
circumferential stress σ σ and radial stress σ r. Such local stresses can be estimated
by in-plane curved beam theory, using the effective widths boe and bie, given by
the following equations for the skin plate and for the curved inner flange of the
stiffening frame, respectively:
boe=0·6b (4.6)
(4.7)
where and Ri, tfs and bfs are the radius of curvature, thickness and width of the
curved inner flange of the stiffening frame, respectively. Equation (4.7) was
obtained by Anderson (1950). In the fatigue design of the stiffening frame, such
FIG. 4.19. Stiffening of a suspended monorail guideway.
FIG. 4.20. Two types of fatigue cracks in a stiffening frame.

dimensions as the radius of curvature, thickness and width of the curved inner
flange must be determined, so that both the circumferential stress σ σ and the
radial stress σ r can satisfy the corresponding allowable fatigue strengths given in
Fig. 4.21 (Yamasaki & Kawai, 1983).
As shown in Fig. 4.22, cracking may occur at two locations of the runway rail.
The cracking in the lower flange at the intermediate ribs, which are provided to
prevent local deformation of the upper flange of the rail, is caused by the
longitudinal stress σ l in the lower flange. This longitudinal stress is given by
superposing the local stress due to individual wheel loads on the overall bending
stress and warping torsional bending stress due to the total vehicle loads. The
local stress due to the individual wheel loads can be estimated by treating the rail
as a three-span continuous beam supported by the stiffening frames.
The cracking in the upper flange of the runway rail in Fig. 4.22 is caused by
the plate-bending stress σ fb which is produced every time the individual wheels
run through between the adjacent intermediate ribs. The thickness of the upper
flange may be designed as a T-shaped welded joint subjected to repeated plate-
bending stress. Introducing the effects of contact pressure distribution of a
pneumatic tire into the equation by Senior & Gurney (1963), the following
equation is obtained for the plate-bending stress σ fb:
FIG. 4.21. S–N curves for fatigue design of a stiffening frame.
FIG. 4.22. Two types of fatigue cracks in a runway rail.
(4.8)
where tfr and bfr are the thickness and width of a runway rail respectively, wp and
po are the width and air pressure of a pneumatic tire respectively, Cv is a
coefficient related to contact pressure distribution of a pneumatic tire, and Kv is

the maximum running speed of a monorail vehicle in kilometers/hour. Sadamasu
(1969) proposed 0·017h/km for Cv.
4.5
HEAVY-DUTY CRANE GIRDERS
4.5.1
Welded Crane Runway Girders
In recent decades, many studies have been carried out on fatigue behavior of
welded crane runway girders (Senior & Gurney, 1963; Maas, 1972; Demo &
Fisher, 1976; Nishiyama et al., 1978, 1980, 1983; Reemsnyder & Demo, 1978;
Umino & Mimura, 1982). Referring to Fig. 4.23, fatigue cracks that have been
observed in welded crane runway girders are summarized as follows:
(1) Runway girder

Type a crack: upper flange-to-web welded joint
Type b crack: upper flange-to-transverse stiffener welded joint
Type c crack: welded joint in lower flange
Type d crack: lower flange-to-secondary member welded joint
(2) Back girder (wall girder and lateral bracings)
Type e crack: lateral bracing member
Type f crack: welded joint of gusset plate
(3) Supporting members
Type g crack: connection bolts between runway girder and post
Type h crack: bearing plate on building post
The characteristics of Types a and b cracks in the runway girder and of Types e
and f cracks in the back girder are presented in more detail below.
Types a and b cracks are mainly caused by repeated local stresses due to
wheel loads of a travelling crane. Referring to Fig. 4.24, the local stress at the
flange-to-web welded joint for Type a cracks, is given by summing the bearing
stress σ d and plate-bending stress σ b. The former stress is due to the direct force
of wheels, and the latter is due to eccentricity between the centers of wheel
loading and the web plane. By modifying the formulae proposed by Parks (1952)
and Oxfort (1963) with the results of experimental studies by Nishiyama et al.
(1980), eqns (4.9) and (4.11) are obtained for σ d and σ b, respectively:
(4.9)
(note: σ d in MPa, P in N, and tw, d and e in mm) where P is the magnitude of a

wheel load, e is the rail misalignment, and d is the distance between a virtual
loading point and a web-to-flange welded joint, which is given by
FIG. 4.23. Typical fatigue cracks observed in crane runway girders.
FIG. 4.24. Local stress at flange-to-web weld.
(4.10)
(note: d, tw and tT in mm; IR and If in mm4) where Ir and If are the moments of
inertia of the rail and the upper flange respectively, tT is the thickness of a tie-
pad, and σ is the coefficient for adjusting the thickness of the tie-pad to its
effective thickness.
(4.11)
(note: σ b in MPa, P in N, tw, a, b and e in mm, J in mm4, and σ in mm−1) where

J=JR+Jf+Jw, and JR, Jf and Jw are St. Venant’s torsional rigidities of the rail,
FIG. 4.25.General view of unloader.
upper flange and web, respectively, and ′ = (note: σ in mm−1, tw and b in mm, and
J in mm4). Equations (4.9) and (4.11) are effective for e between 0 and 5tw.
The structural details of the upper part of the girder have to be designed so
that the total stresses σ d and σ b can meet the allowable fatigue strength given by
Maeda (1978) for fillet welds subjected to plate-bending stress.
A study of fatigue damage of crane runway girders carried out by the Society
of Steel Construction of Japan JSSC, 1976, revealed that Types e and f cracks
were initiated more often than any other types of cracks. They are caused by locally
induced stresses not generally considered in the design practice of crane runway
girders. It is very difficult to predict such local stresses, since they are produced
by the three-dimensional behavior of the whole of a crane runway girder. There
are some studies on the relationship between the local stresses and structural
behavior of a crane runway girder (Nishiyama et al., 1978). However,
satisfactory conclusions are not yet available and further investigation is required.
4.5.2
Apron Girders in Unloaders
An unloader for removing cargo from a ship is shown in Fig. 4.25. The apron
girder and runway girder in the unloader are susceptible to cracking, since they
are subjected to severe repeated loading. As shown in Fig. 4.26, the apron and
runway girders are either a twin box-girder or a mono box-girder. As shown in
Fig. 4.27, they suffer from cracking at the following locations:
Type a crack: flange-to-web welded joint
Type b crack: connection of a rail to a flange
FIG. 4.26. Two types of apron and runway girders. (a) Twin box-girder type. (b) Mono
box-girder type.
FIG. 4.27. Typical fatigue cracks in unloader girders.
Type c crack: weld to connect a diaphragm to a skin plate

Type a cracks have the same features as those of Type a cracks in welded crane
runway girders. The local stress for cracking can be estimated by eqns (4.9) to
(4.11). To prevent Type b cracks, it is recommended that the gap between the
flange surface and the bottom of the rail should be kept small.
4.6
CONCLUSIONS
Recent findings concerning fatigue cracking in plate and box girders have been
presented in relation to stress analysis in design. General patterns and
characteristics of deformation-induced fatigue cracking in thinwalled plate
girders subjected to repeated bending and shear, have been considered in relation
to the interaction between overall and local effects. Furthermore, cracking
observed at the connections of cross-beams to the main girders of highway
bridges has been identified as one of the major fatigue problems in bridge
maintenance. Cracking in box girders has been illustrated by reference to
straddle- and suspended-type monorail guideways. The effects of detail design
and fabrication on the fatigue cracking of two types of welded girder in a crane
runway and an unloader have also been discussed.
REFERENCES
AASHTO. (1989) Standard Spe, cations for Highway Bridges. The American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 14th edn.
ANDERSON, C.G. (1950) Flexural stress in curved beams of I- and box section. Proc.
Inst. Mech., London, 162, 295–306.
BSI(1980) 5400:Part 10. Steel, Concrete and Composite Bridges. British Standards
Institution, London.
DEMO, D.A. & FISHER, J.W. (1976) Analysis of fatigue of welded crane runway
girders. J. Structal. Div., ASCE, 102(5), 919–33.
EUROCODE 3 (1990) Chapter 9. Design of Steel Structures. Edited draft issue 3.
Commission of the European Communities.
GOODPASTURE, D.W. & STALLMEYER, J.E. (1967) Fatigue Behavior of Welded
Thin Web Girders as Influenced by Web Distortion and Boundary Rigidity. C.E.
Studies SRS No. 328, University of Illinois.
HIKOSAKA, H., KAWAI, Y.&TAKEMI, K. (1982)An experimental and theoretical
study on the static behavior of curved guideways for suspended monorail system.
Memoirs of Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University, Japan, 42(2), 1–8.
JSSC (1976) Report of the investigation on fatigue damage of crane runway girders.
Society of Steel Construction of Japan, 12(128), 9–22 (in Japanese).
MAAS, G. (1972) Investigation concerning craneway girders. Iron and Steel
Engineering, London, March, pp. 49–58.
MAEDA, Y. (1971) Ultimate static strength and fatigue behavior of longitudinally
stiffened plate girders in bending. IABSE, London Colloquium, March, pp. 269–82.
MAEDA, Y. (1978) Fatigue cracks of deep thin-walled plate girders. Bridge Engineering.
Transpoftation Research Board, Washington, D.C., pp. 120–8.
MAEDA, Y. & OKURA, I. (1981) Interaction between initial web deflection and fatigue
crack initiation in thin-walled plate girders. The Design of Steel Bridges-Conference
Discussion, (H.R.Evans ed.). University College, Cardiff, Wales, pp. 12.9–12.16.
MAEDA, Y. & OKURA, I. (1983) Influence of initial deflection of plate girder webs on
fatigue crack initiation. Eng. Struct., (England), 5 January, pp. 58–66.
MAEDA, Y. & OKURA, I. (1984) Fatigue strength of plate girder in bending considering
out-of-plane deformation of web. Proc. JSCE, Structural Eng./Earthquake Eng., 1
(2), 149s-159s.
MAEDA, Y., OKURA, I. & HIRANO, H. (1985) Formulation of finite out-of-plane
deformation of rectangular plate in shear. Technology Reports of Osaka University,
35, 91–100.
MAEDA, Y., FUKUOKA, T., OKURA, I. & ISOZAKI, K. (1989) Fatigue test of cross
beam connections in steel track girders for straddle-type monorail. Proc. Japan
Society of Civil Engineers, 404(1–11), 425–34 (in Japanese).
MUELLER, J.A. & YEN, B.T. (1968) Girder Web Boundary Stresses and Fatigue.
Welding Research Council, Bull. No. 127.
NISHIYAMA, R., TAKEMOTO, H., KAWAI, Y. & HONGO, K. (1978) Static loading
tests on crane runway girders. Annual Conference of Architectural Institute of Japan,
pp. 1335–9 (in Japanese).
NISHIYAMA, R., TAKEMOTO, H., MASUDA, H., HONGO, K. & KAWAI, Y. (1980)
Experimental study on local stresses in upper part of crane runway girders due to rail
misalignment. Annual Conference of Architectural Institute of Japan, pp. 1207–10
(in Japanese).
NISHIYAMA, R., TAKEMOTO, H., HONGO, K.&KAWAI, Y. (1983) Fatigue damage
in bearing supports of crane runway girders. Symposium on Structural Engineering,
Japan, 29, 51–8 (in Japanese).
OKURA, I. & FUKUMOTO, Y. (1988) Fatigue of cross beam connections in steel
bridges. IABSE, 13th Congress, Helsinki, pp. 741–6.
OKURA, I. & MAEDA, Y. (1985) Analysis of deformation-induced fatigue of thin-
walled plate girder in shear. Proc. JSCE, Structural Eng./Earthquake Eng., 2(2),
377s-384s.
OKURA, I., HIRANO, H. & YUBISUI, M. (1987) Stress measurement at cross beam
connections of plate girder bridge. Technology Reports of Osaka University, 37,
151–60.
OKURA, I., YUBISUI, M., HIRANO, H. & FUKUMOTO, Y. (1988) Local stresses at
cross beam connections of plate girder bridges. Proc. JSCE, Structural Eng./
Earthquake Eng., 5(1), 89s-97s.
OKURA, I., TAKIGAWA, H. & FUKUMOTO, Y. (1989a) Structural parameters
governing fatigue cracking at cross-beam connections in plate girder highway
bridges. Technology Reports of Osaka University, 39 289–96.
OKURA, I., TAKIGAWA, H. & FUKUMOTO, Y. (1989b) Structural parameters
governing fatigue cracking in highway bridges. Proc. JSCE, Structural Eng./
Earthquake Eng. 6(2), 423s–426s.
OKURA, I., YEN, B.T. and FISHER, J.W. (1991) Fatigue of thin-walled plate girders.
Proc. JSCE, Structural Eng./Earthquake Eng. (Submitted).
OXFORT, J.K. (1963) Zur Beanspruchung der Obergurte Vollwandiger Kranbahnträger
durch Torsionsmomente und durch Querkraftbiegung unter dem örtlichen
Radlastangriff. Der Stahlbau, Berlin, 32(12), 360–7.
PARKS, E. (1952) The stress distribution near a loading point in a uniform flanges beam.
Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., London, Series A, 244(886).
PATTERSON, P.J., CORRADO, J.A., HUANG, J.S. & YEN, B.T. (1970) Fatigue and
Static Tests of Two Welded Plate Girders. Welding Research Council, Bull. No.155.
REEMSNYDER, H.S. & DEMO, D.A. (1978) Fatigue cracking in welded crane runway
girders: causes and repair procedures. Iron and Steel Engineering, U.S.A., April,
52–6.
SADAMASU, F. (1969) Contact pressure of a running pneumatic tire. Technical Journal
of Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, Japan, 11(8), 3–5 (in
Japanese).
SENIOR, A.G. & GURNEY, T.R. (1963) The design and service life of upper part of
welded crane girders. Structural Engineer, England, 141(10), 301–12.
TOPRAC, A.A. & NATARAJAN, M. (1971) Fatigue strength of hybrid plate girders. J.
Structural Div., ASCE, 97(4), 1203–25.
UMINO, S. & MIMURA, H. (1982) Fatigue research on welded crane runway girders.
IABSE Lausanne Colloquium, pp. 577–84.
YAMASAKI, T. & KAWAI, Y. (1983) Fatigue strength of stiffening frame in guideway
beams for suspended monorail system. Trans. of Japan Society of Civil Engineers,
15, 78–81.
YEN, B.T. & MUELLER, J.A. (1966) Fatigue Tests of Large-size Welded Plate Girders.
Welding Research Council, Bull. No. 118.
Chapter 5
FATIGUE STRENGTH OF ADHESIVELY
BONDED COVER PLATES
PEDRO ALBRECHT
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Maryland, USA
SUMMARY
Adhesively bonding a cover plate to the tension flange of a steel girder and
high-strength bolting the ends to prevent debonding has been shown
experimentally to increase the fatigue life by a factor of 20 over that of
welded cover plates, from Category E to Category B. The number of end
bolts should be that needed to develop the cover plate’s portion of the
maximum moment at the theoretical cut-off point. Parametric analyses of
two-span-continuous, multigirder bridges have shown that improvements
in cover plate design, which raise the fatigue strength to that of Category
B, make them virtually fatigue-proof for highway truck loading.
NOTATION
Ac Gross cross-sectional area of cover plate

Ab Gross cross-sectional area of bolt
b Intercept of S–N line
fr Calculated stress range
fr,X Fatigue strength of Detail X
fr,E Fatigue strength of Category E details
fr,A Fatigue strength of Category A details
Fb Allowable bending stress
Fsr Allowable stress range
Fv Allowable shear stress for slip critical joints
Kf Fatigue notch factor
m Slope of S–N line

FATIGUE STRENGTH OF ADHESIVELY BONDED COVER PLATES 91
Mr Bending moment range

n Number of bolts
N Number of cycles
Nd Number of design cycles
NE Mean number of cycles to failure of Category E details
Nx Mean number of cycles to failure of Detail X
Pb Shear force in bolt
Pc Tensile force in cover plate
s Standard deviation
S Section modulus of beam without cover plate
Sc Section modulus of beam with cover plate
5.1
INTRODUCTION
The aerospace industry is extensively bonding components and members
fabricated from metals and composites for two main reasons. First, replacing
mechanical fasteners with adhesives prolongs the fatigue life. Secondly, bonding
lightweight composites to underlying structures greatly reduces the weight of
components.
Although epoxy resin adhesives were introduced to the construction industry at
about the same time as to the aerospace industry, their application so far has been
limited. To date, epoxy resins have been applied to bridge construction and
rehabilitation in the following areas: (1) epoxy/aggregate mortar; (2) coating and
surfacing; (3) bonding of secondary members; (4) corrosion protection of
reinforcing bars for concrete structures; and (5) strengthening of concrete
members with externally bonded steel plates.
The writer and his coworkers have explored ways of extending the application
of adhesives by testing bonded structural details that are commonly found on
steel bridge construction (Albrecht et al., 1984). They reported elsewhere the
results of tests on the fatigue strength (Albrecht & Sahli, 1986) and static
strength (Albrecht & Sahli, 1988) of bolted and adhesively bonded splices of
tension members and beams. The present study examines the fatigue strength of
steel beams with adhesively bonded cover plates.
5.2
TEST PROGRAM
5.2.1
Specimens
The 17 beams Bl through B18 (beam B16 had no cover plates), shown in
Fig. 5.1, consisted of 355-mm (14-in) deep rolled beams, US standard
92 PEDRO ALBRECHT
FIG. 5.1. Coverplated beam specimens.
designation W14×30, weighing 440 N/m (30 lb/ft). The W14×30 section has 10-
mm×171-mm flanges and a 7-mm thick web. They were tested on a 4570-mm
span under 2-point symmetrical loading. Two 13-mm×171mm×1143-mm long
cover plates were adhesively bonded to the tension flange, one on each side of
the center line of symmetry.
The initial plan was to bond only the cover plates to the flange. After the tests
of beams Bl to B3 had shown that the cover plate ends were gradually debonding,
the cover plate ends on beam B4 closest to mid-span and both cover plate ends
on beams B5 to B18 were clamped to the flange with two 19-mm diameter
ASTM A325 High-Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints.
If the bolts alone had to develop the cover plate’s portion of the maximum
moment at the theoretical cut-off point, the required number of bolts would be
(5.1)
in which Pc is the cover plate force; Pb is the bolt shear force; Fb is the allowable
bending stress; S is the section modulus of beam without cover plate; Sc is the
section modulus of beam with cover plate; Ac is the gross area of cover plate; Fv
is the allowable shear stress for slip critical joints of blast-cleaned low-alloy
steel; and Ab is the gross area of bolt. Substituting in eqn (5.1) the applicable
allowable stresses from the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges
adopted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO), and the cross-sectional properties of the test beam, gives
n=4·4. Accordingly, the two high-strength bolts, with which the cover plate ends
on beams B5 to B18 were clamped, represent about one-half of the bolts needed
to develop the cover plate’s portion of the maximum moment.
The cover plates on beams B1 to B13 terminated in the shear span, 152 mm
away from the loading points, and were cycled at stress ranges of 145 and 189 MPa
(lMPa=1 N/mm2). Those on beams B14 to B18 were extended 108 mm into the
constant bending moment region and were cycled at stress ranges of 159 and 207
MPa. The stress ranges were calculated from
(5.2)
in which Mr is the bending moment range at the cross section through cover plate
end, and S is the gross section modulus of W14×30 beam without cover plates. The
minimum stress was 7 MPa in all tests.
5.2.2
Materials
The steel for the beams and cover plates conformed to the requirements of the
ASTM A588 Specification for High-Strength Low-alloy Steel with 345 MPa
Minimum Yield Point to 100 mm Thick. The measured tensile properties and
chemical composition of the A588 Grade B steel beams and cover plates are
given in Tables 5.1 and 5.2, respectively.
The cover plates were bonded with Versilok 201, an acrylic structural
adhesive for bonding metals, composites and engineering thermoplastics. The
adhesive consisted of two parts, the acrylic and the accelerator No. 4. The
adhesive cured on contact with the accelerator. The bond became
TABLE 5.1
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF A588 GRADE B STEEL SPECIMENS
Component Yield point Tensile strength Elongation 200- Charpy energy
(MPa) (MPa) mm gage (%) at −4°C (J)
W14×30 beam 390 535 23·2 144a
Cover plate 462 615 20·0 106
aCharpy specimen size: 10 mm×7·5 mm.
TABLE 5.2
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF A588 GRADE B STEEL SPECIMENS
Component Composition (%)
C Mn P S Si Cu Ni Cr V Al
W14×30 0·16 0·94 0·009 0·020 0·23 0·30 0·29 0·54 0·27 0·02
Coverplate 0·12 1·05 0·019 0·011 0·25 0·28 0·25 0·47 0·06 —
94 PEDRO ALBRECHT
handleable after 8–16 minutes of curing at 24°C and developed full strength after
24 hours.
The mean shear strength of the adhesive, measured as part of this study with
13 quad-lap specimens under rapid loading, was 27·3 MPa with 2·2MPa standard
deviation.
The Versilok 201 adhesive had been recommended by Nara & Gasparini
(1981), for its good shear and tension strength under rapid loading, rapid cure at
room temperature and minimal requirements for surface preparation. In
subsequent tests, Versilok 201 was found to have low creep strength under long-
term sustained loading in severe environments (Albrecht et al., 1984;
Mecklenburg, et al., 1985), but this behavior did not adversely affect the fatigue
strength of the cover plates in the short-term fatigue tests under cyclic loading.
5.2.3
Bonding
The contact surfaces were prepared, and the cover plates were bonded to the
tension flange as follows:
1. Shot-blast (wheelabrate) the surfaces with No. 330 cast steel shot to a near-
white condition.
2. Wipe the surfaces with a cloth. When needed, remove oil and crayon marks
with trichloroethylene.
3. Apply accelerator No. 4 on both surfaces.
4. Apply Versilok 201 adhesive on one surface, after the accelerator has dried.
5. Sprinkle 0·25-mm diameter glass beads with a salt shaker on the surfaces to
obtain the desired 0·25-mm bond line thickness.
6. Place the cover plate on the flange.
7. Install the bolts at the cover plate ends (Beams B5 to B18) and tension them
to 70% of the ultimate tensile strength.
8. Clamp the cover plates to the flange with steel blocks, and firmly hand-
tighten the C-clamps (Fig. 5.2).
9. Cure the adhesive at room temperature for at least 48 hours, but not longer
than 2 weeks, before the fatigue test begins.
5.3
RESULTS
5.3.1
Test Program
The six cover plates on beams Bl to B3 were bonded but not bolted to the tension
flange. They gradually debonded during stress cycling. For example, an
FIG. 5.2. Adhesively bonded cover plate clamped to tension flange during curing.
ultrasonic compression wave scan of cover plate B2–1 showed that its midspan
end had debonded over a 125-mm length after 1986000 cycles of 145 MPa stress
range. The debonded areas are shown dark in Fig. 5.3, and the bonded areas
clear.
The midspan ends of the bonded cover plates on beam B4 were bolted, but not
the support ends. After the cover plate B4–1 had debonded from the support end,
the cover plate B4–2 was secured at the support end with two high-strength C
clamps. Thereafter, all cover plates bonded to beams B5 to B18 were bolted at
both ends prior to stress cycling. Beam B16 had no cover plates.
5.3.2
Crack Initiation and Propagation
There were 28 bonded and bolted midspan ends of cover plates on Beams B4 to
B18. Of those, 9 failed from cracks that initiated at the bolt holes in the flange, 2
from fretting cracks in the flange, and 16 did not fail. The data for the cover plate
B4–1 was discarded, because the cover plate had debonded from the support end
(Table 5.3).
The bolt-hole cracks initiated along the bore or at the intersection of the bore
with the flange surfaces. The cracks initiated on either side of
96 PEDRO ALBRECHT
FIG. 5.3. Compression wave scan of cover plate end B2–1. Bonded areas are light,
debonded areas are dark.
TABLE 5.3 FATIGUE TEST DATA FOR BONDED COVER PLATES

Beam no. Gross area stress Fatiguea life, N Log-mean life life Mean fatigue life
range, fr (×103) (×103)
(MPa)
Category E Category B
(×103) (×103)
With non-bolted ends
B1-1 145 4156a
B1-2 145 4156a
B2–1 145 1986a
B2–2 145 1986a >2200 160 2580
B3–1 145 1282a
B3–2 145 1282a
With bolted ends
B7–1 145 2900
B7–2 145 4471c
B8–1 145 >5560 160 2580
B8–2 145 10012c
B9–1 145 2568
B9–2 145 9006c
B13–1 145 5502c
B13–2 145 5502c
B14–1 159 2920
B14–2 159 3394c >2220 121 1900
B15–1 159 150
B15–2 159 2130
Beam no. Gross area stress Fatiguea life, N Log-mean life life Mean fatigue life
range, fr (×103) (×103)
(MPa)
Category E Category B
(×103) (×103)
B4–1 189 _b
B4–2 189 2239c
B5–1 189 1302
B5–2 189 2130c
B6–1 189 684
B6–2 189 1251
B10–1 189 2277 >1480 70 1050
B10–2 189 2505c
B11-1 189 1311c
B11–2 189 1311c
B12–1 189 842
B12–2 189 1752c
B17–1 207 905 >970 53 780
B17–2 207 905c
B18–1 207 1029
B18–2 207 1168c
aCover plate debonded from midspan end.
bCover plate debonded from support end.
cDetail did not fail, or test was discontinued.
the line formed by the intersection of the bore with the normal plane through
the center of the bolt. The initiation points were offset from 3 mm ahead of to 8
mm behind the normal plane. The cracks initiated in about equal numbers from
the bolt-hole sides facing either the web or the edge of the flange. Cracks in
some beams grew simultaneously from both bolt holes.
The bolt-hole cracks propagated, at first, as part-through or corner cracks until
their length along the bore was equal to the flange thickness. Thereafter, they
propagated as through cracks across the flange and up into the web.
The two fretting cracks initiated on the flange surface, as a result of friction
between the bolt head and the cover plate. They initiated in cover plate B14–1 14
mm ahead of, and in cover plate B15–2 11 mm behind the bolt center line. They
propagated as part-through cracks until they reached the inside flange surface
and then as two-ended through cracks across the flange.
No fatigue cracks initiated in the cover plate, nor did flange cracks propagate
across the bond line and into the cover plate.
Figure 5.4 shows a typical bolt-hole crack. After a cover plate end had failed,
the flange was temporarily spliced with plates and high-strength C-clamps. The
98 PEDRO ALBRECHT
FIG. 5.4. Bolt-hole crack at end of cover plate B9–1. Bolt installed at crack tip in web is
part of temporary repair.
crack tip in the web was arrested by drilling a hole and installing a high-srength
bolt. Then, cycling was continued until the other cover plate on the same beam
failed.
5.3.3
Fatigue Test Data
Each beam provided two data points, one per cover plate end nearest the
midspan, for a total of 34 data points. The fatigue lives of the cover plates are
listed in Table 5.3, and the data points are plotted in Fig. 5.5.
The fatigue lives of the non-bolted cover plates on beams B1 to B3 are shown
with circular symbols. No cracks were observed in the tension flange or in the
cover plate of these beams, but the gradual debonding would eventually have
separated the entire cover plate from the flange and limited the load-carrying
capacity of the beam to that of the W14×30 section alone. The number of cycles
to fatigue failure is ambiguous in this case. If, as is commonly done, fatigue failure
is defined as the presence of a large crack in the tension flange or cover plate,
these beams cannot be said to have failed in fatigue. However, in an actual
bridge girder, the gradual debonding of the cover plate from the ends towards
mid-length in the direction of increasing bending moment is unacceptable,
because the cover plate would eventually separate from the girder, causing the
girder to fail at maximum load. Such gradual debonding must be prevented.
FIG. 5.5. S–N plot for bonded cover plates.
The 27 data points for the bonded and bolted cover plates on beams B4 to B18
are shown with triangular symbols. The 11 solid triangles are for cover plate
ends that fatigue-cracked to failure, and the 16 open triangles are for cover plates
that did not fail. In the latter case, the tests were discontinued for two reasons:
(1) the detail had reached 10 million cycles or the upper confidence limit for
Category B details without cracking; or (2) a fatigue crack reinitiated at another
previously cracked and temporarily repaired detail on the same beam. The data
points for the two cover plate ends that failed from fretting cracks are identified
with the letter F.
The mean S–N line
log N=b−m logfr (5.3)
for the 27 data points was found by regression analysis to have an intercept
b=16·571 5 for stress range in units of MPa (N/mm2), slope m=4·574, and
standard deviation s=0·1983. The data for the non-bolted ends were excluded
from the regression analysis. Equation (5.3) is shown in Fig. 5.5.
The fatigue test data were compared against the AASHTO Category B
rhomboid, herein defined as the space containing 95·5% of the data points for
plain welded beams from which Fisher et al. (1970) derived the Category B
allowable S–N line. The rhomboid, shown in Fig. 5.5, is delineated by the
following four lines:
1. Lower confidence limit, equal to the AASHTO allowable S-N line for
Category B details:
log Nd=(b−2s)−m log Fsr (5.4)
in which
b=intercept=13·698
m=slope=3·372
100 PEDRO ALBRECHT
s=standard deviation=0·147
Nd=number of design cycles
Fsr=allowable stress range
2. Upper confidence limit:
log N=(b+2s)−m log fr (5.5)
3. Lower cut-off, equal to the AASHTO fatigue limit of 110 MPa for Category
B plain welded beams subjected to over 2000000 cycles of loading.
4. Upper cut-off, equal to the highest stress range, fr=290 MPa, at which
welded beams were tested.
Category B is one of seven categories of details for which the AASHTO

specifications provide allowable S–N lines. These lines are equal to the mean
minus two standard deviations of S–N data for the following members that were
tested in the laboratory: A, rolled beams; B, beams built up of plates that are
connected with continuous filled welds; B′, members built up of plates that are
connected with groove welds; C, transverse stiffeners and welded attachments
50-mm long or less; D, welded attachments 100-mm long or less; E, cover plates
welded to flanges 20-mm thick or less; and E′, cover plates welded to flanges
thicker than 20-mm. Details other than those listed above are assigned to the
category for which most data points just exceed the allowable S–N line for that
category.
As Fig. 5.5 shows, all data points fell inside or to the right of the Category B
rhomboid, indicating that the fatigue strength of bonded cover plates with bolted
ends exceeds that of Category B details.
Table 5.3 compares at each stress range the log-mean life of the bonded cover
plates with the means of Category E welded cover plates and Category B plain
welded beams. The latter were calculated from eqn (5.3) using the intercepts and
slopes listed in Table 5.1 of Albrecht and Simon (1981). The mean fatigue life of
the bonded cover plates exceeded the mean for Category B welded beams at all
stress range levels. The factor increase in life over the mean for Category E
welded cover plates was at least 20 for the data at the three highest stress ranges,
and 35 at the lowest stress range near the fatigue limit. Six of eight bonded and
bolted cover plates tested at the lowest stress range (145 MPa) did not fail,
suggesting that the fatigue limit may lie about half way between the AASHTO
fatigue limits for Category A rolled beams (165 MPa) and Category B welded
beams (110 MPa). Clearly, bonding and end bolting has the potential of fatigue-
proofing cover plates in typical bridge girders (Al-brecht et al, 1983).
5.3.4
Comparison with Previous Work
Since 1969, several investigators have reported results of 755 fatigue tests of cover
plates on steel beams. One group of studies established the fatigue strength of
various end details (Figs 5.6 (a) to (e); Fisher et al., 1970), cover plates welded to
FIG. 5.6. Welded cover plates.

thick flanges (Fig. 5.6(a); Fisher et al., 1979a; Roberts et al., 1977), and the
behavior under variable amplitude loading (Figs 5.6(a) and (b); Schilling et al.,
1978).
The other group of studies on cover plates focused on improving the fatigue
strength by grinding, shot peening, and TIG remelting (Fig. 5.6 (a); Fisher et al.,
1979b), end-welding and grinding (Fig. 5.6 (f); Yamada & Albrecht, 1977), end
bolting (Figs. 5.7(a) to 5.7(c); Wattar et al., 1985), and retrofitting (Fig. 5.7(d);
Sahli et al., 1984). The fatigue test data for each aforementioned series of tests
are summarized in Table 5.4.
The factor increase in mean fatigue life of a Detail X over that of a Category E
detail is defined in Fig. 5.8 as
(5.6)
The stress ranges for Detail X and Category E at 500 000 cycles were calculated
from the corresponding mean S–N lines (see eqn (5.3)). The exponent, m=3·2 is
the average slope of the S–N lines that formed the basis of the AASHTO fatigue
specifications. The fatigue notch factor
(5.7)
102 PEDRO ALBRECHT
FIG. 5.7. End-bolted and adhesively bonded cover plates.
gives the factor on stress range by which the mean S–N line of a Detail X falls
below the mean S–N line for Category A rolled beams.
The results of the calculations, listed in Table 5.4 and plotted in Fig. 5.9, show
that the various techniques improved the mean fatigue life over that of Category
E by the following factors: 1·5, 2·1 and 4·4 for ground, shot-peened, and TIG
remelted toes of end welds, respectively; 6·5 for end-welding and grinding the
cover plate to a 1:3 taper; 19 or more for bolting the non-welded ends with
enough bolts to develop the cover plate’s portion of the maximum moment at the
theoretical cut-off point; and 18 and 13, respectively, for retrofitting with a
bolted splice the non-cracked and cracked ends of welded cover plates.
In comparison, bonding and end bolting cover plates (Fig. 5.7(f) increased the
fatigue life by a factor of 20 in the finite-life regime and by a factor of 35 near
the fatigue limit. Evidently, the combined use of adhesive and bolts can greatly
increase the fatigue life. In this case, the adhesive transfers the longitudinal shear
stress from the flange to the
TABLE 5.4
COMPARISON OF PREVIOUS AND PRESENT FATIGUE TEST DATA FOR COVER

PLATE ENDS
Symbol in Series No. of Stress Fatigue Fatigue Comments
Fig. 5.9 details range at notch life
tested 500000 factor, Kf increase,
cycles fr,x Nx/NE
(MPa)
Square-ended, prismatic cover plates (Fisher, et al., 1970)
CR, CW 103 98 3·57 0·94 Welded
end
CR, CW 100 109 3·22 1·31 Unwelded
end
CT 30 101 3·49 1·01 Welded
end
CB 30 102 3·44 1·06 Welded
end
CB 30 79 4·41 0·48 Unwelded
end
CM 30 102 3·45 1·05 Welded
end
All 193 100 3·51 1·00 Welded
end
End-welded and ground cover plates (Yamada & Albrecht, 1977)
CG 26 180 1·94 6·54 Toe
cracks
Ground, shot-peened, and TIG remelted end welds (Fisher et al., 1979b)
GA 8 115 3·06 1·53
PA 16 127 2·77 2·12
TA 16 159 2·20 4·40
Cover plates subjected to variable amplitude loading (Schilling et al., 1975)
B&C 27 98 3·58 0·93
B&C 45 103 3·40 1·10 Var. ampl.
Full-size coverplated beams (Fisher et al., 1979a; Roberts, et al., 1977)

B 38 84 4·19 0·56
End-bolted cover plates (Wattar et al., 1985)
6-bolt 4 … 1·35 21 Cleaned
6-bolt 16 … 1·40 19
4-bolt 12 … 1·30 24
2-bolt 12 … 1·56 13
Retrofitted cover plates (Sahli et al., 1984)
104 PEDRO ALBRECHT
Symbol in Series No. of Stress Fatigue Fatigue Comments

Fig. 5.9 details range at notch life
tested 500000 factor, Kf increase,
cycles fr,x Nx/NE
(MPa)
B 14 … 1·42 18 Non-
cracked
A 15 … 1·58 13 Precracke
d
Adhesively bonded cover plates (present study)
B 19 … … 20 fr159 MPa
B 8 … … 35 fr=145
MPa
FIG. 5.8. Calculation of fatigue notch factor and increase in fatigue life.
cover plate, while the clamping effect of the bolts prevents debonding of the
cover plate ends.
End-bolting bonded cover plates is about equally effective in increasing the
fatigue life as end-bolting welded cover plates (Wattar et al., 1985). In both
cases, coverplated highway bridge girders would eventually fail from bolt-hole
cracks or fretting cracks, but the increase in fatigue strength virtually fatigue-
proofs the cover plate ends for truck loading as will be shown in Section 5.5.
The only other known fatigue tests of long attachments adhesively bonded to
steel beams are those reported by Nara and Gasparini (1981). In that study 14-
mm×229-mm×1220-mm long cover plates were bonded to the tension flange of
two W14×30 steel beams (Fig. 5.7(e)), with the same adhesive as was used in the
present study. The two beams were subjected to 6000000 cycles and 3 500 000
cycles of 138 MPa stress range. Measured curves of load versus midspan
deflection had indicated a progressive decrease in beam stiffness with stress
FIG. 5.9. Comparison of mean fatigue strength of all data sets with mean of Categories A
through E′ data. See Table 5.4.
cycling caused by debonding from the ends. The writer calculated the change in
stiffness as a function of debonding length and compared the results against the
measured changes in stiffness reported by Nara & Gasparini (1981). According
to the calculations, the reported changes in stiffness indicated that the cover plate
ends on the beam cycled 6000000 times had debonded over a length of 320 mm.
This problem was solved in the present study by clamping the ends with high-
strength bolts.
5.4
COVER PLATE DEVELOPMENT
Two important observations were made in a companion study on the static strength
of bolted beam splices with adhesively bonded contact surfaces (Albrecht &
Sahli, 1988). First, the adhesive failed at a load equal to or less than the load
needed to cause the steel beam to yield in bending at the edge of the bond line.
Epoxy adhesives typically have an ultimate strain less than about 1/20 of the
ultimate strain of structural steel. Unlike steels, adhesives cannot deform
plastically. Second, the resistance of the splice was controlled by either the
ultimate shear strength of the adhesive or the ultimate shear strength of the bolts,
whichever was higher. The strengths of the two connecting elements were not
additive.
The above findings suggest that, under static loading, a beam with an adhesively
bonded cover plate can fail suddenly when the flange near the theoretical cut-off
106 PEDRO ALBRECHT
point begins to yield if the ends are clamped with less than the number of bolts
needed to develop the cover plate’s portion of the bending moment. In this case,
yielding of the flange could trigger the following sequence of events: (1) shear
failure of the adhesive at the cover plate end; (2) shift of the longitudinal shear
transfer from the adhesive to the bolts, which are not designed to develop the
cover plate’s portion of the bending moment; (3) shear failure of the bolts; (4)
progressive yielding of the steel beam towards midspan; (5) unzipping of the
central portion of the bonded cover plate; and (6) failure of the steel beam at the
point of maximum moment, which is much greater than the moment at the
theoretical cut-off point.
To prevent the occurrence of a progressive static failure, the number of bolts
should be increased from one-half (as tested herein) to the full number of bolts
needed to develop the cover plate’s portion of the bending moment at the
theoretical cut-off point, given by eqn (5.1). Full cover plate development by the
bolts reduces the bending stresses in the tension flange, enables the adhesive to
transfer the reduced longitudinal shear stresses away from the regions of stress
concentration at the cover plate ends, and may even allow the formation of a
plastic hinge in the steel beam at the theoretical cut-off point.
5.5
APPLICATION TO HIGHWAY BRIDGES
For reasons of economy, rolled wide flange sections are frequently used for
girders in short-span highway bridges. The range of spans for which rolled
girders are suitable can be extended by welding cover plates to the flanges in
regions of high bending moment, thus increasing the moment-carrying capacity
of the girder. The disadvantage of welded coverplated girders is that the cover
plate ends have very low fatigue strength. As a result, the cover plates must be
extended beyond the theoretical cut-off points for maximum stress to points
where the stress range induced by the live load at the extreme fiber of the rolled
girder is equal to or smaller than the allowable stress range for Category E.
To demonstrate the benefits of adhesive bonding cover plates in lieu of
welding, four two-span continuous highway bridges, with the following details,
were analyzed:
1. Span length: 21·3–21·3 m, 24·4–24·4 m, 27·4–27·4 m, and 30·5– 30·5 m.

2. 13·4 m wide roadway.
3. Composite construction (positive moment region only); rolled beam with
cover plate; allowable stress design.
4. Six girders equally spaced 2·39 m apart.
5. 20-cm thick reinforced concrete slab.
6. AASHTO HS-20 loading consisting of a 3-axle truck with axle loads of 35·6,
142·4, and 142·4 kN.
7. AASHTO Fatigue Specifications, Article 1.7.2; assume Category B for

bonded and end-bolted cover plate, and Category E′ for welded cover plate.
8. Steel: Fy=250 MPa.
9. Concrete: f’c=27 MPa, modular ratio n=ES/EC=8.
10. Cover plate cut-off point: (1) for maximum moment, -two times cover plate
width plus 75 mm beyond theoretical cut-off point (see AASHTO Art. 1.17.
12); and (2) for fatigue, where computed stress range equals allowable stress
range.
Envelopes were constructed for the maximum and minimum moments at each
tenth point along the length of the girders. The sizes of the 915-mm deep girders
(W36 sections) and the cover plates needed to resist the maximum positive
moment in the span and the maximum negative moment over the interior support
are given in Table 5.5 for all four span lengths.
The stress ranges in the beam flange at the cover plate ends were calculated
using eqn (5.2) in which Mr is the algebraic difference between maximum and
minimum moment and 5 is the section modulus of beam without cover plates.
The fatigue analysis was performed for loading case I, that is ‘over 2000000
cycles of loading’ producing the maximum stress range at the cover plate end
(AASHTO Art. 10.3.1). Accordingly, the allowable stress ranges are 18 MPa for
Category E′ and 110 MPa for Category B. These stress ranges correspond to the
safe fatigue limit below which the details are not expected to fail irrespective of
the applied number of cycles.
TABLE 5.5
SIZE OF GIRDER AND COVER PLATES FOR TWO-SPAN CONTINUOUS
BRIDGES
Span length (m) Rolled section Cover plate thickness and width (mm)
Positive moment: Negative moment: top
bottom and bottom
21·3–21·3 W36×l35 10×250 19×250
24·4–24·4 W36×160 13×250 32×250
27·4–27·4 W36×l82 19×250 44×275
30·5–30·5 W36×245 16×275 32×350
Figure 5.10 shows the arrangement of the (a) bonded and end-bolted and (b)
welded cover plates in the 21·3–21·3 m long bridge. The bonded and end-bolted
cover plates were terminated at the cut-off points for maximum stress, since
fatigue did not govern the design in this case (Fig. 5.10(a)).
The low fatigue strength of the welded cover plates required extensions of the
cover plates to points where the calculated stress range was equal to the
allowable stress range of 18 MPa. The right end of the 10-mm×250-mm cover
plate for maximum positive moment on the bottom flange was extended to point
108 PEDRO ALBRECHT
FIG. 5.10.Cover plate arrangement for 21·3–21·3-m two-span continuous bridge.
No. 2 in Fig. 5.10(b), where it was butt-welded to the 19-mm×250-mm cover

plate that was needed to resist the maximum negative moment. This design was
chosen because it was the most economical. The ground and tapered butt weld,
made prior to welding the combined plate to the flange, has Category B fatigue
strength and was not fatigue critical. The left end of the 10-mm×250-mm cover
plate was extended to point No. 1.
The top flange cover plate for maximum negative moment also had to be
extended, in this case to point No. 3 (Fig. 5.10(b)). For reasons of economy, this
extension was done with a lighter 10-mm×250-mm cover plate, which was butt-
welded to the 19-mm×250-mm cover plate. Both the top and bottom flange
splices of the negative-moment cover plates were located at the theoretical cut-
off point for the thinner plate.
The designs of the bridge girders with 24·4–24·4-m, 27·4–27·4-m, and 30·5–
30·5-m spans were similar to that for the 21·3–21·3 spans shown in Fig. 5.10. For
all spans, the lengths of the bonded and end-bolted cover plates were governed
by maximum stress. The stress range at the cut-off points of the cover plates for
maximum moment varied from 65 to 105 MPa, depending on the cover plate end
and span length. All values were lower than the allowable stress range for
Category B details. The length of the welded cover plates was always governed
by fatigue. In addition to being fatigue proof, girders with bonded and end-bolted
cover plates are, on average, 5% lighter than girders with welded cover plates.
5.6
CONCLUSIONS
The results of the 28 tests performed in the present study showed that cover
plates adhesively bonded to the tension flanges of steel beams have Category B
fatigue strength under cyclic loading if the cover plate ends are high-strength
bolted to the flange to prevent gradual debonding. When this was done, the
fatigue life was 20 times longer than that of welded Category E cover plates.
Analysis of four two-span-continuous, multigirder bridges has shown that
improvements in cover plate design which raise the fatigue strength to that of
Category B also make them fatigue-proof to truck loading.
From the viewpoint of fatigue strength, it is sufficient to clamp the cover plate
ends with one-half of the number of bolts needed to develop the cover plate’s
portion of the maximum bending moment at the theoretical cut-off point.
However, to permit yielding of the flange at the theoretical cut-off point under
static loading without triggering a progressive debonding failure, the ends should
be clamped with the number of bolts required to fully develop the cover plate.
It is emphasized that the Versilok 201 adhesive, like many other adhesives,
has low creep strength at temperatures and relative humidities that are high but
still within the range of those found in service environments (Albrecht et al.,
1984, 1987). Although end bolting bonded cover plates may prevent creep,
adhesives with better durability over a 50-year service life are generally needed.
As the aerospace industry’s success with bonding components suggests, the
widespread application of adhesives to bonding civil engineering structures is
only a matter of time.
REFERENCES
ALBRECHT, P. & SAHLI, A.H. (1986). Fatigue strength of bolted and adhesive bonded
structural steel joints. Symposium on Fatigue in Mechanically Fastened Composite
and Metallic Joints, ASTM STP 927. American Society for Testing and Materials,
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 72–94.
ALBRECHT, P. & SAHLI, A.H. (1988). Static strength of bolted and adhesively bonded
joints. Symposium on Adhesively Bonded Joints—Testing, Analysis and Design,
ASTM STP 981, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, pp. 229–51.
ALBRECHT, P. & SIMON, S. (1981). Fatigue notch factors for structural details. J.
ALBRECHT, P., WATTAR, F. & SAHLI, A. (1983). Towards fatigue-proofing cover plate
ends. Proceedings of W.H. Munse Symposium on Metal Structures, Convention,
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, pp. 24–44.
ALBRECHT, P. & SAHLI, A.H., CRUTE, D., ALBRECHT, Ph. & EVANS, B. (1984).
Application of Adhesives to Steel Bridges. Report No. FHWA/RD-84/037, Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
ALBRECHT, P., MECKLENBURG, M.F., WANG, J.R. & HONG, W.S. (1987). Use of
Adhesives to Replace Welded Connections in Bridges. Report No.87/029 Federal
Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.
FISHER, J.W., FRANK, K.H., HIRT, M.A. & MCNAMEE, B.M. (1970). Effect of
Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams. NCHRP Report No. 102,
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C.
110 PEDRO ALBRECHT
FISHER, J.W., HAUSAMMANN, H. & PENSE, A.W. (1979a). Retrofitting Procedures

for Fatigue Damaged Full-Scale Welded Bridge Beams. Fritz Engineering
Laboratory Report No. 417–3(79), Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania.
FISHER, J.W., HAUSAMMANN, H., SULLIVAN, M.D. & PENSE, A.W. (1979b).
Detection and Repair of Fatigue Damage on Welded Highway Bridges. NCHRP
Report No. 206, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council,
Washington, D.C.
MECKLENBURG, M.F., ALBRECHT, P. & EVANS, B. (1985) Screening of Structural
Adhesives for Application to Steel Bridges. Interim Report, Federal Highway
Administration, NTIS Report No. PB 86 142 601, Washington, D.C.
NARA, H. & GASPARINI, D. (1981). Fatigue Resistance of Adhesively Bonded
Structural Connections. Report No. 45K1–114, Department of Civil Engineering,
Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio.
ROBERTS et al. (1977). Determination of Tolerable Flaw Sizes in Full-Size Welded
Bridge Details. Report No. FHWA-RD-77–170, Federal Highway Administration,
Washington, D.C.
SAHLI, A.H., ALBRECHT, P. & VANNOY, D.W. (1984). Fatigue strength of retrofitted
cover plate ends. J. Structural Eng., ASCE, 110(6), 1374–88.
SCHILLING, C.G., KLIPPSTEIN, K.H., BARSOM, J.M. & BLAKE, G.T. (1978).
Fatigue of Welded Steel Bridge Members Under Variable-Amplitude Loading.
NCHRP Report No. 188, Transportation Research Board, National Research
WATTAR, F., ALBRECHT, P. & SAHLI, A.H. (1985). End-bolted cover plates. J.
Structural Eng., ASCE, 111(6), 1235–49.
YAMADA, K. & ALBRECHT, P. (1977). Fatigue behavior of two flange details. J.
Chapter 6
FATIGUE OF TUBULAR JOINTS IN
OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
Offshore Engineering Division, The Steel Construction Institute,
Ascot, UK
SUMMARY
This chapter introduces the reader to the very complex problem of offshore
tubular joint behaviour and fatigue design. A review of available
knowledge on the fatigue behaviour of tubular joints is beyond the scope of
any single document. However, this chapter addresses the general
parameters which influence fatigue and also discusses a number of these
parameters with particular reference to experimental techniques and recent
data.
Tubular joint design is an area which has attracted substantial research
on a worldwide basis. This has been necessary so that the offshore industry
can, with reasonable confidence, design and install structures to resist the
continuous cyclic loads generated by winds and waves. The rationalisation
and refinement of tubular joint fatigue design will continue for many years
to come but it is unlikely that all the factors influencing the fatigue
behaviour of tubular joints will be fully understood, in the near future.
6.1
INTRODUCTION
The need for an offshore platform is usually established by a requirement to
provide an offshore facility which consists of an operational deck, supported
above sea level, having a specified working area and capable of carrying a pre-
defined load. The design of the supporting structure parallels in many ways that
of a land-based structure but with two additional requirements. The first is that
the supporting structure is fabricated onshore and then transported and installed
112 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
offshore. The second is the requirement to design the structure to resist cyclic
wave loading so as to prevent structural fatigue failure during its life.
By far the most common type of offshore platform in current use is the steel
jacket structure, illustrated in Fig. 6.1. This type of platform consists of a
prefabricated steel support structure (jacket), that extends from the seabed to
above the water surface, with a prefabricated steel deck located on top of the
support structure (topside). The structure is fixed to the seabed by piles, which
are designed to provide adequate resistance against lateral loading from wind,
waves and currents.
Jackets and topsides have to be designed to be self-supporting during
fabrication, transportation and installation. The entire assembled installation has
to withstand loading due to self-weight, operational requirements and
environmental loads. The main criteria considered in the design of a jacket and
topside are:
(a) Fabrication
(b) Loadout
(c) Transportation
(d) Lifting and/or Launching
(e) Temporary Stability
(f) In-place
(g) Damaged
The in-place loading condition, which generally governs the design of jacket
structures, is usually due to waves. This therefore makes the assessment of
fatigue life a primary design criterion.
It is usual in offshore structural design to analyse primary units such as jackets,
decks, modules, flare booms/towers, bridges, and the completed platform
structure, as three-dimensional space frames for all the applicable structural
states and loading conditions. The effect of the interaction between the topside
and jacket and between the jacket and foundations is also included in the design
of the assembled structure. A moderately large topside module may have 120
members and a medium-size jacket may have 2000 members. In view of the
large number of structural states and loading conditions that have to be
considered in a design, extensive use of computers becomes necessary to analyse
the structures and check the strength of the members and joints.
Most steel offshore support structures are three-dimensional frames fabricated
from cylindrical steel members. These give the best compromise in satisfying the
requirements of low drag coefficients, high buoyancy and high strength-to-weight
ratio. Tubular joints, which are formed by welding the contoured end of one
tubular member (brace member) onto the undisturbed outside of the other (chord
member), are a major source of difficulty and high cost in the design,
construction and maintenance of steel offshore structures. The resulting joint
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 113
FIG. 6.1. Typical North Sea steel-piled self-contained drilling/production platform. 1.

Jacket substructure; 2. Module support frame; 3. Piles; 4. Drilling derrick; 5. Pile sleeves;
6. Launch runners.
114 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.2. Typical jacket framing configurations.

configurations can get very congested, and it is not unusual to have up to eight
brace members intersecting onto one chord member.
Because of the harsh environment to which North Sea structures are subjected,
the area of design which has undoubtedly received the most attention is that of
fatigue. A jacket concept study which determines the form the structure will
take, is as likely to be influenced by fatigue requirements as static strength
considerations. Every welded connection which sees cyclic stresses due to
environmental loading is assessed and designed such that a satisfactory fatigue
life is attained. Some connections are checked by implication, as it is normal to
reduce computation time by checking the worst of a group.
6.2
TUBULAR JOINTS IN OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
6.2.1
Joint Types and Geometric Notations
The number, size and orientation of members meeting at a joint vary
significantly according to the configuration and size of the structure. Jacket
configurations include X-braced, K-braced and diagonally braced structures. A
two-dimensional example of each structure is shown in Fig. 6.2. The
configuration is normally chosen to provide the best horizontal and torsional
resistance to the particular environmental forces under consideration. Associated
with the main legs of a large jacket structure there are likely to be many K, KT
and YT joints (see Fig. 6.3) and, depending on the position and number of legs,
some of these will be double joints and have members in more than one plane.
At the other extreme, in the horizontal conductor framing system, most joints
will be of the T or DT configuration because of the regular orthogonal grid of
conductors.
For ease of reference, joints are generally classified by the system of notation
shown in Fig. 6.3. Many of the codes, and in particular the American Welding
Society Code D1.1(1986), adopt this reference system. It should be noted that
this classification refers only to geometry. Several design codes, and in particular
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 115
FIG. 6.3. Preferred notation for joint configurations.
the American Petroleum Institute Code API RP2A (1987), require consideration
of both the applied loads and the joint configuration to determine the design
classification.
Joints are placed in the following four categories for design purposes:
(1) Simple welded joints

(2) Complex welded joints
(3) Cast steel joints
(4) Composite joints
Each joint type presents different design and fabrication problems. As well as
describing the detailing of the joints, the first two classes indicate the relative
116 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
ease of design. The remainder of this section details joint types and non-
dimensional geometric ratios for joints classified as ‘simple joints’.
To be considered ‘simple’, a joint must be formed by welding two or more
tubular members in a single plane without overlap of brace members and without
the use of gussets, diaphragms, stiffeners or grout. To prevent excessively high
local stresses and to provide adequate static strength, simple joints may (and
generally do) contain a short length of thicker-walled tube, sometimes of higher-
strength material, in the connection area. This higher-strength is termed the ‘joint
can’.
The geometric notation and non-dimensional parameters describing simple
joints are given in Fig. 6.4. Definitions of eccentricity and gap for KT joints are
given in Fig. 6.5. The basic dimensions which describe a simple joint are:
(1) Chord outside diameter D

(2) Brace outside diameter d
(3) Chord wall thickness T
(4) Brace wall thickness t
(5) Included angle between chord and brace σ
(6) Gap g between brace toes (for K and KT joints)
(7) Chord length L, defined as the distance between end restraints or points of
contraflexure of the chord
To facilitate the design and assessment of simple joints the above joint
parameters must be rendered dimensionless. In general the following non-
dimensional geometric parameters are used for design and assessment purposes:
Chord length parameter σ , is defined as the ratio of chord length L to chord
radius D/2 (i.e. 2L/D) and gives an indication of chord beam bending
characteristics.
Diameter ratio σ , is the ratio of the brace diameter to the chord diameter (i.e. d/
D) and describes the compactness of the joint.
Chord thinness ratio σ , is the ratio of the chord radius to the chord wall
thickness (i.e. D/2T) and gives an indication of the thinness and radial stiffness
of the chord.
Wall thickness ratio σ , is the ratio of the wall thickness of the brace to that of
the chord. It is a measure of the likelihood that the chord wall will fail before the
brace cross section fractures.
Gap parameter σ , is defined as the ratio of the gap to chord diameter. This
parameter describes the proximity of other brace members to the subject brace
member for joints with more than one brace.
Another parameter which is sometimes used is σ , defined as σ /sin σ . This gives
an indication of the principal length of the chord plug. Further, the terms ‘crown’
and ‘saddle’ are introduced to facilitate the description of position on the
intersection periphery. These terms are illustrated in Fig. 6.6.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 117
FIG. 6.4. Simple joint: geometric notation.

6.2.2
Local Joint Behaviour
As described previously, tubular joints are formed by the intersection of brace
and chord members. There are almost an infinite number of combinations of
joint geometries, sizes and types for both simple and complex joints. Because of
the circular member cross sections, the intersection details and the associated
weld are of a complicated geometry even for the simplest type of tubular joint.
This results in major distortions of the nominal stresses adjacent to the
intersection. The stress distribution around the joint and the maximum ‘hot-spot’
stress play a critical role in fatigue design.
The stress field around a tubular joint arises from three main effects:
• The basic structural response of the joint applied load. This is termed the
‘nominal’ stress.
• To maintain continuity at the intersection, the tubular walls deform giving rise
to the ‘deformation’ stresses.
• The weld introduces a geometrical discontinuity, giving rise to ‘notch’
stresses.
118 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.5. Simple joint: definition of eccentricity and gap for KT joint.
Nominal stresses arise due to the framing action of the jacket structure under
applied external loads. These stresses are calculated by carrying out a global
analysis of the structure.
Deformation stresses are best illustrated by the example of a simple T-joint in
Fig. 6.7. Under tension loading in the brace, Points 1 and 2 displace along the
brace axis by similar amounts owing to the constant axial stiffness of the brace.
To maintain compatibility at the intersection, the chord will deform and
introduce bending and membrane stresses in the chord wall. Since the stiffness
of the chord at the saddle (Point 2) is greater than at the crown (Point 1), a larger
force will be required at the saddle than at the crown. This results in a
maldistribution of the nominal stress near the intersection. The bending and
membrane stresses in the chord wall and the maldistribution of the nominal
stress give rise to the deformation stresses.
Notch stresses are the result of the geometric discontinuity of the tubular walls at
the weld toes where an abrupt change of section occurs. The notch stresses decay
through the wall thickness and there is, therefore, a local region with stresses
varying rapidly in three dimensions. The weld also stiffens the walls of the
tubular locally, and thus affects the local stresses in the tubulars up to and
beyond the position of the weld toe. The presence of the weld has an effect on
the deformation stresses owing to its local stiffening effect. This leads to the
notion of ‘gross’ and ‘local’ deformation stresses. ‘Gross’ deformation stresses
are due to the overall geometry of the joint, disregarding the weld and weld
profile (e.g. as obtained from thin-shell finite-element analysis). ‘Local’
deformation stresses are due to the effect of the geometry of the joint, as well as
the local stiffening offered by the weld (e.g. as measured by strain gauges on a
steel model).
The stresses at the intersection can vary greatly owing to the stress ‘raisers’
identified above. The maximum stress, known as the ‘hot-spot’ stress, can
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 119
FIG. 6.6. Typical tubular joints.

greatly exceed the nominal stress. The ratio of ‘hot-spot’ stress to the nominal
stress is known as the stress concentration factor (SCF), which is generally used
to describe the relationship between the stress at any point at the intersection to
the nominal brace stress. The calculation of SCFs is discussed in Section 6.3.3.
6.3
FATIGUE RESISTANCE DESIGN OF TUBULAR
JOINTS
6.3.1
General
Two basic approaches are available for the fatigue-life assessment of structural
components. The first method, which is currently in general use in design, relies
on empirically derived relationships between the applied stress ranges and
fatigue life (S−N approach). The second method is based on linear elastic
fracture mechanics, which considers the growth rate of an existing defect at each
stage of its propagation. The current practice limits the use of the fracture
120 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.7. Deformation stresses in a T joint under tension load.
mechanics approach for appraisal of existing joints with known defects and the
specification of tolerable defect sizes during the fabrication stage. The following
sections are primarily concerned with the S–N approach and address the fatigue
limit state from the resistance standpoint.
S–N curves and the associated design approaches recommended by design
codes and guidance documents such as the American Petroleum Institute Code
RP2A (1987) and the Department of Energy Guidance Notes (1984) have been
derived from an examination of available test data. These recommendations are
updated regularly to reflect any changes that may be warranted as new data
become available.
Examination of design codes and other published guidance documents such as
UEG UR33 (1985) give the following parameters which affect fatigue strength:
(a) The geometry of the tubular joint and weld. This geometry determines the
SCF and governs the hot-spot stress location where fatigue cracking would
be expected to initiate for a particular type of loading. The influence of
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 121
chord wall thickness on fatigue life is also an area which is currently

receiving a lot of interest (thickness/size effect).
(b) The type, amplitude, mean level and distribution of applied loads. The
applied nominal stress history is increased at the hot-spot and these hot-spot
stresses promote fatigue cracking at or near the welds.
(c) The fabrication process. The procedures adopted during fabrication will
determine the local material properties, the residual stress pattern and the
distribution of defects. These factors will control the initiation period of the
fatigue-failure process.
(d) Post-fabrication processes applied to the tubular joint in order to improve
fatigue life or some other aspect of performance. These include
– PWHT (post-weld heat treatment)

– weld toe grinding, hammer peening, TIG dressing, overall profiling, etc.
– corrosion protection
(e) The environment in which fatigue cracks initiate and grow. Three areas are
relevant:
– Air-well above the splash zone, although such air could have a high water
vapour and salt content
– Mixed air and seawater—splash zone where immersion is con trolled by
wave height and tide
– Seawater—complete immersion
(f) Static chord load. The static load present in a chord member of a tubular
joint owing to dead load or buoyancy, for example, can influence fatigue
performance.
In addition to the above parameters, the fatigue strength of a tubular joint may be
influenced by the ratio R (ratio of trough applied stress to peak applied stress),
seawater temperature and frequency of testing compared with wave frequency.
While the discussion of all these aspects is beyond the scope of this chapter, a
number of these parameters are introduced, discussed and assessed in Sections 6.
3.3 and 6.3.4 within the context of identifying their influence on fatigue life from
recently published data.
6.3.2
Applied Loads
Before carrying out a fatigue analysis at a tubular joint, it is necessary to
determine the stress response over the range of sea conditions which the structure
can expect to experience during its life. Random sea conditions are usually
described in the short term, i.e. over a period of a few hours, by one of the many
122 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
direction wave spectrum formulae. These give the amplitude of a component

wave at each frequency and direction in terms of parameters such as significant
wave height, mean zero-crossing period, mean wave direction, etc. The
proportion of time for which each seastate persists (ideally measured at the site
over a number of years) completes the description of the sea.
Hydrodynamic loading on tubular jacket structures is calculated using
Morison’s (1950) equation. This expresses the wave loading as a function of
local water particle velocity and acceleration. Various wave theories exist for
calculating particle motion in regular waves; the most commonly used are the
Stokes, Airy and stream-function theories.
Analytical techniques currently used for calculating long-term stress
distributions fall into the following categories:
(1) Deterministic methods

(2) Spectral methods
A detailed review of these methods is beyond the scope of this chapter.
6.3.3
Local Joint Behaviour
6.3.3.1
Hot-Spot Stress Concept as Determined by Experimental
Models
Various methods are available for determining hot-spot stresses/stress
concentration factors (HSS/SCF) to be used in fatigue design. These include the
use of design formulae, finite-element (FE) analysis and testing. The methods
vary not only in their accuracy and reliability, but also in their acceptance by
designers.
The generally preferred method is the use of parametric equations to calculate
the SCF/maximum stress range at a joint. The method has the obvious advantage
of simplicity and does not incur the significant cost and time penalties associated
with FE analysis and testing. However, the use of parametric formulae is mainly
applicable only to simple joints, and even then the confidence with which they
can be used is questionable. For joints not covered by the current formulae, FE
analysis and testing need to be considered.
Since the use of parametric formulae is generally preferred, their status and
reliability are discussed in Section 6.3.3.2. Section 6.3.3.3 addresses the areas of
uncertainties associated with FE analysis. The remainder of this section discusses
the measurement of SCFs from experimental models.
Model testing is used primarily to obtain the strain-stress distributions at an
intersection, which is then extrapolated to obtain the strain-stress at the weld toe.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 123
FIG. 6.8. Typical strain gauge layout.
The interpretation of this data provides the HSS/SCF values to be used in design.
Strain gauges are used to obtain the strain and stress distribution around the
tubular joint intersection. It is usually good practice to locate the positions of
maximum stress around the intersection prior to the placing of extrapolation
gauges to determine the stresses at the weld toe. For joints where the position of
the maximum stress is known, the location of the extrapolation gauges does not
present a problem. However, the actual position of the maximum stress under a
unique loading mode is not usually known. Ideally, in this case, a set of rosette
gauges are placed around the intersection in the first instance. Once the location
of peak stress is identified, extrapolation gauges can then be mounted.
Frequently, owing to cost and time restraints, the maximum stress is calculated
from measured values at adjacent points. A typical layout of gauges is shown in
Fig. 6.8.
The interpretation of measured strain data is open to debate. The approach to
interpretation should rest on the primary argument that the resulting ‘hot-spot’
stress should be compatible with an appropriate S–N curve. It is generally
accepted that the S–N curve should itself take into consideration any ‘notch’
effects so that the design ‘hot-spot’ stress need only reflect the deformation
stress.
This is a sensible approach since the ‘notch’ stresses are not easily
measurable, owing to the rapid three-dimensional variation of ‘notch’ stresses over
a few millimetres near the weld toe. Stresses within the ‘notch’ region may also
be influenced by weld geometry and weld bead size. Although the ‘notch’
stresses are undoubtably important in describing fatigue-crack initiation and
early growth at the ‘hot-spot’, these phenomena form only a small part of the
total fatigue life of a tubular joint. Such stresses decay rapidly as crack growth
takes place along the weld toe.
124 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
It is generally agreed that, although not taking into consideration ‘notch’

effects, some form of stress extrapolation to the weld toe is necessary. The
methods used for extrapolation are yet another subject for debate. The position
of gauges and type of extrapolation will determine the magnitude of ‘hot-spot’
stress and which stress raisers are included in the measured value.
It is apparent from the above that certain factors need to be considered when
considering experimental test data. These fall into the following categories:
• The stress distribution around a tubular joint, taking into consideration the
various wave directions and the resulting principal stress directions at the ‘hot-
spot’.
• The positioning of strain gauges relative to the weld toe. This is particularly
relevant to the influence of the weld on the ‘hot-spot’ stress definition.
• The methods of extrapolation of strain gauge readings to the weld toe. These
fall under the categories of linear and curvilinear extrapolation. The method
of curvilinear extrapolation also needs to be clearly defined.
• Consideration needs to be given to whether maximum principal stresses,
maximum principal strains, individual strain components or strains
perpendicular to the weld toe should be extrapolated to obtain ‘hot-spot’
stress values. Stresses perpendicular to the weld toe may be a favoured option
in view of the fact that the crack driving forces are also in this direction. If the
maximum principal stress philosophy is used, then the shear stress component
should be considered in deriving SCFs.
When addressing the above factors, it is necessary to consider their implications

on current design S-N curves. The UK Department of Energy Guidance Notes
(1984) T-curve, for example, has been derived from test results based on linear
extrapolation of the maximum principal stress to the weld toes. This would be
appropriate in the use of orthogonal joints (e.g. T and DT joints), where the
principal planes are essentially perpendicular to the weld toe. However, for joints
with inclined braces where linear extrapolation may be unconservative in
determining ‘hot-spot’ stress, the use of the current T-curve may be
inappropriate. It may therefore be necessary either to derive new S–N curves for
particular joints, or more logically to determine the relationships between the
various methods available for ‘hot-spot’ stress analysis and the current S–N
curves. A sensitivity study of the influence of design methods on fatigue life
would obviously be appropriate.
Care should be exercised when using acrylic instead of steel models. The use
of acrylic allows weld details to be either included or excluded. Models without
any weld fillets yield the ‘gross’ deformation strains at the intersection, whereas
the S–N curves used in design are based on ‘local’ deformation and include
‘notch’ stresses. For this reason the effect of weld profile must be ascertained if
realistic results are to be obtained. Variation of weld profile and weld tolerances
cannot be satisfactorily simulated on acrylic models. A further disadvantage in
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 125
using acrylic is that it creeps under load (and variable temperature). The rate of
creep is approximately 3% per minute after 1 minute of application of load. Any
strain gauge reading must therefore be taken after a set time, usually 1 minute.
The Young’s modulus must be determined at the time the gauges are read.
Acrylic tubing can contain residual stresses, which may result in crazing of the
surface if solvents are brought into contact with it. This may cause difficulty
during assembly of the tubes after machining of brace ends, application of brittle
lacquer, or application of resistance foil strain gauges. However, these problems
can be overcome and acrylic models have been used extensively in recent years.
6.3.3.2
SCF Parametric Equations
The designer relies heavily on available formulae for the calculation of SCFs.
These have been developed by various authors and are based on either acrylic
model tests of simple joints or on theoretical work, such as finite-element
analysis.
The published formulae cover the following simple joint types:
T Y K/YT KT X/DT
Kuang (1977)* ′ ′ ′ ′
Gibstein (1978)* ′
Wordsworth(1981)+ ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
UEG UR33 (1985) ′ ′ ′ ′ ′

Buitrago (1984)* ′ ′ ′
Efthymiou (1988)* ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
* Formulae derived by FE methods
+Formulae derived from acrylic model tests
(Note: The reader should refer to the individual references for actual formulae.)
Since the formulae are derived from the methods discussed in Sections 6.3.3.1
and 6.3.3.3, it is apparent that the variations in SCF/‘hot-spot’ stress definitions
and derivations are also passed on to these various formulae. It is, therefore, not
surprising that the use of these formulae results in variations in calculated values
of SCF for the same joint.
The existing formulae show considerable differences in the influence of
individual joint parameters on SCFs. There are also significant differences in the
validity ranges of these formulae. These differences can be shown by considering
a simple T-joint, which is covered by all six formulae, and comparing the
variation in SCF at the chord saddle with σ ratio under axial loading (Fig. 6.9). It
can be seen that the validity ranges vary considerably and, more significantly, the
126 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
predicted SCFs range from 6.5 to 10 at a σ equal to 0·6 depending on which formula
is used.
These significant differences are typical and can be shown to exist for other
joint parameters and types. The implications for fatigue design of using these
formulae is that calculated SCFs may be unconservative in some cases. It is
necessary to determine the method of derivation and the reliability of these
formulae in predicting SCFs and also in the prediction of fatigue life. Work has
been undertaken to look at the basic reliability of current formulae. This has been
reported by Lalani (1986) and Tolloczko and Lalani (1988). The method adopted
in both references was to compare available SCF test data from realistically
constructed steel tubular joints with predicted values using the appropriate
current formulae. Although there are still certain areas of uncertainty regarding
steel model tests, their use provides the most realistic method of HSS/SCF
measurement. Recently reported SCF data extracted from the UKOSRP II (1987)
project and the SIMS 87 Conference (1987) are presented in Tables 6.1 to 6.4,
and have been collated following the restrictive constraints adopted in UEG
UR33 (1985). Tables 6.1 to 6.4 present data from a total of 24 T/Y/H joint tests,
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 127
FIG. 6.9. Chord saddle SCF variation with σ ratio.

32 non-overlapping K joint tests, 8 stiffened T joint tests and 25 overlapping K
joint tests. A total of 352 different SCF values are available for various load
cases and locations. A comparison between measured and predicted SCFs, as
predicted by the UEG UR33 (1985) equations and Efthymiou (1988) equations,
is given in Figs 6.10 to 6.14. These equations have been selected for comparison
since they were shown by Lalani (1986) to be potentially the most reliable.
The following points are worthy of note from examination of the figures:
• The recent data are superimposed on the database of SCF results reported in
UEG UR33 (1985).
TABLE 6.1
NEW TUBULAR JOINT SCF DATA FOR T, Y AND H JOINTS
128 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
(1) s= saddle; c=crown.

(2) Two values denote readings at the two saddle or crown locations for each specimen.
TABLE 6.2
APPING K JOINTS
NEW TUBULAR JOINT SCF DATA FOR NON-OVERL
(1) Both braces have same included angle.

J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 129
TABLE 6.3
NEW TUBULAR JOINT SCF DATA FOR RING-STIFFENED T JOINTS
130 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
(1) s=saddle; c=crown.

(2) Specimen T223CV unstiffened.
(3) Specimen numbers ending with Gl provided with two ‘light’ internal ring stiffeners.
(4) Specimen numbers ending with G2 provided with two ‘heavy’ T section ring
stiffeners.
TABLE 6.4
NEW TUBULAR JOINT SCF DATA FOR OVERLAPPING K JOINTS
(1) The two brace values reflect SCFs on the 90° and 45° brace respectively.
(2) Load type is balanced axial unless otherwise stated.
(3) All SCF values normalised to nominal stress in 90° brace for balanced axial load tests.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 131
132 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.10.Reliability of UEG equations for T/Y/H joints.

• Only the UEG and Efthymiou equations are considered, for the reason
described above.
• Both sets of equations exhibit scatter in their prediction ability.
• The new data do not significantly change the reliability trends described by
Lalani (1986) for simple joints, i.e. both sets of equations exhibit good
reliability. It follows that the main conclusion drawn by Lalani still holds true
following inclusion of the new SCF data for simple joints, i.e. the UEG UR33
equations predict SCFs which can be expected to be exceeded in 16% of
cases; in contrast, the corresponding figure for the Efthymiou equations is
24%.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 133
FIG. 6.11.Reliability of Efthymiou equations for T/Y/H joints.

• The UEG equations do not cater for overlapping joints. In Fig. 6.14 the
accuracy of the Efthymiou equations for overlapping joints is shown. It can be
seen that the Efthymiou equations predict safe SCFs for overlapping joints;
the low ratios of test result to prediction are primarily a reflection of the low
SCFs that occur in overlapping joints (see Table 6.3).
134 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.12.Reliability of UEG equations for non-overlapping K/YT joints.

6.3.3.3
SCF Finite-Element Analysis
Stress analyses of tubular joints can be performed by FE methods and the results
used to calculate SCFs. A number of computer programs of an acceptable
standard have been developed, and these have been used to produce parametric
SCF formulae and to analyse problem joints in offshore structures. There are,
however, still a number of uncertainties with this type of analytical work. These
concern:
• Modelling of the welds

J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 135
FIG. 6.13.Reliability of Efthymiou equations for non-overlapping K/YT joints.

• Representation of the boundary conditions
• Techniques for the determination of SCFs from the computed stress
distribution
• Load interactions
Most finite-element models of tubular joints consist entirely of shell elements.

At tubular intersections, there is considerable approximation since the weld is
not modelled. Spurious local bending of the member walls may be induced. At
the present time, it is not certain how localised the effect of the approximation is,
although the calculated stress levels are likely to be higher. To overcome these
136 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.14. Reliability of Efthymiou SCF equations for overlapping K/YT joints.
problems, the intersection region can be modelled using three-dimensional

elements. This introduces the effect of local deformation stresses (but not ‘notch’
stresses) into the model. Depending on the choice of S–N curve for the
subsequent fatigue analysis, this may not be appropriate. This too requires
clarification, since the behaviour of the tubular joint represented by the FE
model must be consistent with the assumptions of the fatigue analysis.
Finite-element models usually have short chords, with the chord length
parameter a typically having a value of about 11. Diaphragms may be added at
the free ends of the chord to provide pinned supports. Depending on the
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 137
configuration of elements and/or boundary conditions, these may artificially

prevent ovalisation of the ends of the chord.
Diaphragms are introduced to facilitate the imposition of boundary conditions
for the FE analysis and often a restricted length of chord is introduced, based on
engineering judgement. Both these aspects are known to influence the SCFs at the
tubular intersections, and further assessment is required on the influence of a and
end conditions. Prescribed displacements rather than applied loads can be applied
to the free ends of members, so that the deformed shape is realistic. End
diaphragms in short chords reduce deformations. In T/Y joints, for example, this
results in lower saddle SCFs on both the chord and brace. The length of the
chord influences beam bending. Consequently, crown SCFs in T/Y joints
increase steadily with ′ .
The definition of ‘hot-spot’ stress should be consistent with the S–N curve
used. The method of stress extrapolation should also be consistent, but this may
not always be possible because physical models (which are used to determine S–
N curves) and analytical models differ, particularly at the weld intersection.
At present time, there are different ways of determining SCFs from the
calculated stress distributions. The outer surface stresses at nodes along the
tubular intersections are sometimes used. However, these lines of nodes do not
necessarily coincide with the weld toe, sometimes lying outside the weld and
sometimes lying inside it. Alternatively, the stresses at the weld toe can be used.
The stresses at the weld toe can be obtained by two different techniques,
which will invariably lead to slightly different SCFs. The stress at the weld toe
can be obtained by extrapolation of the stress distribution in the region of stress
linearity, in accordance with the procedure used in the UKOSRP tests (1987).
Linear or curvilinear extrapolations can be used, although other methods may be
more suitable. The second technique involves plotting the stress distribution
along a line perpendicular to the weld toe and obtaining the stress there by
interpolation. In view of the approximations in the modelling of the intersection
regions with shell elements, this procedure may be hard to justify, and better
approximations can be obtained using brick elements local to the intersection.
A study in which the different techniques of extracting SCFs from the results
of an FE analysis are compared would clearly be useful and would demonstrate
whether the differences are significant.
SCFs are determined for loads applied to individual members only. The
simultaneous application of loads to other members of a joint will influence the
SCF of that member due to the interaction of the stress fields of neighbouring
connections. By allowing for load interactions, fatigue lives may be altered
appreciably. However, such an approach requires a revision of the manner in
which SCFs are presented, perhaps following the procedure described by
Buitrago (1984).
138 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.15. Typical S–N curve.
6.3.4
Fatigue Life Assessment (S−N Method)
6.3.4.1
General
There are two basic approaches used in the fatigue-life assessment of tubular
joints. The first method relies on the use of empirically derived S–N curves
which relate the stress range at a point under consideration to the number of
cycles to failure. The second method is based on linear elastic fracture mechanics
and considers an analysis of crack propagation at the point under consideration.
A typical S–N curve is given in Fig. 6.15. The ordinate describes the stress
range and the abscissa describes the number of cycles to failure. Logarithmic
scales are conventionally used for both axes, and the S–N curves are based on test
data.
To carry out fatigue-life predictions, a linear fatigue damage model is used in
conjunction with the relevant S–N curve. One such fatigue damage model is that
postulated by Miner (1945). In essence, the model assumes that irreversible
damage occurs with each stress cycle and that damage accumulates linearly to a
fixed level at which failure occurs. The long-term distribution of relevant stress
ranges is established for each potential crack location around the periphery of the
intersection of a tubular joint. Each stress cycle experienced by the joint will
have an associated stress range ′ f. For the ith stress cycle with stress range ′ fi,
an increment of damage equal to 1/Ni occurs, where Ni is the corresponding
number of stress cycles to failure under constant-amplitude loading of ′ fi Fatigue
failure occurs as soon as the linear cumulative damage of the cycles in the
variable-amplitude loading sequence has reached a fixed level, i.e.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 139
(6.1)
where ni is the expected number of cycles of the various stress ranges ′ fi in the
design spectrum which are assumed to occur in the design life of the structure, Ni
is the corresponding number of cycles to failure under constant amplitude
loading obtained from the relevant S-N curve, and Ds is the damage summation
failure limit. The value of Ds is often taken as unity. However, this value is
sometimes chosen to reflect the safety levels required for the particular joint
under consideration.
6.3.4.2
Stress Range
The fatigue design is normally based on the ‘hot-spot’ stress range concept. The
nominal brace stress ranges are increased at the intersection by appropriate stress
concentration factors (SCFs). SCFs and their definition are discussed in detail in
previous sections. In essence, the relevant stress range to be used in design is
defined as the maximum principal stress range obtained by linear or curvilinear
extrapolation to the weld toe of the maximum principal stress distribution near
the weld toe, but far enough away from it not to be influenced by the ‘notch’
stress. The recommended S–N curve is based on this definition; the effects of
‘notch’ stresses and residual welding stresses are appropriately reflected in the
choice of curve.
6.3.4.3
Failure Criteria
During the fatigue testing of tubular joints, fatigue crack propogation/failure is
classified under three primary headings. These are, in chronological order:
(a) N1: First discernible surface cracking, usually detected from visual
inspection or strain gauge monitoring adjacent to that portion of the weld toe
where the ‘hot-spot’ stress is measured.
(b) N2: First through-thickness cracking, detected by
(i) visual means;

(ii) internally-applied air pressure;
(iii) monitoring strain gauges.
(c) N3: End of test, defined as
(i) extensive cracking;

(ii) test rig limitations;
140 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
(iii) member pull-out;

(iv) surface cracking around about 80% of the periphery of the joint.
N1 is liable to considerable error and, in jacket structures in service, is likely to

be well in excess of that observed in the laboratory. N3 is also liable to
considerable differences since the definition of this failure criterion changes with
each specimen and the place of testing. In service conditions, joints are usually
repaired before this condition arises. In general the relevant life of a joint is
defined as N2. Apart from the fact that the degree of scatter observed from tests
is less, a number of other justifications can be stated:
(i) Such a crack should be both detectable and repairable.

(ii) The structure should be capable of tolerating such a crack without the
intervention of catastrophic fracture.
(iii) Such a crack should be small enough for the jacket structure not to have to
shed load, leading to damage of other joints.
Therefore, providing that crack instability does not occur first (i.e. the joint does
not reach the fracture limit state), failure within the context of fatigue design is
defined as the number of cycles to first through-thickness cracking.
6.3.4.4
Available Design S–N Curves
Figure 6.16 presents the family of S–N curves derived from experimental data
and recommended by both the American Petroleum Institute (API) Code RP2A
(1987) and the Department of Energy Guidance Notes (1984). Examination of
this figure and the recommendations in the two documents reveal the following.
(a) Basic S–N curves. API RP2A presents two curves, the X and X′ curve. The
X curve is recommended for joints in which the welds merge smoothly with the
adjoining base metal. For welds without such profile control, the X′ curve is
recommended. The so-called ‘thickness and size effect’ is taken by API to be
appropriately reflected in these two curves, i.e. it is assumed that the curves are
sufficiently devalued that the effect of wall thickness is largely negated if
profiled welds are specified. An endurance limit at 2×108 cycles is specified, and
it is assumed that all stress cycles below 35 N/mm2 or 23 N/mm2 for the X and X
′ type weld profiles, respectively, are non-damaging. The Guidance Notes, on the
other hand, recommend specific size/thickness correction factors, as shown in
Fig. 6.16. The size correction takes the form:
f=fb(32/T)1/4 (6.2)
where
f=fatigue strength of joint under consideration (N/mm2);
fb=fatigue strength using the basic T curve derived from tubular joints with
chord wall thickness of 32 mm (N/mm2);
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 141
FIG. 6.16. S–N curves recommended by API RP2A and the UK Guidance Notes.
T=wall thickness of the joint under consideration (mm).

Figure 6.16 illustrates S–N curves for various wall thicknesses; a lower
limiting value of T=22 mm is imposed for calculating fatigue lives of joints with
lesser thicknesses. No upper limit is imposed. The curves are bilinear in format,
and do not encompass a threshold endurance limit, on the argument that whilst a
threshold may exist under constant amplitude load conditions, this trend may not
be valid under variable-amplitude load conditions, when damage caused by high
stress cycles is likely to render the low stress cycles damaging in subsequent load
cycles.
(b) Influence of environment. The API RP2A curves presume effective
cathodic protection. No quantitative guidance is presented for other conditions,
apart from a comment that ‘For splash zone, free corrosion, or excessive cathodic
protection conditions, appropriate reductions to the allowable cycles should be
considered’. The Guidance Notes curves are valid for adequate corrosion
protection conditions. For unprotected joints exposed to seawater, a penalty
factor of 2.0 is imposed, and the beneficial bilinear correction applied at 107
cycles is not allowed.
(c) Weld improvement technique. The API curves explicitly allow the designer
to take benefit for properly profiled welds. No other benefit is recommended.
The Guidance Notes do not provide any quantitative recommendations regarding
weld profile benefit. However, the document recommends an increase in fatigue
life by a factor of 2.2 if controlled local machining or grinding of the weld toe is
carried out.
142 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
(d) Damage summation model. Both documents recommend the same damage
model, i.e.
(6.3)
where
Ds=cumulative fatigue damage ratio;
n=number of cycles applied at a given stress range;
N=number of cycles for which the given stress range would be allowed by the
appropriate S–N curve.
This model is in the same form as given in eqn (6.1).
6.3.5
New Fatigue Data
New fatigue data extracted from the UKOSRP II (1987) and SIMS 87 (1987) are
presented in Tables 6.5 to 6.9. The new data encompass:
• 4 axially loaded H joints

• 3 axially loaded T joints
• 3 balanced axially loaded simple K joints
• 6 axially loaded stiffened T joints
• 15 balanced axially loaded overlapping K joints
• 2 balanced axial plus moment loaded overlapping K joints
• 4 axially loaded toe ground H joints
• 4 axially loaded PWHT T joints
• 6 in-plane moment loaded X joints in air or seawater and 10 in the as-welded,
TIG dressed or shot-peened condition
• 4 axially loaded T joints in seawater and cathodically protected.
The hot-spot stress range noted in Tables 6.5 to 6.9 is defined as the maximum
stress obtained by linear extrapolation to the weld toe of the stress distribution
near the weld toe, but far enough away from it not to be influenced by the notch
stress. For the fatigue lives, three levels of failure have been recorded. These
have been defined in Section 6.3.4.3.
The assessment of this data, together with that presented in UEG UR33
(1985), is presented below with particular reference to the available design S–N
curves and the influence of size, post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) and
environment on fatigue life.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 143
6.3.6.
Analysis of New Data
6.3.6.1
Constant-Amplitude, As-Welded, in Air, Tubular Joint Data
Figures 6.17 and 6.18 present the new as-welded data in the standard S–N format
(hot-spot stress range against life to through-thickness cracking).
Superimposed on the graphs are the data from the UEG UR33 (1985) design
guide. Data are separately identified according to the specimen wall thickness
(16 mm and 32 mm in this case) to enable the size corrections recommended by
the Guidance Notes to be assessed. The relevant design curves from both API
RP2A and the Guidance Notes are also shown in these figures. It can be seen
that all the data fall on the safe side of the design curves. The new data fall
within the scatterband of the data collated within the UEG UR33. It is of interest
to note the safety margin provided by the API X′ curve; at the high stress cycle
range, for example, the two curves deviate appreciably. For 32-mm thick joints,
at a stress range of say 200 N/mm2, the allowable cycles using the API X curve
is approximately 50000 under constant-amplitude conditions; the corresponding
value using the Guidance Notes 32-mm curve gives 200000 cycles, a fourfold
increase. Similar comparisons using data for the 16-mm joints, give an even
greater difference. This is due to the differences in slopes adopted in the two
documents and the size correction factors introduced in the Guidance Notes (see
Fig. 6.16). The evidence presented in Fig. 6.17 and 6.18 indicates that the data
are approximately parallel to the slope adopted in the Guidance Notes.
6.3.6.2
Influence of Size
Figure 6.19 shows the new tubular joint as-welded data plotted in the S–N
format. The data cover joints with wall thicknesses of 16 mm, 32 mm, 40 mm
and 76 mm. The tubular diameters also increase with increasing thickness.
Examination of the figure reveals the following:
• There is a distinct indication that fatigue strength reduces with increasing

size.
• All the data lie above the relevant API X′curve, including the 76-mm data.
Similar conclusions can be drawn from Fig. 6.20, which shows a plot of the new
PWHT tubular joint data. The size effect is present, even after application of
post-weld heat treatment. Of interest is the comparison of potential size effects
for as-welded (Fig. 6.19) and PWHT (Fig. 6.20) joints. The figures appear to
indicate that the effects are different, which lends support to the case that stress
144 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
NEW TUBULAR JOINT FATIGUE DATA FOR AS-WELDED, AXIALLY LOADED

H, T AND K JOINTS UNDER CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE LOADING
TABLE 6.5
levels local to the weld toe and through the wall thickness are, at least in part,
responsible for the size effect.
Insufficient tubular joint data are available to quantify the size effect
throughout the range of thicknesses which occur in practice. However, reference
TABLE 6.6
NEW TUBULAR JOINT FATIGUE DATA FOR AS-WELDED, AXIALLY LOADED,
OVERLAPPING AND STIFFENED JOINTS UNDER CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE
LOADING
(1) For Gl and G2 type stiffeners, see Table 6.5.

(2) *=cracks for G2 stiffener specimens ran under the weld between the root and chord
toe.
(3) **=hot-spot stress range relates to appropriate inter-section value; loading relate to
tension in 90° brace and compression in 45° brace.
(4) For specimen K5, bracket brace stress range value relate to maximum value at entire
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 145
intersection.
(5) For specimens K4-K6, t=8 mm.
(6) For specimens in LA and LB series, t is given in brackets after T.
(7) For specimens LA2–3 and LA2–4, IPB loads also applied.
TABLE 6.7
146 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
NEW TUBULAR JOINT FATIGUE DATA FOR POST-WELD TREATED H AND T

JOINTS UNDER CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE LOADING
(1) *=specimens relate to ground end of H joints.

(2) **=post-weld heat treated.
TABLE 6.8
NEW TUBULAR JOINT FATIGUE DATA FOR AS-WELDED AND POST-WELD
TREATED X JOINTS UNDER CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE LOADING
(a) Brace 1 in air.

(b) Brace 2 in sea water.
(1) ′ HSS=′ ′HS×l·2× E.
(2) As-welded.
(3) Tig-dressed.
(4) Shot-peened.
(5) Fy=540 N/mm2.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 147
148 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
TABLE 6.9
NEW TUBULAR JOINT FATIGUE DATA FOR AS-WELDED T JOINTS TESTED IN
SEA WATER UNDER CONSTANT-AMPLITUDE LOADING
(1) *=tests in seawater, CP level 850 mV.

with respect to Ag/Ag=l electrode, at 0.167 Hz.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 149
FIG. 6.17. 16 mm Tubular joint fatigue data (in air, constant-amplitude, aswelded).
FIG. 6.18. 32 mm Tubular joint fatigue data (in air, constant-amplitude, as-welded).
can be made to the wealth of weldment data which are available, many of which
are new and were generated recently. In order to present all the available data
(both tubular joint and weldments) on a common basis, the following approach
has been adopted:
150 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.19. Influence of thickness using the new as-welded tubular joint data.
(a) For each set of points relating to a specific thickness, a eastsquares analysis
was undertaken. For tubular joints, the following sets were encompassed:
• 16-mm wall thickness, as-welded data-sample size 39 (see Fig. 6.17)

• 32-mm wall thickness, as-welded data-sample size 22 (see Fig. 6.18).
• 76-mm wall thickness, as-welded data-sample size 4 (see Fig. 6.19).
• 32-mm wall thickness, PWHT data-sample size 4 (see Fig. 6.20).
• 76-mm wall thickness, PWHT data-sample size 3 (see Fig. 6.20).
For weldment data, the following sets were encompassed:
• 32 sets of new data covering various wall thicknesses, R ratios, as-welded

and PWHT conditions, reported in UKOSRP II (1987) and SIMS (87)
(1987)—sample size 188 in total.
• 15 sets of data reported in UEG UR33 (1985) covering various wall
thicknesses, R ratios and load/non-load carrying attachments.
(b) For each set, the fatigue strength at 0·5×106 cycles, 1×106 cycles and 2×106
cycles was calculated.
(c) All the fatigue strengths were normalised to 32 mm to reflect the value
adopted in the Guidance Notes. This resulted in the identification of relative
fatigue strengths.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 151
FIG. 6.20. Influence of thickness using the new PWHT tubular joint data.
The relative fatigue strengths thus derived are presented in Fig. 6.21 for 2×106
cycles. Similar trends can be demonstrated for 0.5×106 cycles and 1×106 cycles
and are not reported here. Examination of this figure reveals the following:
• The tubular joint data and the weldment data fall within the same scatterband.
• The size effect is adequately represented by the Guidance Notes
recommendation of an inverse slope of 0.25 for relative fatigue strengths
normalised to 32-mm wall thickness.
• The data fall within the scatterband noted for 16-mm wall thickness tubular
joints to achieve a 98% probability of survival. This observation lends support
to the continued use of the (32/T)1/4 derating function.
• None of the individual test results (totalling more than 300 datapoints) fall
below the relevant design S–N curves, provided the size correction is taken
into account.
The size effect issue has been the subject of considerable research and debate
over the past decade. Significant advances have been made in the understanding
of the mechanisms which govern this apparent reduction in fatigue strength with
increasing size. Figure 6.21 demonstrates categorically that a size effect exists.
The API RP2A curves recognise and quantify weld profile effects; the
Guidance Notes recognise and quantify size effects. Neither document properly
accounts for both size and profile effects; it is now generally accepted that weld
profiling does not completely negate size effect, and, therefore, both size and
profile effects should ideally be reflected in the design process. The American
152 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.21. Influence of thickness—relative fatigue strength at 2 million cycles for all
data.
Welding Society Code D1.1 (1986) provisions go some way in reconciling and
recognising both effects.
6.3.6.3
Influence of Post-Weld Heat Treatment
Figure 6.22 and 6.23 present the new as-welded and PWHT tubular joint data in
conventional S–N format for the 32-mm and 76-mm wall thickness specimens.
The figures indicate that, for both sizes of tubular joints, the PWHT process has a
significant fatigue benefit when compared with the as-welded condition. This
observation is in line with UEG UR33 (1985), which demonstrated that residual
stresses play a part in the development of fatigue cracks. The extent of their
influence is dependent on the applied load cycles and the R ratio.
Exploitation of the benefits of PWHT has, to date, not been possible because of
difficulties in the following:
• determining that the residual stresses, following PWHT, have been

significantly relieved;
• identifying the level of reduction of residual stresses for the specimens tested;
• demonstrating that a major part of the expected stress history in service would
be compressive in action;
• demonstrating that the lack-of-fit stresses introduced during jacket fabrication
are insignificant.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 153
FIG. 6.22. Influence of PWHT using the new 32 mm tubular joint data.
Notwithstanding the above, it seems prudent that efforts should be directed
towards overcoming the noted difficulties so that all the potential benefits of
PWHT can be exploited in the design of those joints in which fatigue life is a
limiting criterion.
6.3.6.4
Influence of Environment
Figure 6.24 shows the new tubular joint as-welded data plotted in the standard S–
N format. The data covers three joints tested in air and four joints tested in seawater
with cathodic protection at a level of −850 mV (Ag/AgCl). Although the data are
limited, tests with cathodic protection clearly indicate that the fatigue life to
through-thickness cracking is reduced when compared to joints tested in air.
Included in Fig. 6.24 is the relevant Guidance Notes curve recommended for joints
with cathodic protection. Whilst both the air and protected data points lie above
the design curve, a reduced degree of safety for the joints with cathodic
protection can be noted. Also included in Fig. 6.24 is the Guidance Notes curve
for unprotected joints. Use of this design curve for protected joints would
reinstate the desired level of safety for these joints. It is therefore apparent that
joints with cathodic protection may require treatment in the same manner as freely
corroding joints. This behaviour is in marked contrast to that expected from an
analysis of welded plate specimens, and calls into question the applicability of
plate data to identify environmental effects. It should be noted that the previously
held belief in industry that adequate protection restores the in-air behaviour was
essentially based on an assessment of welded plate data.
154 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
FIG. 6.23. Influence of PWHT using the new 76 mm tubular joint data.
FIG. 6.24. Influence of environment using the new 32 mm tubular joint data.
From the evidence noted in Fig. 6.24, it would appear that further research
work on the effects of cathodic protection should concentrate on tubular joints
and not on welded specimens, although it is recognised that this would have a
major impact on the cost of tests.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 155
6.3.7
Fatigue-Life Assessment (Fracture-Mechanics Method)
Fracture mechanics (FM) is applied to the assessment of crack-like defects. For
members and joints under fatigue loading, it provides an alternative means of
calculating fatigue lives. In this application, FM techniques are consistent with
conventional S–N methods and Miner’s rule. However, FM techniques are much
more powerful than S–N methods for a number of reasons. Firstly, whilst an S–N
analysis gives a single number—the fatigue life—the corresponding FM analysis
gives the crack growth characteristic, which is vital when planning an inspection
programme. Furthermore, FM techniques provide the means for assessing crack
stability, that is, whether the fatigue life will be shortened by intervening fracture.
Under closely controlled conditions, it may be considered that FM techniques
represent an essentially ‘exact’ science. However, under actual conditions,
particularly for welded structures in an offshore environment, there are many
unknowns and analytical results become less exact. In this application, FM
techniques are best suited to performing comparative studies. In the role of
determining an underwater inspection programme, FM analysis is able to rank
the joints in order of their fatigue lives and defect tolerance, permitting an
optimised inspection plan to be formulated.
To date, fracture mechanics studies in the offshore industry have tended to lie
at extreme ends of the spectrum in terms of the complexity of the analyses. For
quick and simple defect assessments, design curve methods have been widely
used. Whilst having the advantage of being economical to perform, the gross
simplifications in the assessment procedure greatly undermine confidence in the
results.
At the other extreme, very detailed studies of individual components,
frequently involving finite-element analyses, offer greater accuracy. The
improvement in accuracy, however, seldom justifies the order-of-magnitude
increase in the cost which is involved, particularly when the uncertainties of
defect characteristics and loading are considered.
A review of crack-growth mechanics, FM crack-growth laws, crack-growth
constants and stress-intensity factor solutions is beyond the scope of this chapter.
Initial reference to the overview of FM given in UEG UR33 (1985) shows that
FM analysis methods, once fully developed and accepted by industry, will
provide a powerful fatigue-life assessment tool. Although unlikely to replace the
S–N fatigue design method, FM will be used in the design of more complex
joints and in the assessment of defects in offshore structures.
6.4
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
A review and assessment of the parameters influencing fatigue and also new data
recently generated have been presented in the previous sections. Whilst advances
156 J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO
have been made in the area of fatigue, many areas of uncertainty still warrant
further investigation. Some of these are listed below:
(i) Identification of experimental errors inherent in SCF measurements.

(ii) Hindcast forecasting studies, correlating predicted hot-spot stress ranges
using the available parametric SCF equations with measured fatigue lives.
(iii) Identification of weld profile and thickness/size effects through studies of
notch stress and through-thickness stress levels.
(iv) Further investigations into corrosion fatigue, particularly the influence of
cathodic protection.
(v) Generation of further tubular joint data on complex joints.
(vi) Development of non-destructive techniques to determine residual stress
levels in tubular joints.
(vii The fatigue-life assessment of tubular joints using fracture mechanics
) techniques with particular reference to developing techniques and
methodologies suitable to engineering applications.
6.5
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The subject of offshore tubular joint fatigue design is one which has attracted
substantial reseach on a worldwide basis, costing many millions of pounds. This
has been necessary so that the offshore industry, particularly with North Sea
developments, can, with reasonable confidence, design and install structures to
resist the continuous cyclic loadings generated by winds and waves. The
consequences of fatigue failure can indeed be catastrophic. However, the more
common consequence of fatigue failure is the requirement to repair cracking at
great expense to the operating company.
It is hoped that the preceding sections of this chapter have given some
indication to the reader of the complexity of the fatigue behaviour and design of
tubular joints. The influence of geometry, manufacturing methods, loading and
in-service environment results in no two joints ever being the same and hence the
design methods developed are generally and necessarily conservative.
The rationalisation and refinement of tubular joint fatigue design will continue.
This will be accelerated by the operating companies seeking more confidence in
designs so as to reduce the requirements for costly underwater inspection and
repairs. It is therefore apparent that research and experimentation will continue in
this area for many years to come, but it is unlikely that all the factors influencing
the fatigue behaviour of tubular joints will be understood for a long time.
J.J.A.TOLLOCZKO 157
REFERENCES
AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE (1987) Recommended Practice for Planning,

Designing and Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms, API RP2A, 17th edn.
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY (1986) Structural Welding Code—Steel, ANSI/
AWS D1.1–86.
BUITRAGO, J. (1984) Combined hot-spot stress procedure for tubular joints. Paper OTC
4775, Offshore Technology Conference, Texas.
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY (UK) (1984) Offshore Installations: Guidance on Design
and Construction, HMSO, London.
EFTHYMIOU, M. (1988) Development of SCF formulae for use in fatigue analysis.
Offshore Tubular Joint Conference, OTJ (88), UEG, CIRIA.
GIBSTEIN, M.B. (1978) Parametric stress analysis of T joints. Paper 26, European
Offshore Steels Research Seminar, Cambridge.
KUANG, J.G. (1977) Stress concentrations in tubular joints. Paper OTC 2205, Offshore
Technology Conference, Texas. (Modifications in SPE Journal, August 1977,
287–99.
LALANI, M. (1985) Improved fatigue life estimation of tubular joints. Paper OTC 5306,
Offshore Technology Conference, Texas.
LALANI, M. (1987) The fatigue behaviour of overlapping joints. Paper TS13,
Proceedings of the 3rd International ECSC Offshore Conference on Steel in Marine
Structures (SIMS 87), Delft, the Netherlands.
MINER, M.A. (1945) Cumulative damage in fatigue. J. Appl Mech., Trans. ASME, 12,
159–64.
MORISON, J.A. (1950) The forces exerted by surface waves on piles. Petroleum Trans.,
AIME, 189, 149–54.
SIMS 87 (1987) Proceedings of the 3rd International ECSC Offshore Conference on Steel
in Marine Structures, Delft, the Netherlands.
TOLLOCZKO, J.J.A & LALANI, M. (1988) The implication of new data on the fatigue
life assessment of tubular joints. Paper OTC 5662, Offshore Technology
Conference, Texas.
UEG UR33 (1985) Design of Tubular Joints for Offshore Structures. UEG Publication
UR33, CIRIA, London.
UKOSRP II (1987) Summary and Task Reports. HMSO, London.
WORDSWORTH P. (1981) Stress Concentration Factors at K and KT Tubular Joints,
Fatigue in Offshore Structural Steels. Institute of Civil Engineers, Westminster,
London.
Chapter 7
CASE STUDIES AND REPAIR OF
FATIGUE-DAMAGED BRIDGE
STRUCTURES
J.W.FISHER
Joseph T. Stuart Professor of Civil Engineering, Director, ATLSS
Engineering Research Center, Lehigh University, USA
&
C.C.MENZEMER
ATLSS Scholar, Lehigh University, USA
SUMMARY
This chapter briefly reviews the major factors governing the fatigue
strength of welded details. Case studies which illustrate some of the causes
off fatigue cracking being experienced in highway bridge structures and
the methods used to repair and retrofit the welded details are examined.
Examples of severe corrosion and the inability to detect corrosion cell
activity are summarized.
NOTATION
a Crack size
b Width of hanger
c Crack width
C Crack-growth constant
da/dn Crack-propagation rate
E(k) Elliptic integral of the second form
Fe Crack shape correction

Fg Stress gradient correction factor
Fs Correction for free surface
Fw Correction for finite width
H Weld leg size
KT Stress-concentration factor
′K Stress-intensity range
r Radius of rivet hole
REPAIR OF FATIGUE-DAMAGED BRIDGE STRUCTURES 159
Sr Stress range
Sre Effective stress range
tcp Cover plate thickness
tf Flange thickness
tp Plate thickness
σi Frequency of occurrence of stress range cycles Sri as a fraction of the total
cycles
′ Angle for calculated stress intensity
σ Radius of retrofit hole
σ Stress
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The two primary factors governing the fatigue strength of welded steel details are
the applied stress range and detail type (Fisher et al., 1970, 1974). Welded
structural joints behave differently because of the variation in the local stress
fields around the weldments, as well as the inherent variability in the distribution
of initial discontinuities. All welding processes introduce small defects in or
around the weldment, although proper fabrication will minimize both the number
and size of the initial flaws.
A large number of experimental programs have generated fatigue data which
were used in the development of design guidelines (Keating & Fisher, 1986).
Figure 7.1 is a typical plot of fatigue data for short web attachments. Stress range
versus life behavior of welded details can be adequately described by straight-
line relationships on log-log scale plots. The lower bound is normally established
such that it is at least two standard deviations below the mean. As a result, lower-
bound design curves are associated with a specific probability of survival at a
given confidence level.
A typical set of fatigue design curves is shown in Fig. 7.2. Each curve
corresponds to a type of detail. Structural joints with similar stress concentration
and discontinuity conditions are grouped into a single category. Details which
provide the lowest fatigue resistance usually involve connections which
experience fatigue-crack growth from weld toes and terminations where there is
a large stress concentration. Details which fail from internal discontinuities will
generally have higher allowable stress range values as there is no geometrical
stress concentration more severe than the discontinuity itself.
Inspection of Fig. 7.2 reveals horizontal cut-offs for each of the design curves,
which represent the constant-amplitude fatigue limit. For stress range cycles
below this limit, no fatigue crack propagation would be expected to occur.
Constant-amplitude fatigue limit values decrease with the severity of the detail.
As bridges are subjected to variable-amplitude loadings, several studies were
conducted to examine member behavior under this type of loading (Schilling et al.,
160 J.W.FISHER AND C.C.MENZEMER
FIG. 7.1. Laboratory fatigue data for web attachments.
FIG. 7.2. Fatigue design curves.
1978; Fisher et al., 1983). An important conclusion from these studies was that if
any of the stress range cycles in a loading spectrum exceeded the constant-
amplitude fatigue limit, life could be estimated by employing a cumulative
damage law such as that originally proposed by Miner’s.
FIG. 7.3. Examples of distortion-induced cracking.

7.2
FATIGUE CRACKING OF WELDED BRIDGE
DETAILS
Since the early 1960s, a number of localized failures have developed in steel
bridge members owing to fatigue-crack propagation. In some instances, fatigue-
crack propagation has resulted in brittle fracture (Fisher, 1984, 1986). A majority
of the fatigue cracks can be placed into one of two broad categories. The largest
category is a result of outof-plane distortion in a small, unstiffened segment of
girder web. When distortion-induced cracking develops in a bridge component,
large numbers of cracks develop nearly simultaneously because the cyclic stress
is high and the number of stress cycles needed to produce cracking is relatively
small. Displacement-induced cracking has developed in a wide variety of
structures, including suspension, two-girder floorbeam, tiedarch, and box-girder
bridges. In general, the cracks form parallel to the primary stress field and are
not detrimental to the performance of the structure provided they are discovered
and retrofitted before turning perpendicular to the applied stresses.
A typical example of distortion-induced cracking is depicted in Fig. 7.3. An
unstiffened segment of girder web is created at the end of the floorbeam
connection plate when a positive attachment between the girder flange and
connection plate is not provided. As the floorbeam rotates under traffic loading,
the segment of web is pulled out-of-plane, producing a large stress gradient in
the small portion of web. Figure 7.4 shows a typical stress gradient which was
measured in one structure (Fisher, 1978). The large cyclic stress near the web
flange weld and the weld termination at the end of the connection plate produces
fatigue cracking in a relatively small number of stress cycles.
The second largest category of fatigue-damage to bridge members and
components comprises large initial defects or cracks. Defects in this category
have resulted from poor-quality welds that were produced before non-destructive
test methods were well established. In addition, a number of the failures in this
category have developed because the groove-welded component was considered
a secondary member or attachment. As a result, weld quality criteria were not
established and non-destructive test methods were not employed.
FIG. 7.4. Measured stress gradient.

A majority of the remaining failures resulted from the use of low-strength details
that were not anticipated to have such a low strength at the time of the original
design.
7.3
LOW FATIGUE STRENGTH DETAILS— YELLOW
MILL POND BRIDGE
7.3.1
Structure Description and History of Cracking
The Yellow Mill Pond Bridge is located on Interstate-95 (I-95) Bridgeport,
Connecticut. Constructed in 1956–1957, the bridge was opened to traffic in 1958
and consists of 28 simple span cover-plated steel beam bridges. Three lanes of
roadway traffic are carried in each direction. A typical framing plan is shown in
Fig. 7.5.
Fatigue cracking was first observed in 1970 (Fisher et al., 1970; Fisher, 1986).
Fatigue-crack growth resulted in fracture of a beam tension flange as shown in
Fig. 7.6. Inspection of several other adjacent beams revealed cracks which had
extended halfway through the tension flange thickness. Other small cracks were
also observed. Follow-up inspections conducted in 1973, 1976, 1979 and 1981
revealed additional crack growth from the cover-plated details. The extensive
numbers of cracks that developed at the ends of the welded cover plates were
primarily due to the large volume of truck traffic and the unanticipatedly low
fatigue resistance of the details. Both eastbound and westbound bridges of span
10 were selected for major stress history studies during this time.
Beams of span 10 are rolled sections of A242 steel (σ y=310 MPa (45ksi)). All
beams, except the interior facia beam of the eastbound roadway, are fitted with
FIG. 7.5. Span 10 framing plan.

single cover plates on the compression flange and two cover plates on the tension
flange (Fig. 7.5). Primary cover plates for the exteror facia beams of both
roadways are full length.
7.3.2
Stress History Measurements
Both eastbound and westbound bridges of span 10 were selected for two stress
history studies by the State of Connecticut and the US Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA). An initial investigation was conducted in 1971, with a
follow-up study continuing from April 1973 to April 1974. Limited additional
measurements were acquired in 1976. Figure 7.7 shows a typical stress-range
histogram for cover plate details from the westbound structure. In addition to
strain measurements, vehicle distributions, lane positions, and truck weights
were recorded. From recorded information on truck traffic, coupled with an
FHWA Loadometer survey, it was estimated that 35 million trucks had crossed
the eastbound and westbound structures between 1958 and 1976.
Composite stress-range response spectra were constructed using the various sets
of strain measurements. Root mean cubed or Miner’s effective stress-range
values were determined for all strain gages which had been placed directly under
the web on the tension flange, adjacent to the cover plate terminations:
(7.1)
Measurements indicated that the effective stress range varied from 7·6 MPa to 13·6
MPa (1·1 ksi to 1·98 ksi) for the gages close to coverplate ends. Beams located
FIG. 7.6. Cracked girder at cover-plate termination.
FIG. 7.7. Stress-range histograms.
under the outside roadway lanes tended to have larger recorded stress range
values.
Careful examination of individual stress response records for single truck
passages showed that more than one stress cycle event occurred for each truck
crossing. Approximately 1.8 stress cycle events per truck passage resulted,
corresponding to a total of 63 000 000 cycles after 18 years of service.
FIG. 7.8. Crack-size relationships.
7.3.3
Fatigue-Crack Growth Analysis
Studies on welded steel details (Fisher et al., 1974) have shown that the second-
stage fatigue-crack propagation behavior can be adequately described by a third-
order power law of the form.
(7.2)
The presence of initial cracks or defects in or around the weldment is presumed.
Time spent in crack initiation is assumed to be negligible, as all welding
processes give rise to sharp discontinuities in the form of slag inclusions,
porosity, etc. Discontinuities, in the zone of high stress concentration at the weld
toe, act as potential crack sites. Usually, a number of small defects grow along the
weld toe and coalesce into a primary crack front. Empirical relationships for both
the coalescence of cracks and minor-to-major semidiameter axis ratios have been
determined for different details. A set of such relationships is shown in Fig. 7.8.
Calculation of stress-intensity factors for cracks in complex structural joints
can be formulated by application of correction factors to the solution of a through
crack in an infinite plate, subjected to remote tension loading (Albrecht &
Yamada, 1977).
(7.3)
Values for the correction factors can be found in a number of handbooks and
other publications (Paris & Sih, 1965; Broek, 1982; Tada et al., 1987). Cracks
which formed at the cover-plate weld toes were modeled as semielliptical surface
FIG. 7.9. S–N curve for cover-plate details.
cracks in the flange under remote tension. Correction factors and crack size
relationships were taken as
(7.4)
(7.5)
(7.6)
(7.7)
(7.8)
(7.9)
c=5.46 a1·133 (inch) (7.10)

With an initial crack size equal to 0·75 mm (0·03 in) and the effective stress
range as 13 MPa (1·9 ksi), the number of cycles to grow a crack 25 mm (1 in)
deep was estimated as
(7.11)
This is consistent with the larger fatigue cracks which formed between 1958 and
1976.
Figure 7.9 is an S–N curve derived from laboratory data on thick cover-plated
details. A composite stress-range spectrum for the worst stress conditions
monitored in 1971, 1973, and 1976, yielded an effective Miner’s stress range of
13·1 MPa (1·9 ksi). Plotted as an open circle, and assuming 1 stress cycle event/
truck, the data point falls below the lower-bound fatigue resistance. Application
of the observed 1.8 stress cycle events/truck, results in the filled circle plotted in
Fig. 7.9. Larger fatigue cracks observed in the structure are consistent with data
developed on a number of cover-plated beams tested in the laboratory. Many
smaller cracks observed in other beams at lower effective stress range levels are
compatible with tests conducted under variable-amplitude loading. This suggests
that the crack-growth threshold is lowered by stress cycles exceeding the constant-
amplitude fatigue limit and that a proportionally larger number of smaller stress
cycles contribute to damage propagation.
7.3.4
Retrofit Procedures
In 1981, the entire structure was retrofitted by hammer peening the weld toes at
smaller cracks and installing bolted splices at larger cracks. Weld-toe peening
introduces local compressive stresses around the weldment surface, thereby
reducing the applied stress range and prolonging the life of the detail.
7.4
LACK OF FUSION AND DISTORTION— I-93
CENTRAL ARTERY
7.4.1
Structure Description and Inspection Results
The Central Artery carries I-93 traffic through Boston, Massachusetts and
surrounding communities. A viaduct structure, located in the northern area of the
Artery, consists of bilevel rigid steel frame bents which support two girder
floorbeam structures on each level (Demers & Fisher, 1989). Columns of the
rigid bent supports are box sections, while transverse beams are either box or I
sections (Fig. 7.10). Figure 7.11 shows the I-beam-to-column connections which
contain closure plates fillet welded to the edges of the I section and column
flanges. Webs of the I beams are groove-welded to the columns, while beam
flanges (both box and I) and box beam webs are connected via full-penetration
groove welds with back-up bars. Beam flanges of the upper level of the bents are
continuous into the column. The cope openings in the box-beam webs at the
beam-column connection points are covered with small plates which are fillet-
welded to the box beam webs.
For each of the two girder floorbeam superstructures, longitudinal girders form
composite action with the reinforced-concrete decks. Both top and bottom flanges
of the longitudinal girders are coped by flame cutting to permit a bolted, double
FIG. 7.10. Typical bent in viaduct.

angle web connection with transverse beams of the bent. The connection angles
are fitted to both the top and bottom flanges of the transverse beams. Flanges of
the floorbeams are also coped to permit bolting to connection plates which are
fillet-welded to the longitudinal girder webs.
Inspection of the structure revealed several areas which contained fatigue
cracks. In addition, lateral displacement of several longitudinal girder bottom
flanges at transverse beam connections was observed. Fatigue cracks were found
along the longitudinal girder web to flange weld at the flange terminations and
vertical cracks were observed in the girder web at the re-entrant corner of the
bottom copes, as illustrated in Fig. 7.12. Cracking was also observed along the
bolt fixity line of a few end connection angles. These cracks typically extended
along the angle fillet of the girder-transverse bearn end connection. The cracks
shown in Fig. 7.12 were found only at locations where the longitudinal girder
web was bolted full-depth to the connection angles. Other locations, where the
girder web was not bolted full-depth to the connection angles, as shown in
Fig. 7.13, exhibited no evidence of cracking.
Inspection of the rigid frame bent revealed cracks in the fillet welds at several
corner joints where the transverse beam closure plates were joined to the bent
column flange. Grinding into the fillet weld throat in the cracked corner region
of the closure plates exposed the crack which had extended into the groove weld
connecting the top flange of the transverse beam to the column, as shown in
Fig. 7.14. Further grinding exposed the crack which extended from the back-up
bar through the groove weld thickness. Other bents revealed cracks at the web
cope closure plates of the transverse box beams. Grinding of the fillet weld
FIG. 7.11. Typical I-beam-to-column connection.

throat into the beam flange exposed cracks extending from the back-up bar into
the groove weld thickness.
7.4.2
Field Measurements and Probable Causes of Failure
Coping by flame cutting the longitudinal girder webs resulted in high tensile
residual stresses along the cut edge as well as a re-entrant corner. In addition,
coping greatly reduced the section modules for in-plane bending and left an
unstiffened segment of girder web between the flange terminations and the bolt
FIG. 7.12. Fatigue cracks in girder cope.

fixity line of the longitudinal girders. At locations where the longitudinal girders
were not bolted full-depth to the connection angles, the girder web could rotate
in-plane without develop ing significant compression in the lower portion of the
girder. This resulted in no lateral displacement, no out-of-plane web distortion,
and no fatigue cracking in the cope or connection angles. In locations where a
full-depth bolted connection for the longitudinal girder was provided, the bottom
flanges had an initial lateral displacement. As the end of the girder rotated under
traffic loading, connection restraint resulted in additional lateral displacement of
the bottom flange, which caused large cyclic stresses to develop in the cope
region. Hence, fatigue cracks in the web copes of the longitudinal girders, as
well as cracks along the bottom edges of the connection angles were all
distortion induced. A maximum stress range of 90 MPa (12·9 ksi) was measured
for the web cope locations. As such, crack extension would continue unless
sufficient retrofit measures were taken.
Electrical resistance strain gages were installed in four bents during the first set
of field tests. ages were placed on the transverse beam top flanges, and on the
box webs or closure plates in cross sections adjacent to the bent. Significant
differences in stress-range values for corner gages on the same transverse beam
flange were attributed to axial bending caused by longitudinal traction/braking
forces. On one bent, the axi-mum stress range on one corner gage was 93 MPa
(13·3 ksi), while the other corner gage recorded a value of 45 MPa (6·4 ksi). A
majority of the current design guidelines do not account for the effect of
longitudinal forces when evaluating the fatigue resistance of bridge members.
Partial penetration fillet welds at the corner joints of the bent transverse beams
produced a fabricated lack-of-fusion defect perpendicular to the beam primary
FIG. 7.13. Bolted connection of girder to transverse beam with no detectable cracking.
FIG. 7.14. Crack in closure plate weld at rigid frame connection.
stress field. Large initial defects and cracks are low-fatigue-resistance details,
and with maximum measured stress-range values in the variable spectrum
exceeding the crack growth threshold of 31 MPa (4·5 ksi), propagation would be
expected. In addition, at least one corner gage exceeded the threshold for each
FIG. 7.15. Model for lack-of-fusion crack.
cross section measured. This suggests that crack extension would occur in at least
one location for every transverse beam-to-column joint.
7.4.3
Crack-Growth Analysis
Measured stress-range spectra were used in the evaluation of the fatigue
resistance and crack development at the box corner connections of the steel bent.
Effective stress-range spectra were determined using Miner’s rule for several
truncated minimum stress-range values. In addition, the recorded strain data were
used to develop a cycle/hour frequency for each gage so that estimates of past
service life could be made.
The lack-of-fusion defect in the closure plate detail was modeled as a load-
carrying fillet weld, with crack growth from the weld root (Fig. 7.15). A crack
growth rate which follows a third-order power relationship was assumed, and
the applied stress intensity was estimated from (Frank & Fisher 1979)
(7.12)
where A1 and A2 are functions of H/tp, and w is equal to H+tp/2. The resulting
stress range versus cyclic life is plotted in Fig. 7.16, along with an S–N curve
derived from laboratory data on thick cover plates and web attachment. In
addition, effective stress-range values with the corresponding results of the
cumulative service life cycles are plotted for gages adjacent to the corner joints
on the instrumented bents. Observed cracking is consistent with the model.
Several gages plot to the right of both the resistance curves. As the maximum
stress range in the spectrum exceeds the threshold, cracks would be expected to
develop at these and other box corner connections. At other gage locations, the
effective stress range is less, as a number plot around the 14 MPa (2 ksi) level
FIG. 7.16. Predicted curve for the lack-of-fusion crack.
for 2–6 million cycles. Damage accumulation is much slower at these locations,
so fatigue cracking would not be expected for some time.
7.4.4
Retrofit Procedures
Retrofits recommended for fatigue cracking in the longitudinal girders included
the drilling of holes at the end of the cracks to blunt the tips.
Further retrofit was required to prevent the lateral displacement of the bottom
flange and minimize the out-of-plane distortion in the web cope. Othewise,
fatigue-crack reinitiation from the retrofit holes and continued propagation along
the bolt fixity line would result. Several rows of bolts were removed from the
girder connection to reduce the compression in the web and move the flange
towards normal alignment. Angles were bolted to the inside longitudinal girder
web and flange and to the connection angles (Fig. 7.17) to prevent lateral motion
of the bottom flange and reduce the bending stress on the girder web.
Transfer of the live load forces from the beam top flange to the column had to
be ensured for an effective retrofit of the beam-column connections of the bent.
Short sections of wide flange shapes were modified by partial removal of the
web and were bolted to the flange of the transverse beams and webs of the columns
(Fig. 7.18). If fatigue cracks in the groove welds continued to propagate and
eventually led to fracture of the top flange-to-column connection, the live load
forces would be transferred by the bolted splices.
To verify the effectiveness of the retrofit procedures, a second set of
FIG. 7.17. Retrofit angles bolted to both girder and transverse beam.
field tests was made. Stress-range spectra were observed on one corner joint
without the retrofit collar and after the bolted splices were installed. These
measurements demonstrated that the bolted retrofit collars reduced the cyclic
stress at the corner connection by 75%. In addition, they also demonstrated that
the bolted collar was effective in resisting the live load.
7.5
CORROSION—I-95 OVER THE SUSQUEHANNA
RIVER
7.5.1
Structure Description
I-95 crosses the Susquehanna River in Maryland. The structure is a multiple-
span, deck truss bridge whose members are either built-up riveted sections or
rolled structural shapes. Transverse floorbeams and longitudinal stringers make
up the floor system, and both form composite action with the reinforced-concrete
deck. All of the floorbeams are supported by the top chord of the main deck
trusses as shown in Fig. 7.19. Suspended truss spans contain pin and hanger
assemblies. Hangers are riveted box sections (Fig. 7.20).
FIG. 7.18. Retrofit collars for the transverse-beam-to-column connection.

7.5.2
Inspection Results and Field Measurements
Inspection of the structure revealed fatigue cracks emanating from the rivet holes
in several box sections, as shown in Fig. 7.21. In one hanger web, a crack had
reinitiated from a prior retrofit hole which had been placed to arrest crack growth.
Significant amounts of corrosion product were found between the corner angles
of the hanger sections and both web and flange plates. Environmental corrosion
was also found between the gusset and hanger plate connection, as well as on the
gusset at the pin elevation (Fig. 7.22).
Several sets of field measurements were made on the structure between 1985
and 1987. Initial strain measurements were acquired on a single cracked
hanger. Small-tension stress cycles developed in all the strain gages mounted on
the hanger, with typical cyclic stress values of 10·5 MPa (1·5 ksi). In addition to
the tension cycles, both low-level vibration of the hanger and bending of the
hanger web were observed. Large dynamic responses occurred periodically in all
gages mounted on the hanger and were on the order of the yield point
(Fig. 7.23).
FIG. 7.19. Susquehanna River bridge.

A subsequent set of field measurements was made after pins of the originally
damaged hanger were lubricated. For comparison, several other hangers were
instrumented. At locations where pins had been lubricated, both the bending of
the hanger webs and the large dynamic responses were minimized. Cracked
hanger locations with lubricated assemblies experienced a maximum stress range
of 35 MPa (5 ksi). In contrast, unlubricated pin assemblies had hangers which
experienced significant axial and bending stresses. Typical values varied up to 76
MPa (11 ksi).
Final field measurements were conducted after all pin assemblies had been
lubricated. A maximum stress range of 30 MPa (4.3 ksi) was observed for the
original cracked hanger web. A cyclic stress range of 55 MPa (7.9 ksi) was
recorded for a cracked hanger flange plate in a second location where only one
of the two pins was lubricated.
7.5.3
Probable Causes of Failure and Retrofit Procedures
Field inspections and strain measurements demonstrated that the development of
corrosion caused pin fixity which, in turn, led to the introduction of bending in
the hangers. The hanger connections are located directly below open roadway
expansion joints which allow salt, water and debris to fall and collect on the pin
and hangers, thereby assisting and accelerating the corrosion process. The
constant-amplitude fatigue limit for riveted members is approximately 48 MPa (7
ksi). Unlubricated pin assemblies showed stress range values up to 76 MPa (11
FIG. 7.20. Pin and hanger assembly.
ksi) which is consistent with the observed cracks. Lubrication of the pins was
effective in minimizing hanger bending and dynamic effects by reducing pin
fixity and as such, was recommended as a routine maintenance practice.
Measured stress-range values for lubricated assemblies were less than 35 MPa (5
FIG. 7.21. Fatigue crack from rivet hole.
FIG. 7.22. Corrosion at the pin connection.

ksi). This level of stress range would not produce fatigue cracking in a virgin
hanger. However, continued propagation of smaller cracks which might exist
under rivet heads would occur. A longer-term correction would require a
redesign of the pin connection as well as effective control of water and debris by
the elimination of open expansion joints.
FIG. 7.23. Strain-time response for dynamic excursion.
Cracked hanger plates were retrofitted by the drilling of holes to blunt the
crack tips. For a crack to reinitiate, the relationship given in eqn. 7.13 must be
exceeded.
(7.13)
For a 19·1-mm (3/4-in) arrest hole and a 152-mm (6-in) crack, the stress intensity
factor range becomes
(7.14)
With a ligament width of 622 mm (24.5 in) and a root radius of 9.5 mm (0·375
in),
(7.15)
or
Sr>29 ksi (7.16)
This stress-range level was exceeded prior to lubrication of the pins owing to the
observed large dynamic stress excursions. Hence, a crack would have been
expected to form at the prior arrest holes. With the significant reduction in stress
range for lubricated joints, fatigue cracking will not be expected to occur at any
of the arrest holes.
If small cracks exist under the rivet heads, the cracks will propagate at a slower
rate owing to the reduction of applied stress range. For a crack tip near the edge
of a rivet hole, the stress-intensity range is given by
(7.17)
For a hole radius of 11·9 mm (0·47 in) and an existing crack of 10·2 mm (0·4 in),
this becomes
(7.18)
When the stress intensity range becomes larger than the crack-growth threshold,
crack propagation will develop. For a riveted section with tension from dead
load, the crack growth threshold is approximately 4·5 MPa (4 ksi-in). As such, an
applied stress range of 17 MPa (2·4 ksi) or greater will propagate the cracks at a
slow rate.
7.6
CONCLUSIONS
As replacement costs for highway bridges are often prohibitive, it is often
desirable to repair and retrofit existing structures to maximize the benefit from
limited funds. A majority of fatigue-damaged details can be repaired by drilling
holes, weld-toe peening, or bolting splices over the damaged areas to strengthen
the connection. In some instances, welding can be used, although care should be
exercised so that low-fatigue-resistance details do not result. Once corrosion is
identified as a problem, extensive repairs are often reqired.
Examination of the causes of fatigue cracking and corrosion, coupled with
implementation of new design tools, code revisions and effective technology
transfer will help to minimize future structural deficiency problems. Simple,
realistic models and analysis procedures for member interaction and connection
behavior are needed to reduce the occurrence of distortion-induced fatigue
cracking. Identification of low-fatigue-resistant details and effective methods for
detail classification would ease the burden on designers and limit the incidence
of fatigue cracking.
REFERENCES
ALBRECHT, P. & YAMADA, K. (1977) Rapid calculation of stress intensity factors. J.

Structural Div., ASCE., 103(ST2), 377–89.
BROEK, D. (1982). Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics. Martinus Nijhoff,
Boston, Massachusetts.
DEMERS, C. & FISHER, J.W. (1989) A Survey of Localized Cracking in Steel Bridges.
ATLSS Report #89–01, Lehigh University, Bethlehem.
FISHER, J.W. (1977) Bridge Fatigue Guide-Design and Details. American Institute of
Steel Construction, New York.
FISHER, J.W. (1978) Fatigue cracking in bridges from out-of-plane displacements.
Canadian J. Civil Eng., 5(4), 542–6.
FISHER, J.W. (1984) Fatigue and Fracture in Steel Bridges. Wiley Interscience, New
York.
FISHER, J.W. (1986) Failures of bridge components. Metals Handbook, Vol. 11.
American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio.
FISHER, J.W. & MERTZ, D.R. (1985) Hundreds of bridges and thousands of cracks.
Civil Eng., ASCE, 55, 64–7.
FISHER, J.W., FRANK, K.H., HIRT, M.A., & MCNAMEE, B.M. (1970) Effect of
Weldments on the Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Report 102, Washington, D.C.
FISHER, J.W., ALBRECHT, P., YEN, B.T., KLINGERMAN, D.J. & MCNAMEE, B.M.
(1974) Fatigue Strength of Steel Beams with Welded Stiffeners and Attachments.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 147, Washington, D.C.
FISHER, J.W., MERTZ, D.R. & ZHONG, A. (1983) Steel Bridge Members Under
Variable Amplitude Long life Fatigue Loading. National Cooperative Highway
Research Program Report 267, Washington, D.C.
FRANK, K.H. & FISHER, J.W. (1979) Fatigue strength of fillet welded cruciform joints.
J. Structural Div., ASCE, 105(ST9) , 1727–40.
KEATING, P.B. & FISHER, J.W. (1986) Evaluation of Fatigue Tests and Design Criteria
on Welded Details. National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Report 286,
Washington, D.C.
PARIS, P. & SIH, G.C. (1965) Stress Analysis of Cracks. ASTM STP 391. American
Society of Testing Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
SCHILLING, C.G., KLIPPSTEIN, K.H., BARSOM, J.M. & BLAKE, G.T. (1978)
Fatigue of Welded Steel Bridge Members Under Variable Amplitude Loading.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 186.
TADA, H., PARIS, P. & IRWIN, G. (1987) The Stress Analysis of Cracks Handbook. Del
Research Corporation, Paris Productions, St. Louis, Missouri.
Chapter 8
REINFORCED-CONCRETE FRAMES
SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC LOAD
C.MEYER
Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics,
Columbia University, USA
SUMMARY
This chapter summarizes important facts known about the response of
reinforced concrete frames to cyclic loads. Since the most severe of such
loads result from destructive earthquakes, much information on the
behavior characteristics, analysis techniques, and design considerations,
is drawn from the earthquake-engineering literature. The response of
concrete frames to severe cyclic load is accompanied by a gradual process
of strength and stiffness degradation, which can be considered a low-cycle
fatigue phenomenon. Recent advances in the fields of modeling and
analyzing concrete frames for such loading are reviewed.
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Structural design is based typically on the requirement that the structural strength
or resistance S exceed the load effect Q,
S>Q (8.1)
As structures are rarely subjected only to static loads, that is, exclusively to loads
that do not change in time, the condition of eqn (8.1) poses two separate problems.
The first one involves the determination of the load effect, i.e. the demand placed
on a structure’s capacity to resist load needs to be determined, while properly
accounting for the complications caused by the repeated application of load. The
other task consists of determin ing the structure’s capacity or resistance, which is
different for multiple-load applications from that for single, static loads. This is
especially true for a highly non-linear material such as reinforced concrete,
which suffers progressive damage as it is being exposed to a history of repeated
R–C FRAMES SUBJECTED TO CYCLIC LOAD 183
FIG. 8.1. Cyclic load categories. (a) Static load. (b) Load fluctuation. (c) Load swell. (d)
Load reversal.
load applications. This damage manifests itself in a gradually advancing stiffness

and strength degradation, which may reach a point where the structure cannot
any longer resist the imposed load.
When considering realistic loads on structures, it is important to distinguish
whether only moderate stress fluctuations or complete stress reversals are the
result. In the fatigue analysis of structures it is common to introduce a parameter
R defining the ratio of minimum to maximum stress or load amplitude (see
Fig. 8.1):
(8.2)
Common sense and experience tell us that a material subjected to a load history
with R=−1 (complete load reversal) is likely to suffer more damage than one
subjected to a load history with only moderate or no amplitude fluctuations,
everything else being equal.
Most structures which are subjected to gravity-type loads experience load
histories of the type shown in Fig. 8.1(b). The dead weight, say of a highway
bridge, establishes a base load level, and any temporary traffic or live load
constitutes a more or less significant deviation therefrom. Stress reversals are not
very common in this case, except within certain regions of continuous multispan
bridges. If we consider building structures which are subjected to lateral loads,
the situation may be different. There are virtually no steady-state horizontal
184 C.MEYER
loads, so that temporary loads are more likely to involve complete reversals. But
also here we have to distinguish between different cases. Gravity loads produce
stresses both in the girders (shear forces and bending moments) and in the
columns (mostly axial forces). Horizontal loads applied to either side of a
building frame cause bending moments in both the beams and the columns.
Since in the beams these moments are superimposed on the gravity load
moments, it may very well be that no moment reversals will occur (R>0). In the
columns, complete moment reversal is more likely to take place (R=−1) yet,
because of the precompression caused by the gravity load, the actual stresses in
the steel and concrete do not necessarily change signs, unless the lateral loads are
large compared with the gravity loads.
The most important sources of lateral loads on buildings are wind, blast, and
earthquakes. Wind loads are typically characterized by a steady-state pressure,
with superimposed pressure fluctuations due to gusting (Simiu & Scanlan,
1978). The result is not unlike the load history of Fig. 8.1(b), i.e. with load
reversals being unlikely. The important exception is the case of across-wind
oscillations caused by vortex-shedding (see Fig. 8.2). Blast loads consist
typically of a single impulse, which will cause structural vibrations, but the load
itself is not of cyclic nature and therefore is not considered here. Earthquake
ground motions are basically of a cyclic nature and the loads they cause are
among the most destructive known. It is the combination of repeated load
application, potential dynamic amplification, and the duration of a seismic
disturbance, which creates one of the most challenging tasks for the structural
engineer.
Structures are generally designed to respond linear elastically to wind loads. In
earthquake-resistant design, however, entirely elastic response is often neither
feasible nor desirable, because the energy dissipation through inelastic action can
FIG. 8.2. Across-wind oscillations.
be utilized to limit both the seismic loads and important structural response
quantities. Balancing these two design objectives, namely reducing the seismic
loads through inelastic behavior on the one hand and keeping overall
displacements, often expressed in terms of ductility ratios, within acceptable
bounds on the other hand, constitutes one of the main challenges of earthquake-
resistant design. A second important problem is caused by the degradation of
strength and stiffness that concrete experiences under repeated load applications,
especially if complete load reversals and inelastic action are involved. By paying
careful attention to reinforcing details it is possible to turn the essentially brittle
concrete into a rather ductile material. The resulting ‘ductile concrete’ has become
an increasingly popular building material in seismic regions of the world.
It is the objective of this chapter to present a concise overview of what is
known about the response of reinforced concrete frames to cyclic loads. Findings
from experimental investigations will be covered as well as important lessons
learned from post-earthquake investigations. Next, a summary of the current
state of the art in numerical simulation of concrete frame response to cyclic loads
will be given. This analysis task is of extraordinary difficulty and requires
careful calibration of the mathematical models against experimentally obtained
data, but our capabilities of modeling reinforced concrete for such analyses have
now reached the point where they can be utilized in selected situations in lieu of
expensive experimental investigations. The final section will discuss the
implications of this new technology for the design of reinforced-concrete frames
against lateral loads.
186 C.MEYER
8.2
OBSERVED RESPONSE OF R-C FRAMES TO CYCLIC
LOAD
Mother Nature is a stern but very effective teacher. An actual earthquake will
decide with incorruptible impartiality and often deadly accuracy which building
types and construction details are appropriate and which ones are not. Lessons
learned from post-earthquake investigations are invaluable and form the basis of
much of our knowledge. But from a modern engineering standpoint we can do
and should do better than wait for the next earthquake to happen as a full-scale
test of new design concepts. In fact, a considerable number of laboratory
investigations have been performed to systematically study the factors that
determine reinforced-concrete response to cyclic load and to translate the
observations and conclusions into practical guidelines for design. These
investigations range from quasi-static tests of single members to pseudo-dynamic
tests of full-scale buildings.
8.2.1
Quasi-Static Tests of R–C Members
In quasi-static experiments, loads or deformations are applied to the test
specimens relatively slowly, thereby ignoring both the inertia effects and any
influence that the strain rates of actual loadings may have on the material
response. The neglect of inertia effects is acceptable because these can readily be
transformed into equivalent static forces. Ignoring the strain-rate effect is more
problematic, because both concrete and steel have been observed to experience
strength and stiffness increases up to 10% and even 20% under strain rates
common for earthquake-type loads. This fact has to be recalled when data
obtained from quasi-static tests are interpreted and utilized.
Significant test series involving reinforced-concrete members subjected to
cyclic loads have been conducted at numerous institutions, e.g. the University of
California at Berkeley (Bertero et al., 1974; Atalay & Penzien, 1975; Ma et al.,
1976 and Bertero & Popov, 1977), the University of Illinois (Hwang, 1982), and
the University of Michigan (Scribner & Wight, 1978), to name a few. These
investigations have led to a wealth of knowledge. A brief overview of some of the
important points will suffice here.
Figure 8.3 shows the load-deflection curve for a cantilever beam tested at UC
Berkeley under cyclic loading of increasing amplitudes (Ma et al., 1976). The
following observations can be made from this and similar experimental results:
(1) The load-deflection curve is fairly linear up to the yield moment. Thereafter,
the yielding of the steel causes a considerable drop in stiffness.
(2) The stiffness associated with unloading is initially not much different from
the stiffness under initial loading. However, the farther the load excursion
into the inelastic range, the more noticeable is the stiffness decay upon
unloading. Much of this stiffness degradation can be attributed to the
Bauschinger effect and bond deterioration.
(3) The stiffness associated with reloading is even more affected by the extent
of previous non-linear load excursions than that for unloading.
(4) For small numbers of load cycles with constant amplitude, the beam
behavior is remarkably stable. In the example of Fig. 8.3, no strength decay
is noticeable prior to the final load amplitude of over 2 in (5 cm); that is
until then approximately the same load is required in successive cycles to
produce the same deflection.
(5) If more load cycles were applied for each load amplitude, strength
degradation would be more noticeable; this is a low-cycle fatigue
phenomenon and results from the gradual accumulation of damage (concrete
cracking and bond slip) until failure.
(6) Failure is generally due to buckling of the flexural reinforcing bars, after
they have undergone considerable plastic deformations. Such buckling
failures can be delayed by reducing the spacing of the lateral reinforcement.
(7) A considerable increase of a beam’s energy dissipation capacity is possible
if equal amounts of steel are provided for the positive and negative
reinforcement in the critical regions, as compared to members with less
reinforcement in the bottom layer of the beam.
(8) In spite of special precautions, large deformations due to bond deterioration
(bar pull-out) were observed in most experiments after several load
reversals.
The hysteresis loops of Fig. 8.3 are rather stable and convex, because the beam
behavior was controlled largely by flexure. The contrast with the load-deflection
curve of Fig. 8.4 is striking, because in this example the influence of shear was
much more significant. This can be explained as follows. Under combined
bending and shear, diagonal cracking develops, at an angle of approximately 45°
with the beam axis. Upon load reversal, a second set of diagonal cracks forms,
roughly orthogonal to the first one. After unloading, a crack is only partially
closed, and relatively little load is needed to close it completely. The associated
part of the load-deflection curve has very small slope (stiffness). After crack
closing, the stiffness increases considerably, until renewed yielding of the steel
again causes a stiffness decrease. As a result, the energy dissipation capacity of
flexural members is greatly reduced in the presence of high shear forces. This
can be restored only partially by providing closely spaced lateral reinforcement,
because vertical flexural cracks may eventually extend over the entire cross
section, especially after extensive yielding of both top and bottom reinforcement,
at which point the only significant source of shear resistance is dowel action.
Diagonal shear reinforcement was found to overcome this problem and to permit
large plastic hinge rotations. In fact, the ductilities achieved with such
188 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.3. Load-deflection diagram for cantilever beam with low shear (Ma et al., 1976).
FIG. 8.4. Load-deflection diagram for cantilever beam with high shear (Ma et al., 1976).
special web reinforcement, as shown in Fig. 8.5, were comparable with those of
compact steel beams (Bertero et al., 1974).
The presence of an axial force in addition to shear and bending, affects the
member behavior in several ways, as shown in Fig. 8.6 (Atalay & Penzien,
1975). First, it impacts on the member’s moment capacity, as is best illustrated in
conventional interaction diagrams. Next, the axial force causes an additional

bending moment (P−σ effect), which, under increasing displacement amplitudes,
leads to instability. In columns, the axial force varies as a function of time, owing
to the overturning moment associated with lateral load. The result is a moment-
rotation curve such as the one shown in Fig. 8.7 (Abrams, 1987). Whereas
previously opened cracks are slower to close when the axial force decreases (or
even turns tensile), an increase in axial compression causes the cracks to close
sooner, thus leading to a noticeable stiffness increase. Such an asymmetric
response may lead to a large accumulation of plastic strain in the reinforcement,
accompanied by large crack widths and a reduction of shear strength. Similar
effects can be observed in beams with large differences between negative and
positive reinforcement, which can reduce the member’s energy absorption
capacity.
A significant effect of axial force application is the increase in concrete strain,
which translates into a decrease of residual strain capacity available for further
loading. This reduction in ductility, together with the P–σ effect, is the main
rationale for the ‘strong column-weak beam’ design criterion, which seeks to avoid
inelastic column behavior during seismic disturbances in the first place, and
assign the task of energy dissipation to inelastic deformation of the beams only.
All of the above observations were made regardless of the confinement of the
concrete that may be provided by lateral reinforcement such as continuous
spirals or closely spaced stirrups. Such confinement reinforcement affects the
behavior of reinforced-concrete members in three ways.
(1) It causes an increase in the concrete’s strength. The restraint of lateral strains
creates a three-dimensional state of compression, under which the strength
of concrete is known to increase considerably.
(2) It increases the concrete’s deformability. The strain at peak stress increases
moderately, but the strain-softening branch of the stress-strain curve has a
much smaller negative slope than that for an unconfined concrete specimen.
As a result, the energy dissipated by the specimen, as measured by the area
under the stress-strain curve, even in a monotonic load test, is increased
enormously. The reason for this behavior is the delay of large-scale cracking
following the peak stress.
(3) Under cyclic loading, confinement plays a similar role to that it plays for
monotonic loading. It delays the strength and stiffness degradation
mentioned earlier, thereby giving the material a ductility which the normally
brittle concrete does not have. Hysteresis loops for well-confined concrete
members are much more stable, and as a result, the energy dissipation
capacity of such members is increased by large amounts.
In Fig. 8.8 the hysteresis loops of two column specimens are juxtaposed (Ozcebe
& Saatcioglu, 1987), one with a confinement steel ratio of 1.69%, and one with 2.
54%. The effect of the confinement steel is dramatic.
190 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.5. Load-deflection diagram for beam with special web reinforcement (Bertero et al.,
1974).
8.2.2
Frame Subassemblies
The question of whether conclusions derived from individual member tests can be
used directly to predict the response of entire buildings prompted the
investigation of so-called frame subassemblies (see Fig. 8.9). The most
FIG. 8.6. Load–deformation diagram for column (Atalay & Penzien, 1975).
significant feature of such tests, not present when working with single members,
is the beam–column joint, which is known to influence greatly the overall response
of R–C frame buildings.
The single most critical factor was found to be bond deterioration within the
joint panel zone. It generally does not require many load cycles, with beam
reinforcement yielding in tension at one face of the column and in compression at
the other column face, to pull through. Such bond deterioration, coupled with
high shear stresses, causes an early strength and stiffness degradation of beam–
column joints, visible in severely pinched hysteresis loops, which means greatly
reduced energy dissipation capacity.
8.2.3
Other Tests
A very instructive testing method was made possible with the introduction of
shaking tables. In the United States, the earthquake research laboratories at the
Universities of Berkeley–California, Urbana–Illinois, and Buffalo–New York
have provided valuable insight into the response of structures to ground motion.
Weight restrictions limit the scope of such studies to scale models. For example,
at the University of Illinois a series of 10-story building frames (approximately
one-tenth scale) have been tested on the shaking table (Healey & Sozen, 1978),
and at UC Berkeley a two-story building model of approximately half scale was
studied (Clough & Gidwani, 1976). The importance of these investigations
derives from the fact that they permit detailed monitoring of structural response
to earthquake-type loads under closely controlled conditions and thus can serve
192 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.7. Moment-rotation relation for column axial force–deflection variation

(Abrams, 1987).
as benchmark cases for the verification of numerical models and analysis
procedures as well as novel design concepts.
The most comprehensive single investigation was sponsored by the United
States and Japan as a joint research effort and involved a series of quasi-static
component tests, scale-model tests, shaking table tests, and a pseudo-dynamic
test of a full-scale seven-story reinforced concrete building in Tsukuba (Wight,
1985). This well-coordinated research effort resulted in a better understanding of
concrete behavior under cyclic load and raised the confidence level for
mathematical models to simulate such behavior, both for scale and full-scale
buildings.
8.2.4
Post-Earthquake Observations
Each earthquake which subjects concrete structures to severe ground shaking has
the potential to expand our knowledge of their response to such loads (Moehle &
Mahin, 1991). Whereas public attention generally focuses on those structures
which suffer severe damage or even collapse, the fact is that most structures
behave rather well. For example, after the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, much
has been written and said about the more than 200 multistory buildings that
FIG. 8.8. Effect of confinement reinforcement on column degradation (Ozcebe and

Saatcioglu, 1987). (a) 1.69% confinement steel ratio. (b) 2.54% confinement steel ratio.
collapsed, yet hundreds of thousands of buildings were subjected to the
earthquake, and most of them responded very satisfactorily. Each earthquake
teaches us lessons on mistakes made in the past and to be avoided in the future.
One of the most significant examples was the San Fernando Earthquake of 1971,
because it was the first full-scale test of a densely populated area with many
modern reinforced-concrete buildings engineered to resist seismic loads. The
Olive View Hospital, for example, barely completed, fared so poorly during that
earthquake that it had to be torn down. Much of what is now known about proper
reinforced-concrete design was learned as a result of the investigations prompted
by that earthquake. The Loma Prieta Earthquake of 1989 promises to be
comparably consequential. At the time of this writing the in-depth investigations
194 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.9. Frame subassemblies (Bertero & Popov, 1977).
of the effects of this earthquake have barely begun, but a wealth of information is
expected to result from these.
Among the fundamental rules for aseismic construction are the requirements
that the structural system have a simple, regular, and compact layout and offer
redundant load paths in case of local distress. Discontinuities tend to increase
loads or deformations often with severe concentrations of stress or strain at the
discontinuities. For example, discontinuities of vertical structural elements have
frequently led to failure. A common type of this discontinuity is a shear wall that
extends over the entire height of a building except for the first story. As a result,
damage is likely to concentrate in this first story. Similarly, irregularities of any
kind can cause problems, which can be solved with proper detailing, but which it
is wiser to avoid. Examples are setbacks, changes in story height and heavy
concentrated masses, for example on mechanical floors. Also the role of non-
structural components is important, especially if they do in fact influence the
structural response. For example, flexible frames with masonry infill, if properly
designed and detailed, can improve the building response by contributing to both
stiffness and strength, but if improperly designed they may fail prematurely or
otherwise impair the structural efficiency. A common problem is associated with
infill walls rising only up to the window sills and thus effectively reducing the
column heights. Such short columns may not be able to develop their flexural
strengths before failing in shear.
A most essential ingredient of the continuity requirement is that both
structural and non-structural elements be properly tied together so as to permit a
continuous load path from the position of large masses such as floor slabs to the
vertical load-resisting elements and from there to the foundations. Numerous
instances of failure or heavy damage have been observed, in which cladding

elements or unreinforced brick walls were torn loose, thereby endangering
building occupants or pedestrians on sidewalks. Part of this requirement is that
adequate diaphragm action can develop both in the roof and the floor slabs, to
ensure that all inertia loads are safely carried into the walls and columns.
The value of non-structural components and building contents typically
exceeds that of the structure proper, and their damage can constitute a
considerable economic loss. To limit the potential of damage, lateral drift
deformations have to be limited by providing sufficient stiffness. Excessive drift
deformations not only cause large damage to building contents and endanger
occupants, but also endanger non-ductile structural elements as well. Finally,
drift control is important in preserving the vertical stability of a frame. The P–σ
effect can give rise to instability, particularly for tall and slender buildings.
8.3
FRAME ANALYSIS
8.3.1
General
The purpose of structural analysis is to predict, in a rational way, the response of
a given structure to specified loads. The analysis problem considered here is
made particularly difficult by two factors: (1) the loading (due to earthquake
ground shaking) is of a highly random, unpredictable nature; (2) the load–
deformation relationships of the struc ture and its components are strongly non-
linear. For practical purposes, a determination has to be made as to what degree
of accuracy of the calculations is warranted. For most applications, the
uncertainty of seismic ground motions alone precludes detailed and potentially
costly analyses. This is true for preliminary designs and most routine designs of
conventional buildings. But in the case of tall buildings and other important
structures, it may be preferable to predict analytically the margin of safety
against serious damage or collapse. When ground acceleration histories are
available, which are representative of the seismicity of the building site, it is
appropriate to employ accurate models and analysis techniques which
realistically simulate the stiffness and strength degradation of concrete members
during strong inelastic load cycles. Otherwise, the response predictions,
especially if based on over-simplified models and analysis methods, cannot
constitute much more than educated guesses. Much has been written to justify
the use of such simplified analysis methods, with the principal argument that
buildings designed on such a basis have behaved rather satisfactorily in
earthquakes. The fact is that buildings behave well only if they have been
properly designed, well detailed, and well constructed. If these three conditions
are met, then the sophistication of the analysis method employed is indeed of
196 C.MEYER
secondary importance. But it is the essence of the engineering approach that

structural response be predicted beforehand as accurately as possible so that any
subsequent design decisions can be based on a rational foundation. It is true,
though, that in practical design situations the use of advanced analysis
techniques is generally limited to special or important structures or for evaluation
of a completed or existing design.
8.3.2
Time History Analysis
If a sufficiently accurate mathematical model of a reinforced-concrete building is
available and the building response is linear, then the computation of this
response to load is a relatively routine process and involves the application of well-
established computer programs. The methods employed by these programs are
described in texts on structural dynamics (e.g Newmark & Rosenblueth, 1971;
Clough & Penzien, 1975; Bathe, 1982).
Time history analyses require that the loading, i.e. the earthquake ground
motion, be represented by deterministic acceleration histories such as may have
been recorded during actual earthquakes, or generated synthetically using random
vibration techniques (Shinozuka & Tan, 1983). Equations of motion are
established for as many degrees of freedom as are needed to describe the
stiffness and mass characteristics of the building. These are of the well-known
form,
(8.3)
where M, C, K are, respectively, the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices of
the structure; x, are, respectively, the displacement, velocity, and acceleration
histories of the structure’s degrees of freedom; I is the identity matrix and is the
ground acceleration history. The equations 8.3 assume that the ground motion
has only translational and no rotational components. They represent a set of n
coupled ordinary differential equations, where n is the number of degrees of
freedom of the structure. To solve these equations, one may employ a direct
integration scheme, in which all n equations are integrated simultaneously in the
time domain. If the structural response is linear (i.e. K remains constant), it is
also possible to first solve the associated eigenvalue problem and then use the
modal matrix to transform eqns (8.3) to so-called natural coordinates (Clough &
Penzien, 1975). It is these new equations then that are integrated in the time
domain. This method has the advantage that the transformation results in
diagonal coefficient matrices, i.e. it uncouples the differential equations so that
they can be integrated independently of each other. Moreover, it is known that
the structural response is controlled only by a relatively small number of
significant modes, i.e. only m of the n equations need to be solved, where The
drawback of this method is that the m eigenvalues and their corresponding mode
shapes need to be determined first in an eigenvalue analysis. But the
determination of these eigenvalues, i.e. the structure’s natural frequencies, is

often desirable anyway. Again, this method is applicable only if the structure
remains linear-elastic.
If the structure response is non-linear, as is generally the case for reinforced-
concrete frames responding to strong cyclic load, then the constant structure
stiffness K in eqns (8.3) has to be replaced by the tangent stiffness Kt, which in
general will change at each time step of integration. In this case, it is appropriate
to rewrite eqns (8.3) in incremental form to reflect the requirement that the
incremental dynamic forces acting on a structure during some small time step ′ t
be in equilibrium,
(8.4)
For earthquake-type loading functions, it is common to integrate these equations
by some implicit numerical algorithm, such as the Newmark method. These
consist of approximations for incremental accelerations and velocities with
which eqns (8.4) are transformed into a set of quasistatic equilibrium equations:
K* Δx=∆F* (8.5)
Equations (8.5) can be solved for the displacement increments ∆x But this task
involves factorization of the effective stiffness matrix K*, which is a
computationally expensive task, especially if K* continually changes. This
happens whenever Kt changes, as in the case of inelastic behavior, or when ′ t is
varied. The piecewise linearization of response histories causes unbalanced
forces at the end of each time step which can be resolved by using numerical
analysis techniques that are beyond the scope of this chapter (Bathe, 1982).
Implicit algorithms such as the Newmark method are often unconditionally
stable, i.e. the solution remains stable irrespective of the choice for the
integration time step ′ t. By selecting a value for ′ t which is much larger than
the natural periods of most of the structure’s modes of vibration, the numerical
integration scheme effectively damps out the contributions of all such modes. Only
the significant modes with periods well above ′ t continue to contribute to the
computed structural response.
8.3.3
Modeling of Building Components for Cyclic Load
Analysis
The computation of the dynamic response of a reinforced-concrete building to
cyclic loading such as an earthquake can only be as accurate as the model used to
represent the structure. Although it is possible to model for each member the
concrete, the steel and the bond interface between the two in great detail (ASCE,
1982; Meyer & Okamura, 1986), the enormous effort required for realistic
applications precludes this approach for most practical applications. The
alternative is the use of so-called semi-empirical ‘macro-elements’, for which the
198 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.10. Hysteresis rules (Chung et al., 1989).
stiffness matrix of a single frame member is calculated on the basis of certain

hysteresis rules, which have been calibrated against experimental test results.
In most of these member-size models, all inelastic action is assumed to take
place within concentrated plastic hinges at the member ends, while the member
proper is assumed to remain linear elastic (Clough et al, 1965; Otani & Sozen,
1972). In more recent models (Roufaiel & Meyer, 1987; Chung et al, 1989), the
finite sizes of the plastic regions are accounted for explicitly. The moment-
curvature relationship of an R–C section is simulated using a set of rules first
proposed by Takeda et al. (1970). It may be represented by linear branches of the
five different types identified in Fig. 8.10; (1) one for elastic loading and
unloading, valid as long as the moment does not exceed the section’s yield
capacity; (2) one for inelastic loading, used when the moment exceeds the yield
moment and is still increasing; (3) one for inelastic unloading, for moments
decreasing after the yield moment has been exceeded; (4) one for inelastic
reloading during closing of previously opened cracks; and (5) one for inelastic
reloading after closing of previously opened cracks. The transition from branch 4
to 5 is determined by a ‘crack-closing’ moment, which is a function of the
member’s shear span-to-depth ratio. The inclusion of this detail in the model
makes it possible to reproduce the pronounced pinching of the hysteresis loops
that can be observed in the presence of high shear forces. A member’s stiffness
degradation progresses as a function of the degree to which the yield point has
been exceeded. Both loading and unloading stiffnesses are affected.
FIG. 8.11. Frame member model.
Once the moment–curvature relationship has been derived from the stress–
strain curves for steel and concrete at any member section and for any possible
loading branch, it is relatively straightforward to compute the member
deformations (flexibility coefficients) by integrating the curvatures over the
member length, thereby explicitly accounting for the finite sizes of the plastic
regions shown in Fig. 8.11 (Roufaiel & Meyer, 1987). The tangent member
stiffness is then determined by using standard methods of structural analysis.
In addition to stiffness degradation, R-C members experience strength
deterioration under cyclic loading beyond the yield level. Atalay & Penzien
(1975) had noticed some correlation between commencement of strength
deterioration and the spalling of the concrete cover. But Hwang’s experiments
(Hwang, 1982) showed that strength deterioration can start at considerably lower
load levels. Even for loads only slightly above the yield level, damage and strength
deterioration can be observed, provided a sufficiently large number of load
cycles is applied. It is suggested therefore that strength starts to deteriorate as
soon as the yield load level is exceeded, and this deterioration accelerates as the
critical load level is approached. This phenomenon can be reproduced with a
strength drop index Sd, illustrated in Fig. 8.12 (Chung et al., 1989):
(8.6)
where ′ M is the moment capacity reduction in a single load cycle up to

curvature ′ Mf is the fictitious moment capacity reduction in a single load cycle
up to failure curvature is the yield curvature, and is a parameter which depends
on material properties and reinforcing details.
When modeling reinforced-concrete columns, it is important to include the
effect the axial force has on the strength and deformation capacity. Since the
200 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.12. Strength drop index.
yield moment is a function of the time-dependent axial force, an accurate model

should recompute the yield moment and monotonic load–deformation curve at
each time step (Keshavarzian & Schnobrich, 1984), which is a computationally
expensive undertaking. For practical purposes, it is often acceptable to base the
yield moment capacity on the axial force caused by gravity loads alone.
The application of such models to structural walls has to be done with great
care. Because the cross section of a shear wall tends to be narrow, it may be in
danger of buckling, either globally or between stories. This danger is increased
after extensive yielding of the reinforcement, when only the bars temporarily
resist the reversed load. Since it is impractical to confine the concrete over the
entire section depth, confinement is usually limited to the boundary members. In
any concrete member, the neutral axis changes its position in the cross section as
the member cracks and crushes. In a slender column or girder, this effect tends to
be small, but not in a wide shear wall. During cyclic loading, the neutral axis
tends to be close to the compression face, so that the wall tilts first about one edge,
then the other, accompanied by significant vertical movements at the wall
centerline. The large moment capacity of a wall, often further increased by
flanges or wing walls, increases the potential for shear failure. When shear
stresses are relatively low, flexural cracks near the base tend to be horizontal,
which reduces the wall’s shear capacity, as only little effective truss action can
develop and a sliding shear failure becomes a possibility. Under high nominal
shear stresses, characteristic diagonal cracks control the wall behavior, so that an
efficient shear-resisting truss can develop, whose capacity is controlled mostly
by the web’s compression capacity (Oesterle et al., 1976, 1979). All of these
factors, among others, complicate the behavior of walls under cyclic load and
make the mathematical modeling task extraordinarily difficult (Meyer, 1984).
When assembling individual component models to produce a model of a
complete building and to analyze how the structural members interact to resist
load, a number of additional factors need to be considered.
Beam-column joints in reinforced-concrete frames are not rigid. In particular,

bond slip is an important cause of joint deformation. A standard procedure is to
assume rigid connections between girders and columns, and to account for joint
deformations in the girder and/or column elements. It is common to assume that
floors are rigid in-plane. This assumption may not always be reasonable, and
some computer programs consider the in-plane floor deformations (Meyer,
1991). Analyses of three-dimensional response are complex and expensive, so
that two-dimensional models are normally used. Such models may, however,
neglect some important interactions among the different frames of a building.
Most concrete buildings are quite stiff, and the P–σ effect tends to be small
unless the lateral loads are very large or damage is growing severely. The
boundary conditions associated with the foundations influence the frame
response. More important, however, is the dynamic soil-structure interaction.
At present most seismic analyses of detailed reinforced-concrete building
models have been carried out for research purposes, and there have been
relatively few applications in practical design. Hence, experience is limited, and
there is a great deal of uncertainty about ‘correct’ pro cedures, both for creating
mathematical models and for interpreting analysis results. ‘Guidelines’ therefore
cannot be given beyond general discussions. It is up to the engineer to make the
various decisions when modeling the structure and interpreting the analysis
results for design purposes.
8.3.4
Modeling of Damage
The response of concrete buildings to cyclic loads is inextricably tied to the
concept of damage. Each load cycle is likely to increase the amount of concrete
cracking, if not yielding of flexural reinforcement or even crushing of concrete in
compression. Most damage indices proposed in the literature (Reitherman, 1985;
Chung et al., 1987) are of an empirical nature and are tied to more or less
subjective post-earthquake inspections for assessing damage. Because of the
important influence damage has on the safety and reliability of a building in
regard to some future load, it is highly desirable to quantify damage in a rational
way such that it can be incorporated into the mathematical model of the building.
Damage of a reinforced concrete member will therefore signify a specific degree
of physical deterioration with clearly defined consequences regarding the
member’s capacity to resist further load. Similarly, ‘failure’ of the member
signifies a specific level of damage, associated with a negligible residual
capacity to resist further load (Chung et al., 1989). A damage index can then be
defined as the damage value normalized with respect to the failure level, so that a
value of 1 corresponds to failure.
Consider, for example, a simple cube of plain concrete subjected to repeated
application of load up to a given strain level (Fig. 8.13) (Bang & Meyer, 1989).
It is advantageous to define damage at time t as
202 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.13. Strength degradation of plain concrete under cyclic loading (Bang & Meyer,
1989).
(8.7)
where E(t) is the energy dissipated by time t, and σ the total energy dissipation
capacity of the material. The determination of σ requires the definition of failure.
To eliminate arbitrariness as far as possible, failure may be defined to take place
when all strength reserves for further loading have been exhausted. This will be
the case when the stress-strain curve for plain concrete or the moment-curvature
curve for a reinforced concrete member reaches a horizontal slope. The total
energy dissipation capacity σ depends not only on the strain level but also on the
details of the load history if variable-amplitude loading is applied. In the case
of reinforced concrete, the confinement steel and reinforcing details have a major
effect on σ .
As damage accumulates (or the energy dissipation capacity is exhausted),
strength deteriorates. This process can be simulated by incorporating the damage
parameter into the hysteresis law for the member through the strength drop index
Sd of eqn (8.6). Figure 8.14 illustrates the typical agreement between an
experimental load-deflection curve and the analytically generated counterpart
(Chung et al., 1987).
For variable-amplitude loading, damage does not accumulate linearly as the
widely used Palmgren-Miner hypothesis suggests,
(8.8)
Here, ni is the number of actually applied cycles of load with amplitude i, while
Ni is the number of cycles with load amplitude i that leads to failure. It has been
FIG. 8.14. Numerical simulation of degrading R-C beam. (a) Experiment. (b) Analysis.
(Chung et al., 1987).
shown that eqn (8.8) does not correctly represent damage accumulation in metal
structures either (ASCE, 1982), and a power law representation has been
suggested (Kutt & Bieniek, 1988). Our own preliminary investigation indicates
that damage in plain concrete accumulates faster in the earlier load cycles,
(Fig. 8.15) (Bang & Meyer, 1989), and may likewise be represented for loading
with constant amplitude i by a power law;
(8.9)
where σ i is a material parameter which depends on the load amplitude, i.e. the
strain level σ i. For variable-amplitude loading, it is useful to convert the number
of cycles ni with some strain level σ i to an equivalent
204 C.MEYER
FIG. 8.15. Damage accumulation in plain concrete (Bang & Meyer, 1989).
number of cycles with a different strain level σ j, on the premise that ni and cause
the same amount of damage, i.e.
(8.10)
from which
(8.11)
By generalizing eqn (8.11) it is possible to trace the accumulation of damage of

the material up to failure.
The incorporation of a damage model into a general frame analysis program
gives the design engineer a tool for design options that would be difficult to
pursue otherwise. Chung et al. have incorporated their damage model into
SARCF (Chung et al., 1988a), a program for the seismic analysis of reinforced-
concrete frames, which in conjunction with a set of built-in design rules permits
the execution of an automatic damage-controlled design option (Chung et al.,
1988b, 1990). In order to keep damage in the building to a minimum, the
program attempts to achieve a uniform level of damage (or energy dissipation)
throughout the frame. The program user specifies acceptable values for the mean
and standard or maximum deviation from the mean damage, and the program
will automatically perform iterations towards those target design values.
8.4
DESIGN FOR LATERAL LOADS
It is the ultimate objective of all structural design to devise structures that fulfill
their intended purposes with a minimum risk of failure, given all statistical
uncertainties of loads and resistances, and economic constraints. A
comprehensive review of current lateral load design approaches is beyond the
scope of this chapter and is addressed elsewhere (Park & Paulay, 1975;
Wakabayashi, 1986). Here, only a brief overview of current thinking on the
subject will suffice.
The loads associated with major earthquakes are so severe that it is seldom
feasible to provide structures with sufficient strength to remain elastic. In fact, it
is all but universally accepted practice to permit local inelastic actions to take
place. Even though the resulting inelastic deformations may be larger than the
corresponding elastic deformations would be, the design can be safe provided
that the inelastic (plastic) regions are detailed properly to preclude failure under
cyclic loading and that instability does not become an issue.
In principle, there are several design approaches (ACI-ASCE, 1988). The
standard choice for most structures subjected to static loads is strength design.
Governed by codes such as the ACI Code (ACI, 1989), member strengths are
assigned on the basis of forces and moments determined in a linear elastic analysis.
Any deviations between real and assumed forces are easily accomodated through
inelastic moment redistribution, provided sufficient ductility is available. In
capacity design (Park, 1986), a special hierarchy of member strengths is devised
that assures that plastic hinges form in a prespecified sequence. The simplest and
most common example is the strong column-weak beam concept, which assures
that hinges form only in the beams and not in the columns. Earthquake-resistant
design deals with imposed deformations rather than loads. Thus the internal
forces and moments are controlled by the member strength capacities. At the
same time, sufficient ductility capacities have to be ensured, and care has to be
taken that the lateral drift associated with large inelastic deformations does not
become excessive, lest instability ensues.
There are basically three different approaches to dissipating the large amounts
of energy that a damaging earthquake imparts on a reinforced-concrete building.
In the first approach, a number of structural members are deliberately selected to
act as ‘fuses’, i.e. weak spots assigned to develop plastic hinges and to dissipate
energy under tightly controlled conditions. The designer has to detail the selected
structural elements very carefully to ensure that the energy dissipation demand
can indeed be met without premature failure. Examples of this design philosophy
are Park and Paulay’s solution for coupled shear wall buildings (Park & Paulay,
1975) and Popov’s eccentrically braced steel frames. In a second approach, all or
most structural elements are called upon to share equally in the task of energy
dissipation, with the result that damage is uniformly distributed over the entire
frame and therefore can be kept down to a minimum average value. This line of
206 C.MEYER
thinking has been widespread among practitioners and is the basis for the
damage-controlled automatic design procedure mentioned earlier. This design
concept is easily combined with the strong column-weak beam principle, so that
only beams are permitted to develop plastic hinges; but all of them are expected
to dissipate similar amounts of energy. A third design approach attempts to avoid
altogether the energy dissipation issue within the structure proper by relying on
base isolation, frictional dampers, and active or passive control mechanisms.
Current design practice recognizes three different levels of design
earthquakes. A building should resist minor but frequent earthquakes without any
damage. It should be sufficiently stiff so that deformations remain small and
damage to non-structural components is insignificant. For moderately strong
earthquakes of less frequency, some non-structural damage is acceptable, but the
structure itself should not be damaged. This implies that for such load levels, the
structure’s response remains essentially elastic. For strong earthquakes with very
low probability of occurrence, both structural and non-structural damage is
acceptable. It is desirable that such damage be repairable, but life safety remains
the overriding design principle, i.e. under no circumstances should the structure
lose its integrity or suffer collapse. To achieve this goal, it is permissible to
activate the entire energy-dissipation capacity of the building short of reaching
failure.
An important key to design success or failure is the attention paid to design
details, especially for beam–column joint regions and all other regions in which
inelastic action is expected. Beam–column joints are subject to high shear forces,
axial forces, bending moments and bond stresses and are particularly susceptible
to failure under cyclic load. Design guidelines are given in the report of ACI
Committee 352 (ACIA- SCE, 1985) and can be summarized as follows.
(1) The compression forces from the columns require adequate lateral
confinement of the concrete. This can be achieved by lateral reinforcement
or transverse members framing into the joint, or both. Bar offsets should be
avoided in joint regions.
(2) When detailing the joint for shear, the degradation of the concrete shear
capacity under cyclic load should be recognized, which increases the share of
the load to be carried by shear reinforcement.
(3) Since it is preferable to have plastic hinges form in the beams rather than in
the columns, the columns should have flexural strengths 1.4 times those of
the beams framing into the same joints if these joints are part of the primary
system that resists seismic lateral load.
(4) The bending moments acting on a joint zone are such that any bar, vertical
or horizontal, is simultaneously pushed and pulled on opposite sides. Thus,
especially high demands are placed on the bar’s capacity to transfer bond
stresses within the limited joint size. This demand calls for large joint
dimensions relative to the selected bar sizes.
Concrete will invariably deteriorate under strong load reversals. But if it is

sufficiently confined, the degradation process can be slowed appreciably, thereby
increasing the structure’s reliability. It is the inherent toughness of ductile concrete
that assures the life safety of reinforced-concrete buildings.
8.5
CONCLUSIONS
The response of reinforced-concrete frames to cyclic load is characterized by
gradual accumulation of damage in the concrete. Whereas in metals the length of
a single crack serves as a useful damage indicator, in concrete there is a complex
system of microcracks, which passes through various phases until one or more
predominant cracks develop, which eventually cause failure. Failure of metal
structures is typically a sudden phenomenon, once a crack becomes unstable. In
reinforced concrete, the failure is more gradual, provided sufficient confinement
reinforcement is present. It is also possible that the flexural reinforcement itself
suffers low-cycle fatigue failure. This failure mode, observed occasionally
in laboratory experiments, is difficult to predict numerically because of the lack
of experimental data. Because of this failure mode, the random and unpredictable
nature of earthquake motions, and uncertainty concerning the properties of the
materials subjected to strong cyclic loads, the survival of a structure cannot be
fully assured. But the present state of the art of reinforced-concrete design has
advanced to the point where such survival can reasonably be expected if proper
design, detailing, and construction practices are followed.
REFERENCES
ABRAMS, D.P. (1987) Influence of axial force variations of flexural behavior of

reinforced concrete columns. ACI Structural J., 84(3), 246–54.
ACI COMMITTEE 318 (1989) Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete.
ACI Standard 318–89.
ACI-ASCE COMMITTEE 352 (1985) Recommendations for Design of Beam-Column
Joints in Monolithic Reinforced Concrete Structures. ACI Report 352R-85.
ACI-ASCE COMMITTEE 442 (1988) Response of Concrete Buildings to Lateral Forces.
ACI Report 442R-88.
ASCE TASK COMMITTEE ON FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES, A.H. NILSON, CHMN. (1982) Finite Element
Analysis of Reinforced Concrete. ASCE, Special Publication.
ASCE COMMITTEE on Fatigue and Fracture Reliability (1982) Fatigue Reliability. J.
Structural Div. ASCE, 108(ST).
ATALAY, M.B. & PENZIEN, J. (1975) The Seismic Behavior of Critical Regions of
Reinforced Concrete Components as Influenced by Moment, Shear and Axial Force.
Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Report No. EERC 75–19, University of
California, Berkeley.
208 C.MEYER
BANG, M.S. & MEYER, C. (1989) Damage of Plain Concrete as a Low-Cycle Fatigue
Phenomenon. Dept. of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia
University, New York.
BATHE, K.J. (1982) Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis. Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
BERTERO, V.V. & POPOV, E.P. (1977) Seismic behavior of ductile moment-resisting
reinforced concrete frames. In Reinforced Concrete Structures in Seismic Zones. ACI
Special Publication SP-53.
BERTERO, V.V., POPOV, E.P. & WANG, T.Y. (1974) Hysteretic Behavior of
Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members with Special Web Reinforcement.
CHUNG, Y.S., MEYER, C. & SHINOZUKA, M. (1987) Seismic Damage Assessment of
Reinforced Concrete Members. Technical Report NCEER-87–22, National Center for
Earthquake Engineering Research, State University of New York at Buffalo.
CHUNG, Y.S., MEYER, C. & SHINOZUKA, M. (1988a) Automated Seismic Design of
Reinforced Concrete Buildings. Technical Report NCEER-88–24, National Center
for Earthquake Engineering Research, State University of New York at Buffalo.
CHUNG, Y.S., MEYER, C. & SHINOZUKA, M. (1988b) SARCF—Seismic Analysis of
Reinforced Concrete Frames. Technical Report NCEER-88–44, National Center for
Earthquake Engineering Research, State University of New York at Buffalo.
CHUNG, Y.S., MEYER, C. & SHINOZUKA, M. (1989) Modeling of concrete damage.
ACI Structural J. 86(3), 259–71.
CHUNG, Y.S., MEYER, C. & SHINOZUKA, M. (1990) Automatic seismic design of RC
building frames. ACI Structural J. 87(3), 326–40.
CLOUGH, R.W. & GIDWANI, J. (1976) Reinforced Concrete Frame 2: Seismic Testing
and Analytical Correlation. Earthquake Engineering Research Center, Report No.
EERC 76–15, University of California, Berkeley.
CLOUGH, R.W. & PENZIEN, J. (1975) Dynamics of Structures. McGraw-Hill, New
York.
CLOUGH, R.W. BENUSKA, K.L. & WILSON, E.L. (1965) Inelastic earthquake
response of tall buildings. Third World Conference of Earthquake Engineering, New
Zealand.
HEALEY, T.J. & SOZEN, M.A. (1978) Experimental Study of the Dynamic Response of
a Ten-Story Reinforced Concrete Frame with a Tall First Story. Structural Research
Series No. 450, University of Illinois, Urbana.
HWANG, T.H. (1982) Effects of Variation of Load History on Cyclic Response of
Concrete Flexural Members, Ph.D. Thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of
Illinois, Urbana.
KESHAVARZIAN, M. & SCHNOBRICH, W.C. (1984) Computed Seismic Response of
R/C Wall-Frame Structures. Structural Research Series No. 515, University of
Illinois, Urbana.
KUTT, T.V. & BIENIEK, M.P. (1988) Cumulative damage and fatigue life prediction.
AIAA Journal, 26, 213–19.
MA, S.M., BERTERO, V.V. & POPOV, E.P. (1976) Experimental and Analytical Studies
on the Hysteretic Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Rectangular and T-Beams.
MEYER, C. (1984) Earthquake analysis of structural walls. In Proc. of the International

Conference on Computer-Aided Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Vol. 2,
ed., F.Damjanic et al. Pineridge Press, Swansea.
MEYER, C. & OKAMURA, H. (eds) (1986) Finite element analysis of reinforced
concrete structures. Proceedings of U.S.-Japan Seminar, Tokyo, ASCE Special
Publication, ASCE, New York.
MEYER, C. (1991) Computation of inelastic response. In Inelastic Design Procedures for
Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Earthquakes. ACI Special Publication.
MOEHLE, J.P. & MAHIN, S.A. (1991) Observations on the behavior of reinforced
concrete buildings during earthquakes. In Inelastic Design Procedures
for Reinforced Concrete Structures Subjected to Earthquakes. ACI Special
Publication.
NEWMARK, N.M. & ROSENBLUETH, E. (1971) Fundamentals of Earthquake
Engineering. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.
OESTERLE, R.G. et al. (1976) Earthquake Resistant Structural Walls—Tests of Isolated
Walls. Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois.
OESTERLE, R.G. et al. (1979) Earthquake Resistant Structural Walls—Tests of Isolated
Walls, Phase II. Portland Cement Association,Skokie, Illinois.
OTANI, S. & SOZEN, M.A. (1972) Behavior of Multistory Reinforced Concrete Frames
During Earthquakes. Structural Research Series No. 392, University of Illinois,
Urbana.
OZCEBE, G. & SAATCIOGLU, M. (1987) Confinement of concrete columns for seismic
loading. ACI Structural J., 84(4), 308–15.
PARK, R. (1986) Ductile design approach for reinforced concrete frames. Earthquake
Spectra, EERI, 2(3), 565–619.
PARK, R. & PAULAY, T. (1975) Reinforced Concrete Structures. Wiley, New York.
REITHERMAN, R. (1985) A review of earthquake damage estimation methods.
Earthquake Spectra, EERI, 1(4).
ROUFAIEL, M.S.L. & MEYER, C. (1987) Analytical modeling of hysteretic behavior of
R/C frames. J. Structural Eng. ASCE, 113(3).
SCRIBNER, C.F. & WIGHT, J.K. (1978) Delaying Shear Strength Decay in Reinforced
Concrete Flexural Members Under Large Load Reversals. Report No. UMEE 78R2,
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
SHINOZUKA, M. & TAN, R.Y. (1983) Seismic Reliability of Damaged Reinforced
Concrete Beams. J. Structural Eng., ASCE, 109(7), 1617–34.
SIMIU, E. & SCANLAN, R.H. (1978) Wind Effects on Structures. Wiley, New York.
TAKEDA, T., SOZEN, M.A. & NIELSEN, N.N. (1970) Reinforced concrete response to
simulated earthquakes. J. Structural Div. ASCE, 96(ST12), 2557–73.
WAKABAYASHI, M. (1986) Design of Earthquake Resistant Buildings. McGraw-Hill,
New York.
WlGHT, J.K., (ed.) (1985) Earthquake Effects on Reinforced Concrete Structures, U.S.-
Japan Research. ACI Special Publication SP-84.
Chapter 9
UNSTIFFENED STEEL PLATE SHEAR
WALLS
G.L.KULAK
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Canada
SUMMARY
A number of buildings have been constructed in recent years using steel
plate shear walls, most notably in the United States and Japan. Design
practice has been to calculate the capacity of the shear wall either on the
basis of attainment of shear yield or using the stress that will produce shear
buckling of the plate. Any additional strength that might be present after the
web has buckled is neglected. The consequence of the conservative
approach used is that either relatively thick plates must be used or the
plates must be heavily stiffened.
An obvious analogy exists between a steel plate shear wall core and a
plate girder. This analogy has been used to develop a simple method of
analysis which utilizes the post-buckling strength. The analysis indicates
that very thin, unstiffened webs can meet normal strength and stiffness
requirements. An extensive experimental programme has been used to
verify the analytical results. This included examination of stiffness (drift),
load excursions under wind loading levels, ultimate strength, and the
seismic behaviour of steel plate shear wall assemblies.
NOTATION
Ab Cross-sectional area of beam

Ac Cross-sectional area of column
fQu Ultimate frame load
h Panel height, storey height
Ic Second moment of area of column
UNSTIFFENED STEEL PLATE SHEAR WALLS 211
L Panel length
P Axial load in column
Py Yield load of column
Qy System yield load
QULT System ultimate load
w Panel thickness
w Qb Ultimate wall load
w Qy Yield wall load
σ Angle of inclination of tension field
σ Deflection of column, deformation
′ Deflection required to develop tension field
σ Stress
9.1
INTRODUCTION
In the design of high-rise buildings, it is usual to use one of four sytems to resist
lateral forces. These are moment-resisting frames, braced frames, shear walls,
and so-called tubular structures. In general, shear walls have proved to be an
effective and economical bracing system for buildings in the range of 15–40
storeys. Until recently, shear cores have been constructed almost exclusively of
reinforced concrete, regardless of whether the main structural frame was
concrete or steel.
A number of steel-framed buildings have been built throughout the world
using steel plate shear walls, most notably in the United States and in Japan. One
of the earliest examples, however, is a structure in West Germany. This is the
Bayer-Hochhaus in Leverkusen. It is a 32-storey building and the lateral load
resistance is provided by steel plate shear walls in the lower 18 storeys, with K-
bracing used in the upper 14 floors. In general, a steel plate shear wall core will
be much lighter than reinforced concrete, yielding reduced foundation costs. It is
usually quicker to erect, reduces the number of different trades working at any
one time, and should result in a useful increase in usable floor area. Two features
have inhibited more widespread use of steel plate shear walls. One is a lack of
understanding of how to design the system and the other is a lack of knowledge
as to the seismic behaviour of the system.
Current design practice in North America is to calculate the shear resistance
on the basis of either the shear yield strength of the plate or the shear buckling
capacity. For the usual dimensions involved, the latter will probably govern
whether the plate is unstiffened. Resulting plate thicknesses are relatively large
or, alternatively, stiffeners must be used at frequent intervals. Both of these have
the effect of reducing the economic attractiveness of the system, particularly if
the amount of fabrication necessary is high. The approach used by the Japanese
has been strongly influenced by seismic requirements. Generally, the steel plate
212 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.1. Web plate in shear.
shear walls used contain many stiffeners, both vertical and horizontal. The goal
is that shear buckling be precluded prior to attainment of shear yield in the plate.
A major difference between the approach used in the United States and that
taken by the Japanese has to do with the treatment of the gravity loads. The
American approach, in general, is to include the gravity loads in the steel plate
shear wall analysis. The Japanese approach is to assign only lateral loads to the
shear wall system.
An obvious analogy exists between a steel plate shear wall stack and a
vertically oriented plate girder. In the shear wall stack, the building columns act
as the girder flanges, the steel shear wall is the web, and the floor beams are the
transverse stiffeners of the girder. Since civil engineering practice recognizes the
considerable post-buckling strength that may be present in a plate girder web due
to tension field action, it seemed reasonable to examine this approach for the
case of steel plate shear walls. The analytical method developed on this basis to
describe the strength and deformation characteristics of a steel plate shear wall will
be described. The results of physical testing of large-size specimens under static
loading, repetitive displacement under wind load, and quasi-seismic loading will
be presented. In all cases, the steel plate was unstiffened in the panel region formed
by the intersection of the columns and beams bounding the core.
9.2
BASIS OF THE ANALYTICAL METHOD
Prior to buckling, a web plate subjected to pure shear is considered to behave as
shown in Fig. 9.1. The shear stresses shown on the element located orthogonally
with respect to the girder (Fig. 9.1(a)) can be replaced by an equivalent case, the
element located at 45°, as shown in Fig. 9.1(b). The stresses on this element are
the principal stresses, one tensile and one compressive. The shear force applied
can be increased until the shear buckling stress of the panel is exceeded. At this
point, the panel buckles (moves out-of-plane).
The resisting mechanism developed in the plate is changed by the buckling
action. After buckling, the compressive principal stress cannot increase any
further. The tensile principal stress, however, is limited only by the yield strength
of the material, and it will continue to increase in response to the load after the web
FIG. 9.2. Steel plate shear wall core.
has buckled, up to the yield stress level (Fig. 9.1(c)). Saying the same thing in
another way, the buckles that form in the plate after the buckling stress has been
exceeded do not inhibit the strength of the material in the direction of the
diagonal tension field. This tension field action can provide significant post-
buckling strength for the panel.
Wagner (1931) was the first to present a theory describing the postbuckling
strength which develops in thin webs subjected to shearing forces. Aluminium
alloys, used almost exclusively for aircraft membranes, have a low modulus of
elasticity and, hence, a low buckling strength; in practice, web buckling often
occurs at loads less than the design load. This led Wagner to assume that the
shear buckling resistance of the web was negligible, and his formulation
considered only the contribution resulting from the diagonal tension field (‘pure
diagonal tension’).
Kuhn et al. (1952), expanded upon Wagner’s work and developed a theory of
‘incomplete diagonal tension’. They studied the intermediate case of webs falling
between the two extremes of shear-resistant webs, that is, those webs whose
strength is considered to be limited by shear buckling, and pure diagonal tension
webs. Their work involved some empiricism, based on tests of aluminium alloy
plate girder webs, and reverted to a trial-and-error solution if the flanges were
not infinitely stiff. The method of Wagner and Kuhn is the basis for the analytical
method described below.
9.3
METHOD OF ANALYSIS
The basis of the proposed method of analysis for the static strength of an
unstiffened steel plate shear wall has already been presented. To summar ize, the
steel plate shear wall core (Fig. 9.2) consisting of the building columns, beams,
and web plate in the core will be treated as a vertical plate girder. The method of
analysis will take the flexural stiffness of the columns (the plate girder flanges)
into account. A number of simplifying assumptions are made:
214 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.3. Strip model.

(1) The shear buckling capacity of the web will be neglected. The plate
thickness of the web will generally be so small relative to the plate width
and height that the load required to buckle the plate will be very low.
Moreover, it can usually be expected that the plate will already be non-planar
following completion of fabrication, either as a result of handling or due to
welding distortions.
(2) The tension field, assumed to act as shown in Fig. 9.3, will be modelled as a
series of inclined strips.
(3) The limit of action of a single strip will be that corresponding to the tension
yield strength of the strip. This neglects any beneficial effects of strain-
hardening and ignores the effect of the compressive stresses acting on the
strip (Fig. 9.1(c)).
(4) Bending of the floor beam due to the action of the tension field is assumed
to be nil for a typical interior panel. This assumption is justified on the basis
that the difference in tension field intensity from floor to floor will, in
general, not be large.
As the final step in modelling the typical panel, the angle of inclination of the
tension field must be determined. The procedure used herein was based on that
developed by Wagner (1931), namely, the application of the principle of least
work. As detailed by Thorburn et al. (1983) and Timler & Kulak (1983),
expressions are written for the work in one panel due to the tension field and due
to the associated forces in the two boundary columns and one beam. The
expression for total work is then minimized by differentiating with respect to the
angle of inclination, σ . The resulting expression is
(9.1)
where σ is the angle of inclination of the tension field L and h are the panel
length and height, respectively, w is the panel thickness, Ab and Ac are the cross-
sectional areas of beam and column, respectively, and Ic is the second moment of
area of the column.
Fig. 9.4 shows the assembly of the model. The tension field is represen ted by
the series of bars inclined at angle σ , each bar having an area equal to the product
FIG. 9.4. Strip model for typical storey.
of the bar width and the web plate thickness. The bar is assumed to be pin-
connected to the surrounding frame and capable of transmitting only axial force.
The bars are obtained by dividing the plate into a series of strips of equal width.
The number of strips required for satisfactory modelling depends on the
particular circumstances, but a typical 10-storey building showed that 10 strips
per panel was an adequate representation (Thorburn et al., 1983).
In the structure shown in Fig. 9.4, the beams are pin-connected to continuous
columns. It should be noted that the angle of inclination of the tension field, σ ,
given by eqn (9.1), is uniquely related to the boundar conditions shown in
Fig. 9.4. Other beam or column boundaries can, of course, be modelled.
Using the inclined bar model, a plane frame program can be employed to
analyse the response of a panel to an applied shearing force. By means of this
strip representation of the plate, the distribution of forces in a given shear panel
can be established. These include the axial force, shear, and moment at various
locations in the boundary members and the tension forces in the web plate. The
program also calculates the lateral deflection of the system. The forces imposed
on the boundary members are used to check the capacities of those members.
The forces in the web plate are used to establish a strength Innit for the plate and
to design the connection between the plate and the frame. The deflection of the
panel is checked against the drift limit, and the sum of all storey deflections and
the effect of column shortening are combined to calculate the overall deflection
of the entire structure.
The stiffness characteristics of a given wall can be expressed in an alternative
way by replacing the tension zone of the steel plate with an equivalent truss
element having the same storey stiffness. (The truss diagonal would, of course,
run between alternate column-beam intersections; it would not be inclined at the
same angle ′ as the tension field.) A similar approach was taken earlier by
Japanese researchers. Using the inclined bar model, the deflection of the steel
plate shear wall system can be calculated. The deflection of the equivalent truss
216 G.L.KULAK
system is set equal to this and a virtual-work analysis of the truss is used to
compute the brace area required to give it the same lateral stiffness.
To calculate the area of an equivalent brace, it is still necessary to model the
structure as described above and use the plane frame analysis. Therefore, there
would appear to be no advantage to the equivalent truss approach. Nevertheless,
it would still be advantageous to consider use of the equivalent brace system in
multistorey structures in which there is frequent repetition of sizes. If geometry,
column, beam and plate sizes are common within a given zone, the equivalent
brace area could be calculated for a typical panel in this zone. A similar
procedure would be used for other zones and then the various equivalent braces
applied within their appropriate zones. The deflection of the entire assembled
equivalent braced structure can then be calculated using any of the common frame
analysis programs. This would result in considerably less work than an analysis
of the total structure using the inclined bar model.
9.4
SOME ANALYTICAL RESULTS
The extent to which a tension field forms in a given panel, the panel stiffness,
and the distribution of forces within the panel are influenced by panel geometry
(bay width and storey height), column stiffness, web thickness, and the angle of
inclination of the tension field. This last factor, defined in eqn (9.1), is itself
dependent upon the panel dimensions, column and beam areas, column stiffness,
and web plate thickness.
As an illustration of the forces within the tension field, the frame of Fig. 9.5
can be considered. Here the frame dimensions, beam size, and web
FIG. 9.5. Distribution of tension field forces.

plate thickness are held constant as the column moment of inertia is varied. The
stiffest column, Fig. 9.5(a), results in a fairly uniform and well-developed stress
field in the web. Figure 9.5(b) shows that as the column stiffness is reduced, the
web is less effective in developing a tension field. The use of the very flexible
column, Fig. 9.5(c), results in portions of the ‘tension’ field actually in
compression.
In order to produce an acceptable design, both strength and stiffness
requirements must be met. (It must also be noted that the former relates to
factored loads, and the latter to specified loads if a limit states design format is
being used.) To achieve this, one approach is to satisfy the stiffness requirements
and then to simply accept the resulting stress field in the web. The stress in the most
highly loaded strip would be compared to the factored yield strength of the
material to ensure that the stresses are within the acceptable range. Alternatively,
the designer’s main objective could be to make optimum use of the web
material; that is, stress as much of the web as possible to the permissible limit.
As a final step in this approach, the resulting structure would have to be
examined to see whether it satisfies the drift limitations. Although there is no
general way of deciding which of these two sequences is preferable, experience
does indicate that the design of cores in high-rise buildings is usually controlled
by drift.
As an illustrative example of building design under static loading only,
Thorburn, et al. (1983) considered a 25-storey building located in Edmonton,
Canada. The storey height is 3·66 m and the bay width in the core area is 9·00 m.
The width of the building perpendicular to the direction of the wind is 45 m. For
these conditions and for the first storey, the storey shear due to wind is 5760 kN
and the factored shear load is 8640 kN. The former value is used for the
deflection calculations and the latter for strength calculations. The first storey
has two identical shear walls, each resisting one-half of the total applied force.
The drift restriction is h/500 per storey. The yield strength of the steel was taken
as 300 MPa (N/mm2).
The design aids provided by Thorburn et al. show that for these panel
dimensions, column stiffnesses (I/L) greater than about 500×103 mm3 give
stresses through the tension field that are approximately uniform. The
corresponding moment of inertia for the storey height of 3·66 m is 1850×106 mm4.
Based on axial loads only, the columns in the first storey of a 25-storey office
building would be expected to be in this size range.
Selecting a trial column section for which Ic=225×106 mm4 and Ac=48 600
mm2, the Thorburn et al. design aids suggest that a web plate 3.1 mm thick
would provide adequate strength and meet the drift limitation.
To check the preliminary design, a panel with a 3·5 mm thick web plate was
modelled as a series of strips and analysed. The resulting storey drift (including
the effect of column shortening) was 6·80 mm and the maximum stress in the
tension field due to the factored shear force was 220 MPa. Since the permissible
stiffness and strength limits are 7·32 mm and 270 MPa, respectively, the panel
218 G.L.KULAK
design is satisfactory. It should be noted that handling considerations would

probably preclude use of any plate thinner than about 4·5 mm.
9.5
RELATED DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
When designing the beams and columns that form the boundaries of a shear wall
web, it must be recognized that additional forces are imposed upon these
members by the action of the tension field. The column must be designed for the
additional axial compression and bending which result from the vertical and
horizontal components of the web forces. The beam design must now
accommodate an additional axial load (the member now becomes a beam–
column), and the design should include a recognition of possible instability
problems if sufficient lateral support is not present. If the structure has been
modelled using the inclined bar model described above and analysed using a
plane frame program, all of the forces in the boundary members will be available
as part of the output.
At the extreme top and bottom panels in a multistorey shear wall system, the
vertical components of the tension field forces which act on the beams are not
balanced by equal and opposite forces in an adjacent panel. The vertical
components of the tension field at the ends of a shear wall stack must therefore
either be taken out of the core or resisted internally. The former can be
accomplished by providing a rigid element at the extreme top and bottom of the
core in order to anchor the inclined stresses in the adjacent panels. At the bottom
level of a steel shear core this rigid element could be large girder, and for the top
panel the resisting element could be provided in the form of a truss or a deep
girder. Alternatively, the web in end panels can be proportioned in such a way
that the shear stresses will not exceed the critical buckling stress for the panel. To
ensure that buckling will not occur in these ‘anchor’ panels, a restriction must be
imposed on the panel dimensions, such as is commonly done in the design of a
plate girder.
Connection forces can be obtained directly from the member forces in the strip
model used for analysis. The conventional methods used for the design of high-
strength bolts or welds can then be applied. Direct connection of a web plate to
its beam and column boundaries can be done with either high-strength bolts in a
slip-resistant connection or by using welds. In the former case, a fish plate or angles
would be attached in the fabrication shop to the boundary elements and the shear
wall plate bolted onto this in the field. The second arrangement also uses a fish
plate shop-welded to the boundary members. In the field, the web plate is lapped
over the fish plate, aligned and held in place with a few erection bolts or tack
welds, and then finally welded.
9.6
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
The experimental verification of the analytical method included both static
loading and quasi-earthquake loading cases. The first of these also included the
case of quasi-wind cyclic loading, and the second also included the ultimate load
test of a specimen that had been already cycled under quasi-earthquake loading.
Following a description of these tests and presentation of the test results, an
analytical model for use under earthquake loading is presented.
9.6.1
Static Loading Case, Including Quasi-Wind Cyclic Loading
In order to substantiate the proposed analytical method, a single largescale
specimen was fabricated and tested. The major areas of interest of the testing
programme were the examination of the tension field development within the
web plate, the out-of-plane behaviour of the plate under service load reversals
(quasi-wind cyclic loading), and the ultimate load behaviour of the system. A
second test of the validity of the analytical method was obtained when the
specimen used for quasi-earthquake loading was loaded finally to failure. (see
Section 9.6.2).
Figure 9.6 shows the specimen tested. It represents two single-storey, one-bay
steel shear wall elements. The members oriented vertically in the test specimen
correspond to the beams in the prototype; the horizontal members in the test
specimen represent the columns. The use of a symmetric model provided a
condition of infinite stiffness at the interior beam located vertically at the centre
of the specimen. By having equal and opposing transverse (horizontal)
components of the tensile field acting on either side of the interior beam, a
situation of nil bending exists for this member. This is consistent with the design
assumption for interior beams located in shear wall stacks (Thorburn et al.,
1983).
In the prototype structure, beam-to-column connections would probably be
made using web framing angles. They would be assumed to act as a simple
connection. True pin connections were used in this test specimen; the
arrangement was chosen in order to provide a severe test of the effect of the
beam-to-column rotations on the web plate at this corner.
The sizes of the various components in the specimen and the panel geometry are
shown in Fig. 9.6. The bay width was 3·75 m and the storey height was 2·50 m.
The columns, oriented horizontally in Fig. 9.6, were built-up sections
approximately equivalent to a Canadian section W310×129 (AISC designation:
W12×87), i.e. a section approximately 310 mm deep and with a mass of 129 kg/
m. The vertically oriented members, the beams in the prototype, were also built-
up sections. They were approximately equivalent to W460×144 (AISC
designation: W18×97) sections. These dimensions and framing sizes represent
220 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.6. Test specimen: static loading case.
reasonable structural proportions. Although the beam size chosen is somewhat

larger than would be expected in actual construction practice with respect to the
column size, this cross-sectional properties were necessary in order that the
tension field in the web plate of this test specimen have a satisfactory boundary.
Because the purpose of the experimental programme was to test a thin-webbed
unstiffened steel shear wall, the thinnest hot-rolled plate readily available was
used. A 5-mm web plate was selected. It was connected to the adjacent framing
members by means of the fish plate arrangement shown in Section A–A of
Fig. 9.6. The web plate was aligned such that its plane coincided with the planes
of the webs of the beams and columns. All steel except that used for fittings was
to have a yield strength of 300 MPa. (The measured static yield strength of the
plate used for the web was 271 MPa.)
The fabricated structure was tested as a simply supported deep beam. Because
of the symmetry, two shear panels were thereby tested. The overall test set-up is
shown in Fig. 9.7. The loading was applied vertically at mid-span and the
reactions to the floor were transferred at the ends. A pin-connected clevis
delivered either tensile or compressive loads from the crosshead of the 6200-kN
capacity testing machine to the top of the interior beam. (The terms ‘tensile’ or
‘compressive’ are used here only to describe the sense of the load delivered by
the testing machine. In so far as the behaviour of the specimen is concerned,
these loads simply correspond to the shear load on the panel delivered first in one
direction and then in the other.)
The predicted angle of inclination of the tension field of the specimen was
51·0°. (Equation (9.1) cannot be applied directly. That expression was developed
for the boundary conditions commonly present in multistorey buildings and as
pictured in Fig. 9.4. The boundary conditions present in the test specimen, as
shown in Fig. 9.6, were somewhat different.)
Two loading sequences were used during the testing of this specimen; a cyclic
loading to the allowable serviceability deflection limit, and a final loading
excursion until failure of the structural system was reached.
During the load reversals carried out within the first loading procedure, both
tensile and compressive forces were applied by the testing machine. The
specimen was cycled three times such that a drift limit of h/400 was reached
during each excursion. This drift limit corresponded to a deflection at the
centreline of the test specimen of 6·25 mm, and it was attained by application of
a load of 2104 kN.
Following completion of the service load excursions, the specimen was loaded to
failure by application of a compressive load from the testing machine.
A full description of the test results is available elsewhere (Timler & Kulak,
1983) and only a summary of selected results will be given here. Generally,
satisfactory agreement between observed and predicted behaviour was obtained
for strains in the columns, beams, and web plate, deflection of the system, and
ultimate load. Of course, no prediction could be made for the out-of-plane
deflections of the web.
A plot of load versus frame deflection for the excursions corresponding to the
drift limit of h/400 is shown in Fig. 9.8. Test No. 2 was a compression loading
cycle, from 0 to 2145 kN. It was followed by Test No. 3, where the loading
sequence was 0 to 2145 to 0 to 2063 kN. (The discrepancy between maximum
load levels is accounted for by the dead load of the specimen.)
The slopes of Test 2 and 3 agree well enough, and the hysteresis behaviour of
Test 3 shows that the slopes between identical load excursions are essentially the
same. The larger frame displacement during the tension cycles is probably the
result of elongation of tie-down bolts in the reaction fixtures. For all load
applications, linear elastic behaviour is observed. The very small residual
deflections noted upon unloading may have been a result of yielding within the
frame system, but more likely they resulted from local yielding in the various
parts of the loading apparatus.
The web, as fabricated, was not planar under no-load; the measured initial out-
of-flatness was approximately 9 mm over a length of 1275 mm. Loading of the
specimen either increased or decreased the amplitude of the initial deflections,
depending upon the direction of the applied load. The maximum out-of-plane
deflection under service load was about 20 mm, measured with respect to a
theoretical, perfectly flat plate. This meant that the increase in amplitude over the
initial profile of this plate was only about 11 mm. The profile of the plate under
load was nearly identical under successive load excursions and the plate returned
to its no-load profile, within measurement tolerances, after each cycle. The
222 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.7. Overall test set-up.

buckles which formed at maximum load were barely discernible to an observer
standing only a short distance away from the specimen.
The measured value of the angle of inclination of the tension field, as obtained
from strain gauge readings, was between 47° and 53° in the lower portion of the
panel; the predicted value of the angle is 51·0°.
A plot of load versus the lateral deflection of the frame is given in Fig. 9.9. Both
the actual response and the predicted response are shown. The analytical model
used corresponded exactly to that suggested by Thornburn et al. (1983) for the
FIG. 9.8. Specified load-versus-deflection.
FIG. 9.9. Predicted-versus-experimental frame deflection: Static load case.
behaviour up to the load at which the first inclined bar in the model reached
yield. In this case, the predicted value of the load causing first yield is 3450 kN.
As closely as can be determined from the plot of the experimental values, this
was the load at which non-linearity did indeed start. The deflection predicted for
224 G.L.KULAK
the frame at the time of first yield of a bar is about 10% less than that measured
in the test.
An analytical model limited by the first yield load in one bar is obviously
conservative; the frame will have considerable reserve strength beyond this
level. Timler and Kulak (1983) used a model which accounted both for sequential
yielding of inclined bars and for yielding of boundary members. The model, as
modified, did not take strain-hardening into account, nor did it account for the
presence of residual stresses in the framing members. Nevertheless, as can be
seen in Fig. 9.9, the predicted curve provides an acceptable estimate of the true
behaviour in the region between first yield and ultimate.
The overall behaviour of the frame shows that linear behaviour extended well
beyond the serviceability load limit (3450 kN vs 2063 kN). This was followed by
a range of gradual softening of the frame, that is, ductile behaviour, until the
ultimate load of 5395 kN was attained. The ultimate load did not occur as a
result of behaviour of the principal elements, but was a connection failure. A
fillet weld tear at the web plate to fish plate connection adjacent to one of the
pins was followed by a local lateral instability around the pin in a region where a
flange had been cut back. The eccentricity of load through the fish plate appeared
to contribute to both of these effects. A standard web framing angle connection
would provide much more lateral stability locally than that present around the
pin in this test.
9.6.2
Quasi-Seismic Loading Case
Although it is possible to develop analytical descriptions of the load-versus-
deformation behaviour of structural elements or assemblages acting under
simulated earthquake loading, it is usually preferable to use physical testing as the
primary method of obtaining this description. Thus, the physical tests described
in this section were conducted first, and then the analytical model described in
Section 9.7 was developed.
In order to examine the seismic characteristics of the unstiffened steel plate
shear wall arrangement, another large-scale specimen was tested. The general
arrangement, configuration, and test set-up were similar to those used for the
specimen described earlier for the static loading case. The two-panel assembly
had a bay width of 2·75 m, a storey height of 2·20 m, and used a 3·25 mm thick
unstiffened steel plate web.
There were two significant differences between this specimen and the one
used for the static load case, however. One was that bolted connections using
web framing angles connected the beams to the columns. The connection was
designed as a slip-resistant joint. Thus, this connection was expected to be very
stiff as compared with the pinned connections used in the earlier test.
The second major difference was that, in order to simulate the erection
sequence that might be expected to occur in the field, an initial preload of 0·09Py
was introduced into the columns before the web plate was inserted and fastened
to the boundary members. After the web had been installed, an additional column
load of 0·12Py was applied. These column preloads were obtained using
prestressing bars of the type normally used in concrete structures. The bars ran
from one end of the specimen to the other, over the two-storey height, and
remained horizontal as the test piece deflected vertically.
Testing was done in two phases. In the first phase, a slowly applied cyclic load
was applied, with gradually increasing displacements. This provided information
about the response of the system to earthquake loading. The second phase
involved a monotonic load applied so as to attain the ultimate static capacity of
the specimen, including, of course, any deleterious effect introduced by the
previous quasi-earthquake loading.
A photograph of the test specimen after testing is shown in Fig. 9.10. Full details
of the test have been reported by Tromposch & Kulak (1987).
Figure 9.11 shows the complete history of the load versus displacement
response for the 28 cycles of load that were applied. At the higher load levels,
the response is that characteristic of any steel framing system which contains
elements that buckle: the curve can be described as S-shaped or pinched. An
examination of individual loops would show that, for this test arrangement, the
response is essentially linear for about 13 excursions, corresponding to a storey
displacement of about 1/400 times the storey height. Thereafter, the effect of the
buckling of the web plate as the tension field forms and reforms in opposite
directions is to produce the flatter portions of the curve in the central region.
It should be noted that the amount of energy absorption continued to increase
throughout the 28 cycles of load applied in this test. The application of
alternating load had to be terminated because the capacity of the testing machine
had been reached. Although several small tears in the web plate had occurred,
these did not seem to be affecting the strength of the system and it was
continuing to carry load.
The central, flatter portion of the load-versus-deformation response curve is
primarily the response of the frame alone. The web is in an intermediate stage as
load is alternately applied. In one direction the web has buckled, but in the other
direction the diagonal tension field has not yet formed. Because of the particular
arrangement tested, in this case this slope represents (approximately) the
behaviour of a single-storey frame, fixed at its bottom end and with pinned beam-
to-column connections at the top. In any multistorey building, the situation could
be significantly more favourable than this. The columns would be continuous
and the beam-to-column connections would offer somewhat more restraint.
Thus, the response curve in this region could be substantially stiffer than that
demonstrated in this test.
The response curve and energy absorption capability of this thin, unstiffened
steel plate shear wall under quasi-seismic loading can be compared with other
structural systems for resisting lateral load. Both reinforced-concrete shearwalls
and K- or X-braced steel frames also exhibit the characteristic S-shaped
226 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.10. Test specimen: quasi-earthquake case.
FIG. 9.11. Seismic response of thin, unstiffened steel plate shear wall.
hysteresis loops. Of course, steps can be taken to improve the situation if a larger
absorption of energy and a stiffer structure are considered essential. The
eccentrically braced steel frame is one example of this type of improvement
(Popov, 1980). It has also been demonstrated that steel plate shear walls which
have intermediate stiffeners can produce a spindle-shaped hysteresis loop

(Takahashi et al., 1973).
Following completion of the alternating load portion of the test of this
shearwall, it was loaded monotonically in order that another test result for the
ultimate strength of an unstiffened shearwall might thereby be generated. It was
also important to establish whether or not the frame would be able to attain its
theoretical load following the simulated earthquake loading.
The boundary conditions for this specimen were not well-defined (slip-
resistant connections were used, not real pins as had been used in the specimen
for the static test), and both welding residual stresses and stresses due to column
preloading were present in the web plate. The initial stress in the web plate (the
net of welding tensile residual stress and compressive stress due to column
preload) was estimated to be about 50 MPa (Tromposch & Kulak, 1987). This is
about 20% of the measured yield strength of the web plate material.
When the shearwall was being loaded in the direction described
as ‘compression’, an analysis that assumed that the beam-to-column joints were
fixed gave an excellent prediction of the actual monotonic load-response curve.
When the load was applied in the other direction (the ‘tension’ case), the best
representation was obtained by assuming that the joints were fixed until their
theoretical slip load was reached, after which it was assumed that they were
pinned. However, in both cases, a model that assumes pinned connections
provides a satisfactory estimate of the actual response and is conservative.
Figure 9.12 is a plot of the monotonic load-versus-deflection response. The
initial portion was obtained by plotting the peak compressive loads obtained
during the cyclic loading test. The column axial loads had to be removed prior to
failure of the specimen and there appears to be a slight increase in strength at the
end of the cyclic loading and the commencement of the continuation of the load
to failure. The relatively small increase in strength seems to indicate that the
effect of the column load acting through the member displacement (P−σ ) had
only a minor influence on the structural behaviour during the cyclic loading
phase.
In the monotonic loading phase, the specimen was loaded to the capacity of
the testing machine, sightly over 6000 kN. A maximum midspan deflection in
excess of 70 mm was reached. Tears in the welds and fish-plates that had
developed during the cyclic tests lengthened only slightly under the monotonic
loading. New tears in the welds and fish-plates occurred in the top outside
corners of the test specimen. These corner fractures appear to have been caused
by the very severe buckles that took place in the corners as a result of joint slip
and joint rotation.
It is clear that the ultimate strength of this specimen was unaffected by its
previous quasi-earthquake loading.
228 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.12. Monotonic load-versus-deflection response.
9.7
ANALYTICAL TREATMENT OF EARTHQUAKE
LOADING
9.7.1
General Requirements
The hysteresis curve, developed experimentally by applying a quasi-static cyclic
load in alternate directions, provides the member or frame behaviour information
needed when conducting a dynamic analysis and also provides a general idea of
the suitability of the system for a structure that must be designed to resist
earthquakes. The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop is equal to the energy
absorbed by the system. Systems that absorb a large amount of energy and
exhibit sound and stable hysteresis loops have generally performed well in
earthquakes.
Structural systems that perform well in seismic events generally also exhibit
good ductility. A measure of the ductility of a system is defined as the ductility
factor. This factor can be defined as the maximum strain, rotation, or
displacement divided by the yield strain, rotation, or displacement, respectively
(Popov, 1980). The amount of ductility required for a given structure is difficult
to determine. For structures subjected to strong siesmic activity, Popov (1980)
has suggested that a displacement ductility factor in the order of 6 may be
necessary. Good ductility, however, cannot compensate for poor energy
absorption; it merely changes the failure mode.
FIG. 9.13. Hysteresis behaviour of a moment-resisting frame (after Popov, 1980).
9.7.2
Cyclic Loading Behaviour of Common Structural Systems
When examining the cyclic loading response of a steel plate shear wall, a
comparison with other commonly used systems will be useful. These too must
all be compared with what is considered desirable behaviour. For frames, three
types of structural systems are commonly considered for lateral load resistance.
These are a moment-resisting frame, a simply supported frame (continuous
columns but simple beam-to-column connections) containing a core in which
steel bracing (usually K- or X-bracing) is present, or a simply supported steel
frame containing a vertical shear wall.
Moment-resisting frames generally exhibit good hysteresis behaviour.
Figure 9.13 is the hysteresis curve developed by a structural
assemblage comprised of two half-columns and two beams (Popov, 1980). The
load-versus-displacement loops are sound and fully developed, showing excellent
ductility. A displacement ductility factor in excess of 10 is achieved. Because the
columns are generally carrying large axial loads, the effect of the axial load
acting through the displaced distance (P−σ ) causes the stiffness to decrease at
large deflections. It is generally the contribution of the P–σ effects that causes the
failure of moment-resisting frames subjected to cyclic loading.
The second type of lateral load-resisting system commonly used in diagonal
bracing. It comes in many forms, but the two most typical configurations are K-
and X-bracing. Both of these systems exhibit a degenerating pinched-loop
behaviour when subjected to cyclic loads. Figure 9.14 is the hysteresis curve for
the particular X-braced frame illustrated in the upper left corner of the figure
(Popov, 1980). The pinched loops are the result of buckling of the yielded
members before they can be recompressed. A recent innovation that improves
the hysteresis performance of braced frames is to attach the diagonal brace to the
beam a short distance away from the beam-to-column connection. The
230 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.14. Hysteresis behaviour of a diagonally braced frame (after Popov, 1980).
FIG. 9.15. Hysteresis behaviour of a reinforced concrete shear wall (after Oesterle et al.,
1978).
eccentrically braced frame is designed so that the short link beam yields prior to
the yielding or the buckling of the diagonal members (Popov, 1980). The
hysteresis curves produced by cyclically loading a eccentrically braced frame are
fully developed and stable, as would be expected since only the short link beams
are yielding.
Shear walls are the third type of commonly used lateral load-resisting system.
Until recently, shear walls were exclusively made of reinforced concrete. The
hysteresis performance of reinforced-concrete shear walls varies greatly,
depending on the configuration and the details used. Figure 9.15 illustrates the
shear force versus shear distortion hysteresis loops for a simple reinforced
concrete shear wall (Oesterle et al., 1978). The pinched loops in this case are
caused by the yielding of the reinforcement. As load is applied in one direction, a
permanent deformation remains in the reinforcement after unloading. When the
load is then applied in the other direction, only the reinforcement is effective in
resisting the applied moment prior to crack closure. This in turn results in a
reduced stiffness prior to crack closure and causes the pinched loops. In this
case, the shear distortion of 0·01 radians corresponds to a lateral deflection of
about 20 mm. The rotational ductility factor in this case is in excess of 10. For
shear walls, the rotational ductility factor is nearly equivalent to the
FIG. 9.16. Hysteresis behaviour of an unstiffened steel plate shear wall panel (after
Takahashi et al., 1973).
displacement ductility factor. The hysteresis performance of concrete shear walls

can be improved by linking slender shear walls with heavily reinforced coupling
beams which act as the main energy-absorbing units in the structure (Park and
Paulay, 1975).
9.7.3
Previous Research
In Japan, the stiffened steel plate shear wall has been used exclusively because of
its superior hysteresis performance when compared to unstiffened panels. The
high seismic risk in Japan makes this a key factor in design. The first steel plate
shear wall structures were designed on the basis that stresses in the panels are
limited to the elastic range and that buckling of the panels does not occur. The
shear walls were assumed to carry only lateral loads and no vertical loads. The
lateral resistance was assumed to derive totally from the shear resistance of the
panels. The structures were analysed using a form of the Wagner model, with the
stiffness characteristics then equated to an equivalent pair of diagonal braces
(Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, 1980). It is unclear whether the
resulting analytical approximation was ever verified by physical tests.
Extensive research by Takahashi et al., (1973) on the hysteresis properties of
stiffened steel plate panels demonstrated the large ductility available and the
superior hysteresis properties of stiffened shear wall panels as compared to
unstiffened panels. Figure 9.16 shows the hyster esis shear stress-versus-shear
strain curve for an unstiffened steel shear wall panel 2·10 m by 0·90 m by 2·3 mm
thick, mounted on very stiff boundary members, and with idealized pinned
connections. This arrangement produces hysteresis loop information which
reflects the lateral strength of the panel only if it is assumed that the very stiff
boundary members did not yield. Note that the web thickness used (2·3 mm)
constitutes a very thin web panel. Figure 9.17 shows the hysteresis curve for a
232 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.17. Hysteresis behaviour of a heavily stiffened steel plate shear wall panel (after
Takahashi et al., 1973).
heavily stiffened panel of the same geometrical configuration as that illustrated
in Figure 9.16. Note that the heavily stiffened panel displays a superior
hysteresis curve, enclosing considerably more area and therefore absorbing more
energy. The ductility of these specimens was very large. The maximum shear
deformation was of the order of 0·1 radians for some of the specimens tested.
The principal recommendations of these researchers were that steel plate shear
wall panels be designed so that elastic buckling does not occur, and so that when
inelastic buckling occurs it does not extend across the entire panel. If these
design recommendations are followed, the resulting shear wall panel will display
sound, stable hysteresis loops.
Mimura & Akiyana (1980) followed this work by developing general
expressions for predicting the monotonic and the hysteresis behaviour of steel
plate shear wall panels. They assumed in their derivation that the steel panels
developed a tension field to resist the applied loads. The assumed inclination of
the tension field was that developed by Wagner (1931). The monotonic load-
versus-deformation curve they developed is an elastic–plastic model that
superimposes the frame and the plate stiffnesses. Figure 9.18 illustrates the
concept. The notation fQu, wQb, wQy, Qy, and QULT represents the ultimate frame
load, the ultimate wall load, the wall yield load, the idealized system yield load,
and the idealized system ultimate load, respectively.
Mimura and Akiyana then developed a theoretical hysteresis curve for a steel
plate shear wall panel in the following way. If the shear buckling strength is
greater than the shear yield strength (Von Mises), then the behaviour of the
structure will be assumed to be similar to a conventional steel beam in bending.
For cases where the shear buckling load is less than the shear yield load, the
theoretical hysteresis curve shown in Fig. 9.19 was proposed. Line O–A–H
represents the monotonic load-versus-deflection curve for the panel. If the panel
loading is taken to a load such as point B and then unloaded, the unloading path
will be parallel to the elastic curve to point C′. Applying load in the negative
sense, the
FIG. 9.18. Load-versus-deflection behaviour.
FIG. 9.19. Theoretical hysteresis curve proposed by Mimura & Akiyana (1980).
deflections would continue to be parallel to the elastic curve until shear

buckling of the panel occurs at a point C. The deflection C–D is that required to
develop the tension field. This distance is approximately one-half the distance O–
C′. From point D, the curve follows a linear transition back to the point of
negative yield at A′. The curve then repeats itself, with yielding to point E,
unloading to point F, and redevelopment of the tension field at point G. The
distance F′–G′, which is equal to F–G, is taken as the average of the distances O–
F′ and O–D′. From point G, a linear transition back to the point of last maximum
234 G.L.KULAK
load, B, is assumed. For further cycles, the hysteresis curves would follow the
same form.
The reasons for assuming that it would require a deflection of one-half the
permanent plastic deformation to redevelop the tension field are based on the
assumptions of a tension field angle of 45°, Poisson’s ratio effectively equal to
0·5, and an initially unbuckled panel. If a panel is displaced a distance σ and the
material reaches yield, a plastic tensile principal stress σ will develop in one
direction and a perpendicular compressive stress of magnitude 0·5σ will develop
in the other (Mimura & Akiyana, 1980). Thus, a deformation of 0·5σ , the result of
the difference between σ and 0·5σ , can be considered to correspond to the buckle
deformation. When the load is applied in the opposite sense, a deformation of
0·5σ beyond the zero-load permanent deformation, C′, will result in the buckles
cancelling each other and a tension field developing in the opposite sense.
Mimura & Akiyana (1980) conducted a series of four tests on plate girders in
order to verify their proposed analytical model. The panel width ranged from 549
mm to 599 mm, the panel height ranged from 264 mm to 599 mm and the web
thickness was 1·0 mm for three of the specimens and 1·6 mm for the fourth.
Other details, including the material properties and stiffnesses of the panel
boundaries have been summarized by Tromposch & Kulak (1987). Test
behaviour correlated reasonably well with the predicted behaviour. However, the
number of loading cycles was small in each of the tests and therefore the stability
of the hysteresis loop was not established in these tests.
9.7.4
Analytical Model for Cyclic Loading
The analytical model proposed by Mimura & Akiyana (1980) was used as the
basis for predicting the test results of Tromposch & Kulak (1987). However,
expanding the theoretical hysteresis curve developed by Mimura and Akiyana by
several cycles shows that the theoretical curve does not degenerate at a rate
similar to that observed in the test. The deflection theoretically required to
redevelop the tension field, CD in Fig. 9.19, is much less than the deflection
measured in the test. Furthermore, this portion of the theoretical hysteresis curve
has a zero slope. This results from the assumption that the boundary members
provide no lateral resistance, an assumption consistent with the Japanese tests.
However, in the Tromposch & Kulak test (and in any real structure) the shear wall
frame did contribute to the lateral stiffness of the shear wall and the observed
slope in this region of the hysteresis curve was not zero. This lateral stiffness,
however, would still be small when compared to that provided by the tension
field of the panel.
The influence of the frame stiffness on the overall stiffness of the structure can
be seen in Fig. 9.20, the final hysteresis cycle of the test frame. The portion of
the curve covering the displacement required to redevelop the tension field has a
slope of approximately 93 kN/mm. Also plotted in Fig. 9.20 is the stiffness (70·6
FIG. 9.20. Hysteresis cycle 28.
kN/mm) of two pin-ended columns alone (assuming the steel panel is absent).
Because by the final cycle the beam-to-column connections had slipped several
times, they can be assumed to be pinned. The slopes of the two lines are
reasonably similar, with the difference attributable to the uncertainty in the
restraint provided by the bolted connections. In the early loading cycles, these
bolted joints were behaving more like fixed connections and the slope of the
curve in the redevelopment phase was greater in the earlier cycles than in the
final cycles.
The theoretical hysteresis curve development proposed by Mimura & Akiyana
(1980) can be modified to incorporate the effects of the frame stiffness and the
effects of the low panel buckling strength. Four assum ptions are made:
(1) The stiffness of the structure during the tension field redevelopment phase
can be represented by the elastic stiffness of the framing members alone.
(2) When a sufficient number of plastic hinges are produced in the boundary
members to form a mechanism, the slope during the tension field
redevelopment phase will be zero.
(3) Given that the buckling load for a thin unstiffened panel is very low, then
the deflection necessary to produce buckling is very small and can be
neglected.
(4) The deflection required to redevelop the tension field is based solely on the
amount of yielding experienced by the panels in each direction.
Figure 9.21 illustrates the development of a theoretical hysteresis curve for an

unstiffened steel plate shear wall using these assumptions. When load is applied
to the structure, the response will follow the monotonic load-versus-deflection
curve past first yield to an arbitrary maximum load at point B. When the
structure is unloaded from this point, the load-versus-deflection curve will
236 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.21. Proposed theoretical hysteresis curve.
unload elastically to point C. Applying load in the other sense, the panel must
develop a tension field in the other direction. The deflection required for the
tension field to develop is a distance CD′ (derivation of this distance to follow).
During this rebuckling deflection, the stiffness of the structure is equal to the
elastic stiffness of the frame only. Once the tension field has reformed (point D),
a linear transition is assumed to apply up to the point of negative yield, E. The
formation of the hysteresis loops is then a continuation of the previous
processes; yielding to point F, unloading to point G, reformation of the tension
field at point H, and a linear transition back to the point of the previous maximum
tension, point B.
The deflection required to redevelop the tension field in any given cycle
(distances CD′ and GH′ in the example of Fig. 9.21) can be derived using the
same assumptions made by Mimura & Akiyana, namely, that Poisson’s ratio is
effectively equal to 0·5 when yielding occurs and that the angle of inclination of
the tension field is equal to 45°. (The actual angle of inclination is generally very
close to 45°.) This deflection is given by the following expression:
∆r=∆1+∆2−0·5∆2 (9.2a)
or
∆r=∆1+0·5∆2 (9.2b)
where ′ r is the deflection required to redevelop tension field, ′ 1 is the yielded
deflection from previous cycle in the direction of loading, and ′ 2 is the yielded
deflection just completed in the opposite loading direction from that under
consideration.
As shown in eqn (9.2a), the deflection required to redevelop the tension field
is made up of two deflection components, ′ 1 and ′ 2, but is also influenced by
the Poisson effect, in this case 0·5′ 2. The statement is then simplified as given by
eqn (9.2b). For the first hysteresis cycle in Fig. 9.21, the deflections required to
redevelop the tension fields are given by
CD′= 0·5OC (9.3)
GH′=OC+0·50G (9.4)
FIG. 9.22. Theoretical and actual hysteresis curves for cycle 16.
Note that in eqn (9.3) there is no ′ 1 term: for the first loading cycle the yielded
deflection from the previous cycle is equal to zero.
Using the relationships developed above, theoretical hysteresis curves were
developed for two of the observed loading cycles obtained for the test panel. The
theoretical hysteresis curves were developed using the above relationships, the
load-versus-deflection curves generated by the plane frame inclined bar model,
and the peak cycle deflections observed in the test. Figure 9.22 provides a
comparison between the theoretical hysteresis curve and the actual hysteresis
curve for cycle 16. The two curves are reasonably similar, but the theoretical
curve encloses about 36% less area than does the actual curve. This is to be
expected, since the joint restraint of the actual frame is greater than the assumed
restraint (pinned joints) used in the analytical model. Thus, the predicted
behaviour is less stiff than the actual behaviour during the tension field
redevelopment phase.
Figure 9.23 compares the theoretical and the observed curves for the ast
hysteresis cycle in this test, cycle 28. Again, the two curves are reasonably
similar. The slopes of the curves in the tension field redevelopment region
correlate better than they did for cycle 16, with the theoretical hysteresis curve
now enclosing about 20% more area than the actual hysteresis curve. The
discrepancy is due in part to the differences in the actual monotonic behaviour
and the predicted monotonic behaviour.
Because the relationships developed above result in a reasonable prediction of
the experimentally obtained hysteresis loops, it is practical to develop predictions
of the hysteresis behaviour of other shear walls with different configurations,
238 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.23. Theoretical and actual hysteresis curves for cycle 28.
member section properties, or different connection characteristics. Three such
examples follow.
Figure 9.24 is a hysteresis loop developed for a structure identical to the
specimen tested by Tromposch & Kulak (1987) except that the web thickness is
increased from 3·25 mm to 5 mm. (A 5-mm thick panel is probably the practical
minimum web plate thickness, as governed by handling considerations.) All
material properties and member section properties were similar to those used in
the analysis of the test specimen. The beam-to-column joints and the support
locations were all assumed to be pinned throughout the load history. Using the new
panel thickness, the angle of inclination of the tension field was calculated to be
43·7°. The hysteresis loop was developed based on the deflections taken in cycle
28 of the conducted test and the theoretical load-versus-deflection curve
developed by the plane frame model. As can be seen from Fig. 9.24, the increase
in panel thickness increases the ultimate strength of the structure but does not
change the basic shape of the hysteresis loop. The stiffness of the frame, 134·2
kN/mm, was comparable to the frame stiffness of the test specimen. As a
consequence, the amount of pinching and the enclosed area are similar in the two
cases.
Figure 9.25 shows the theoretical hysteresis loop for a structure identical to the
previous case (Fig. 9.24) except that the beam-to-column joints are fixed
throughout the load history. The change in the beam-to-column connection
results in a stiffer and stronger structure, with a considerable increase of area
within the hysteresis loop (150%). This is mainly due to the near doubling of the
frame stiffness (from 134·2 to 265·2 kN/mm). The horizontal portions of the
loop, AB and CD, reflect the formation of a mechanism in the frame. This
FIG. 9.24. Theoretical hysteresis loop for a 5-mm thick panel and pinned joints.
FIG. 9.25. Theoretical hysteresis loop for a 5-mm thick panel and fixed joints.
mechanism will result in an increase in the amount of pinching in the hysteresis

loops at higher load levels.
Finally, the hysteresis behaviour of a panel in a configuration typical of a
multistorey building is examined. Figure 9.26 illustrates the plane frame model
used to evaluate the hypothetical shear wall structure. The column and beam
sections used are the same as used in all previous cases. The panel thickness is
set equal to 3·25 mm with a yield strength of 242·5 MPa. The total vertical load
240 G.L.KULAK
FIG. 9.26. Example three-storey structure.
applied to the columns, 350 kN per floor, is approximately equal to the column
load applied to the test specimen. The applied lateral loads are of equal
magnitude for the first and second floors and the lateral load applied to the top
floor is one-half the magnitude of the load applied to the lower floors. At any
level, two shear walls are assumed to resist the total lateral force Q. All beam-to-
column joints are assumed to be pinned joints but all member nodes along line
AB (Fig. 9.26) are assumed to be fixed joints. (The lower storey of a typical shear
wall would normally consist of a very stiff anchor panel. This is provided so that
the tension fields in the panels above can develop fully.) The panels were divided
into only seven tension members in order to reduce the computations involved.
The hysteresis loop developed for the lower storey of this structure, using the
maximum deflections recorded during cycle 28 of the reported test, is shown in
Fig. 9.27. Note that the loop is severely pinched, with a small enclosed area of
about 60% of the area enclosed by actual hysteresis loop (Fig. 9.23). This is due
to the very low frame stiffness (32·11 kN/mm). An identical structure, except for
the use of rigid beam-to-column connections, was analysed and the resulting
theoretical hysteresis loop produced is shown in Fig. 9.28. The area enclosed
under this curve is 3·3 times greater than the area under the previous hysteresis
FIG. 9.27. Theoretical hysteresis loop for the bottom storey of the three-storey example
structure—pinned joints.
FIG. 9.28. Theoretical hysteresis loop for the bottom storey of the three-storey example
structure—fixed joints.
loop, Fig. 9.27. This is due to the large increase in the frame stiffness achieved
by fixing the beam-to-column connections. Initially, the concept of using fixed
beam-to-column connections may seem undesirable; however, fixing only two
connections per shear wall stack per floor results in an increase of 230% in the
amount of absorbed energy for this arrangement of beams and columns.
242 G.L.KULAK
9.7.5
Comparison of Hysteresis Behaviours
When examining the hysteresis behaviour of any structural system, it should be
compared with what is considered ideal behaviour. Ideal hysteresis behaviour is
one that maximizes the enclosed area while minimizing the final deflection.
Ideal hysteresis behaviour also displays loops that are stable and non-
degenerating, or, more simply, these hysteresis loops continue to follow
approximately the same load-versus-deflection path for each subsequent cycle.
The hysteresis behaviour of a moment-resisting frame (Fig. 9.13) is very close
to the ideal behaviour described. The amount of area enclosed by the hysteresis
loops is very large and the loops are very stable, following the same path for
each of the higher loading cycles. This type of hysteresis behaviour is also
displayed by the eccentrically braced frame and by the heavily stiffened steel
plate shear wall. The hysteresis behaviour of a steel plate shear wall is dependent
on the resistance of the panels to buckling. If the panels buckle before yielding
occurs, some pinching of the loops will occur.
Pinched hysteresis loops are the typical behaviour of structures that have
members that buckle when subjected to compressive loads. Conventional steel
cross bracing (Fig. 9.14) displays this type of behaviour; the members yielded in
tension cannot be recompressed without buckling. This structural system must
deflect by a larger amount to absorb the same amount of energy (enclosed area)
as a system which displays the same monotonic load-versus-deflection response
but has fully developed hysteresis loops.
Pinched hysteresis loops are also a characteristic of reinforced-concrete shear
walls. The amount of pinching and the stability of the loops is dependent on the
structural details and reinforcement details used. The pinched loops are not due
to buckling of members but are the result of the change in stiffness due to the
cracking of the concrete and the yielding of the reinforcement.
The observed hysteresis behaviour of the unstiffened steel plate shear wall can
be compared with the structural systems described above. It is apparent that the
behaviour of an unstiffened steel plate shear wall panel is unlikely to achieve the
ideal behaviour shown by the eccentrically braced frame or by the moment-
resisting frame. However, the behaviour is similar to that displayed by
conventional steel cross bracing or by conventional reinforced-concrete shear
walls.
9.10
CONCLUDING REMARKS
An obvious analogy exists between a steel plate shear wall core and a plate
girder. This analogy has been used to develop a simple method of analysis which
utilizes the post-buckling strength of the system. The analysis indicates that very
thin, unstiffened webs can meet the normal strength and stiffness requirements
for the core of a high-rise building. The experimental programme reported in this
chapter used representative sizes and fabrication techniques to verify the model.
The examination has included stiffness (drift), load excursions at wind loading
levels, ultimate strength, and the seismic behaviour of steel plate wall assemblies.
The steel shear wall system is not difficult to analyse and it appears to offer
the potential for economies in both material and construction. It should be
considered for use both in new structures and in the retrofitting of existing
structures.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The work described in this chapter is based upon the theoretical and
experimental studies carried out by the author’s students, Jane Thorburn, Peter
Timler and Eric Tromposch. Some of the original ideas in the development of the
shear wall model are the contribution of the author’s former colleague, Dr
C.J.Montgomery. The author expresses his appreciation to all of these people.
REFERENCES
CANADIAN INSTITUTE of STEEL CONSTRUCTION (1980) A Guide to the Structure

of B-class Japanese Buildings, (English translation). Willowdale, Ontario.
KUHN, P., PETERSON, J.P. & LEVIN, L.R. (1952) A Summary of Diagonal Tension.
Part I—Methods of Analysis. NACA Technical Note 2662. Washington, D.C.
MIMURA, H. & AKIYANA, H. (1980) Load Deflection Relationship on Earthquake
Resistant Steel Shearwalls Developed Diagonal Tension Field. (English translation)
Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, Willowdale, Ontario.
OESTERLE, R.G., FIORATA, A.E., ARITIZABAL-OCHOA, J.D. & CORLEY, W.G.
(1978) Hysteretic Response of Reinforced Concrete Structural Walls. PCA Research
and Development Construction Laboratories, Skokie, Illinois.
PARK, R. & PAULAY, T. (1975) Reinforced Concrete Structures. Wiley, New York.
POPOV, E.P. (1980) Seismic behaviour of structural subassemblages. J. Structural Eng.,
ASCE, 106(7) 1451–74.
TAKAHASHI, Y., TAKEDA, T., TAKEMOTO, Y. & TAKAGAI, M. (1973)
Experimental Study on Thin Steel Shear Walls and Particular Steel Bracings Under
Alternative Horizontal Loading. Preliminary Report IABSE Symposium on
Resistance and Ultimate Deformability of Structures Acted on by Well-Defined
Repeated Loads, Lisbon, pp. 185–191.
THORBURN, L.J., KULAK, G.L. & MONTGOMERY, C.J. (1983) Analysis and Design
of Steel Shear Wall Systems. Structural Engineering Report 107, Department of
Civil Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton.
TIMLER, P.A. & KULAK, G.L. (1983) Experimental Study of Steel Plate Shear Walls.
Structural Engineering Report 114, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Alberta, Edmonton.
244 G.L.KULAK
TROMPOSCH, E.W. & KULAK, G.L. (1987) Cyclic and Static Behaviour of Steel Plate
Shear Walls. Structural Engineering Report No. 145, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton.
WAGNER, H. (1931) Flat Sheet Metal Girders with Very Thin Metal Webs. Part I—
General Theories and Assumptions. NACA Technical Memo. 604. Washington, DC.
INDEX
Across-wind oscillation, 207–9 Constant-amplitude history, 26–8

Acrylic adhesives, 106–7 Corrosion, bridges, 196–202
Acrylic tubing, 142 Coverplated beam specimens, 105–6
Adhesively-bonded cover plates, 103–25 Cover plates, adhesives and, 103–25
bonding, 107–8 bonding, 107–8
crack initiation, 108–12 development, 119–20
crack propagation, 108–12 highway bridges, 120–3
fatigue testing, 112–14 materials for, 106–7
materials for, 106–7 welded, 114–19
Albrecht’s model, 36–7, 50–1 Crack closure model, and Newman, 49
Amplitude, and fatigue life prediction, 64– Crack growth, 13–16
70 plate/box girders, 73–101
Apron girders, 98–100 Crack growth analysis, of bridges, 185–7,
mono box, 99 193–4
twin box, 99 Crack growth retardation, 44–5
Crack initiation, 5
Bending, with plate girder fatigue, 78–82 adhesively bonded cover plates, in,
shear, 80–2 108–12
Bolt-hole cracks, 108, 111–12 Cracks, accounting for, 10–13
Bonded cover plates, 103–25 Crack tip stress, and interaction model, 41–
Box girder fatigue cracking, 86–95 9
Box girders, monorails, 86–95 Crane fatigue cracking, 95–100
Bridges, 7, 82–6, 120–3 Crane girders, 95–100
repair of, 177–203 apron, in unloaders, 98–100
Buckling, plate shear walls, 239–41 welded runways, 95–8
Cross-beam rotation, 85
Chord saddle, 143–4 Cycle-by-cycle crack growth summation,
Chord thickness, tubular joints, 132 46
Concrete, damage to, 228–30 Cycle counting, 28–32
Concrete-slab rotation, 85 level crossing technique for, 29–30
245
246 INDEX
peak, 28, 30 models for, 32–49

rainflow, 29, 31 research into, 51
Cycle counting—contd. range pair, 29, Fatigue-damage bridge structures, 177–203
30, 32 Fatigue, and fracture mechanics, 1–23
reservoir, 29 Fatigue life, 3–7
Cyclic load, 205–35 factors affecting, 3–4
Cyclic loading geometry and, 6–7
analytical model, 265–73 large welded steel structures, 4–6
common structural systems, 258–61 stress range, 6–7
quasi-wind, 247–53 Fatigue life assessment, of tubular joints,
155–60
Damage modelling, R-C frames, 227–31 Fatigue life prediction, variable amplitude,
Damage models, 32–49 64–70
interaction, 41–9 Fatigue notch factor, 118
linear, 32–5 Fatigue-resistant design, 7–9
non-linear, 35–41 detailing, 8
See Fatigue damage models erection, 8–9
Design fabrication, 8–9
fracture damage accumulation, and, 50– structural systems, 7–8
1 Fatigue strength, adhesively-bonded cover
lateral loads, 231 plates, 103–25
Detailing, fatigue-resistant, 8 Finite analysis, and SCF, 152–5
Diagonal bracing, 259 FM. See Fracture mechanics
Discontinuities, 5, 14–18 Fracture mechanics, 10–16
Distortion-induced cracking, 180–1 applications, 16–22
crack accounting, 10–13
Earthquake loading, 258–74 crack growth, 13–16
cyclic loading behaviour, 258–61 fatigue and, 1–23
hysteresis behaviour comparisons, 274 qualitative tool design, 18–20
model for, 265–73 quantitative design, 20–2
Earthquakes, 218–19 structural engineering, 9–10
Efthymiou equation, 144, 149–53 structural engineering applications, 16–
Elastic-perfectly plastic stresses, 41–2 22
Engle-Rudd program, 48 Frames. See Reinforced-concrete frames
Environment, and fatigue life, 3–4
Erection, and fracture mechanics, 8–9 Gauges, 140–1, 192–3
Geometric notations, for offshore
Fabrication, and fracture mechanics, 8–9 structures, 130–4
‘fail-safe design’, 8 Geometrical effect magnitudes, 4–6
Fatigue assessment, 1–23 Geometry, and fatigue life, 3, 6–7
Fatigue crack growth, 13–16 Gerber formula, 55, 62, 64, 66–7, 70
see also Crack growth Girders, 190–1
Fatigue cracking apron, unloaders, 98–100
plate/box girders, 73–101 bridges, 82–6
welded bridge details, 180–2 Girders—contd. cranes, 95–100
Fatigue damage accumulation, 25–53 monorails, 86–95
design for, 50–1 thin-walled, 76–83
INDEX 247
Goodman formula, 55, 61–2, 64 root mean cube, 35

Gravity loads, 207 root mean square, 35
‘Gross’ deformation, 136–7 Load-deflection curves, 210–14
Guideway girders, 86–95 Loads, varying amplitude, and fatigue, 25–
Gurney load-time histories, 39–41 53
Gurney model, 39–40, 50–1 ‘Local’ deformation, 136–7
Low fatigue bridge strength details, 182–7
Haibach model, 38–9, 50–1
Heavy-duty crane fatigue cracking, 95–100 Mono box girder, 98–100
Highway bridge cover plates, 120–3 Monorail box girders, 86–95
Hot-spot stress concept, 139–42
Hysteresis behaviour, steel plate shear Newman crack closure model, 49
walls, 258–74 Newmark method, 222
comparative, 274 Non-linear damage model, 35–41
Hysteresis rules, 223–4 Albrecht’s model, 36–7
Gurney model, 39–40
I-93 Central Artery Bridge (Mass.), 188–96 Haibach model, 38–9
crack growth analysis, 193–4 Palmgren-Miner model, 36, 38–41
failure causes, 191–3 Tilly-Nunn approach, 37–8
field measurements, 191–3 Zwerneman model, 40–1
retrofitting, 194–6
I-95 Susquehanna River Bridge (Md.), Offshore structures, 127–75
196–202 Oil platform. See Offshore structures
field measurements, 197–200
retrofitting, 200–2 Palmgren-Miner linear damage model, 32–
‘Incomplete diagonal tension’ theory, 240 5, 50, 57–8, 65, 228
Infinitely wide plate cracking, 11 linear damage, 32–4
Interaction models, fatigue damage, 41–9 non-linear damage, 36–41
Paris law, 15
Joints, in offshore structure, 130–4 Park-Paylay solution, 232
cast steel, 132–3 Peak counting technique, 28–32
complex, 132–3 Plastic zones, 41–5
composite, 132–3 Plate cracks, 10–13
local behaviour, 134–7, 139–55 Plate girder bridge connection fatigue, 82–
6
K-braced load resistance, 259 concrete-slab rotation, 85
Kuhn theory, 240 crack types, 82–4
cross-beam rotation, 85–6
Lack-of-fusion cracks, 193–4 Plate girder fatigue cracking, 73–86
curve prediction, 194 Plate girders
Large welded steel structures, 4–6 highway bridge, 82–6
Lateral load designs, 231–3 thin-walled, 76–82
Lateral loads, 207 Plate shear walls, 237–76
Level crossing counting, 29–30 PWHT tubular joints, 166–8
Linear damage model, 32–5 post-weld heat treatment, 170–1
applications, 35
Palmgren-Miner, 32–4 Qualitative design tools, 18–20
248 INDEX
Quantitative design, and fracture Strain gauge layout, 140–1

mechanics, 20–2 Strength-drop index, 225
Quasi-seismic loading, 253–8 Stress concentration factor, See SCF
Quasi-static R-C member testing, 209–16 Stress intensity factor, 12–16
Quasi-wind cycling loading, 247–53 Stress-range models, 18–22
Stress superposition, 49
Rails. See Monorail box girders Strip models, 241–3
Rainflow counting, 29, 31 Strip yield approximations, 49
Range pair counting, 29, 30, 32 Structural engineering, and fracture
Rayleigh approximation method, 55, 57, mechanics, 1–23
58, 64, 67 applications of, 16–22
Reinforced-concrete frames, 205–35 fatigue life, 3–7
analysis, 220–31 fatigue-resistant design, 7–9
building components analysis, 222–7 Susquehanna River Bridge, 196–202
damage modelling, 227 Suspended-type monorail box girders, 92–5
earthquakes and, 218–19
quasi-static tests, 209–16 Thin-walled plate girders, 76–82
subassemblies, 216–17 crack types, 76–8
time history analysis, 220–1 bending, 78–80
Reservoir, 29 shear, 80–2
Residual stress, 59–64 Tilly-Nunn model, 37–8, 50–1
hypothesized, 59–61 T-joint deformation, in tubular joints, 135–
weld fatigue, 55–71 6
Residual stress model, 44–5 Truncated Rayleigh distribution, 67
Wheeler model, and, 45–9 Tubular joint fatigue, offshore structures,
Retardation models, 44–5 127–75
Retardation parameter, 46 applied load, 138–9
Retrofitting, 187, 194–6, 200–2 environment and, 171–2
Root mean cube model, 35 failure criteria, 157–8
Root mean square model, 35 fatigue resistance design, 137–73
Runway girders, 95–8 Tubular joint fatigue—contd. fatigue
strength parameters, 137–8
SCF finite-element analysis, 152–5 fracture-mechanics method, 172–3
SCF parametric equation, 142–52 geometric notation, 130–4
Service load-time history, 26–8 hot-spot stress, 139–42
Shear, plate girders, 80–2 joint behaviour, 134–7, 139–55
bending, and, 81–2 joint types, 130–4
Short-crack behaviour, 15 new data, 160–72
Simplification, fatigue assessment, 4–7 new data, specific joint types, 145–8
Small weld-induced discontinuities, 5 research directions in, 173–4
S–N curves, 57–8, 61–2, 64 SCF finite-element analysis, 152–5
coverplates, 112–14 SCF parametric equation, 142–51
Palmgren-Miner model, and, 36–8 size effects, 166–71
S–N methods, and tubular joints, 155–60 S–N method, 155–60
available curves, 158–60 stress range, 157
Steel plate shear walls, 237–76 Twin box girders, 98–100
Straddle-type monorail box girders, 86–92
INDEX 249
Two-dimensional elastic-plastic finite-

element method, 49
Two-span continuous highway-bridge
cover plates, 120–3
UEG UR33 equations, 144, 149–53

Unloader girders, 98–100
Unloading plastic zone, 42–3
Unstiffened steel plate shear walls, 237–76
Variable-amplitude fatigue-life prediction,

64–70
Yariable-amplitude fatigue-life prediction
tables, 68–9
Variable-amplitude stress range, 65
Varying-amplitude loads, 26–53
Versilok-201, 106–7
Viaduct bents, 188
Wagner theory, 240

Web attachment, 178–9
Web deflection, 77
Web plate, and shear, 239–40
Weld fatigue, and residual stress, 55–71
Weld-induced discontinuities (small), 5
Weld-toe discontinuities, 16–18
Welded bridge fatigue cracking, 180–2
Welded crane runway girders, 95–8
Welded steel structures, 4–6
Wheeler model, 45–9
Willenborg model, and, 47–8
Willenborg model, 47–50
Wheeler model, and, 47–8
X-braced load resistance, 259
Yellow Mill Pond Bridge (Conn.), 182–7

fatigue-crack growth analysis, 185–7
retrofitting, 187
stress history, 183–5
Zwerneman model, 40–1, 50–1

1851665676

Încărcat de

Informații document

Descriere originală:

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

1851665676

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

STRUCTURES SUBJECTED TO

Stability and Strength

(4) Shell Structures

ELSEVIER APPLIED SCIENCE

ISBN 0-203-97504-9 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 1-85166-567-6 (Print Edition)

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

It gives us great pleasure to write a short preface to the book on Structures

1. Fatigue Assessment and Fracture Mechanics in Structural 1

acr Critical crack length

management during post-design stages. Also, basic fracture mechanics concepts

and shape, hardness, energy absorption, chemical composition, homogeneity and

FIG. 1.1. Three magnitudes of geometric effects.

FIG. 1.2. Special conditions leading to simplifications of fatigue assessments.

glass specimens (Griffith, 1921), the development of FM began in the 1940s

FIG. 1.3. Five different cases of a plate containing a crack.

FIG. 1.4. A crack in an infinitely wide plate.

assume an isotropic continuum, e.g. those employing K or J, are sufficiently

Variable-amplitude loading may be assessed in a cycle-by-cycle integration.

usual quality-assurance procedures may not be able to guarantee that new

must be measured accurately. In many designs, a poor definition of such

(a) Fitness for purpose (acceptance levels)

Each term implies considerations and calculation which FM can rationalize. A

1. The two most important parameters in fatigue assessments of large

BERGE, S. (1983) Effect of Plate Thickness in Fatigue of Cruciform Welded Joints.

C1 Constant dependent on plane stress or plane strain conditions

Ei Total number of cycles per block equal to or exceeding pi times the

FIG. 2.1 Conversion of service load-time history to constant-amplitude history.

applicable load-time history or convert the applicable history to a form

FIG. 2.5 Rainflow counting.

FIG. 2.6 Palmgren-Miner linear damage model.

The rationale behind this technique is not difficult to understand, but

Considering only cycles above the fatigue limit:

FIG. 2.10 Load-time histories used by Gurney.

where NB is the number of complex cycles to failure, NC is the number of

cycles between major cycles. Fatigue life is unconservatively estimated by the

FIG. 2.11 Stress distribution in an elastic-perfectly plastic material.

plastic deformation ahead of the crack tip in excess of plastic deformations

This retardation parameter varies from zero immediately following an overload

where C1 is a constant dependent on plane stress or plane strain conditions, K is

FIG. 2.14 Wheeler residual stress model.

If the load-time history is made up of large cycles separated by few small

ALBRECHT, P. & I.M.FRIEDLAND. (1979) Fatigue-limit effect on variable-amplitude

HUDSON, C.M. & HARDRATH, H.F. (1963) Investigation of the Effects of

A* Largest stochastic amplitude

S Constant-amplitude stress range having tensile mean

Se Equivalent stress range having zero mean

approximation method (Miles, 1954). This technique is based on the assumption

FIG. 3.1 Hypothesized effect of residual stresses.

The Gerber equation is

FIG. 3.2 Influence of mean stresses on S–N curve.

FIG. 3.3 Influence of residual stresses on S–N curve.

Now the Palmgren-Miner hypothesis is employed to calculate the fatigue damage

0·05 268×103 518×1019 721×1046 723×1084

S–N curve of eqn (3.12). In particular, a constant-amplitude stress range S can be

(modified Goodman) (3.15a)

for the Gerber correction, one gets

In the above formulation, it is explicity assumed that the largest amplitude

N0 (cycles) N1 (cycles) N2 (cycles) N1/No N2/N0 A* recurrence

N0 (cycles) N1 (cycles) N2 (cycles) N1/N0 N2/N0 A* recurrence

significant for variable-amplitude loadings that have small SD values typical of

ALBERCHT, P. & SIDANI, M. (1986). Fatigue Strength of 8-Year Weathered Stiffeners

a Width of a rectangular plate or interval between adjacent vertical stiffeners