Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Chapter 1
Introduction
1
Classification of Matter
• One classification of matter depends on the magnitude of intermolecular attraction forces.
There are two other states of matter, plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate.
www.edinformatics.com/math_science/states_of_matter.htm
2
The Concept of Continuum
• At the microscopic scale, fluids are composed of molecules which are in constant motion and
collision.
• For an exact analysis, the action of each molecule (or group of molecules) should be studied.
• This is done in the kinetic theory of gasses for example, but it is not practical for most engineering
problems.
• We study most engineering problems at the macroscopic scale, where we are concerned with the
behaviour of matter in the large.
• That is we treat fluids as continuum and do not concern with the behavior of individual molecules.
3
The Concept of Continuum (cont’d)
• Continuum assumes that the fluid characteristics, such as density, pressure, temperature, vary
continuously throughout the fluid.
• In continuum, the smallest element of a fluid is called a fluid particle, which contains enough
number of molecules to make statistical averages.
• In the previous example, the speed at point A, measured as 10 m/s, is actually the average
speed of molecules in the small volume surrounding point A. We can say that the fluid particle
located at point A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s.
4
The Concept of Continuum (cont’d)
• More realistic answer: Depends on the Knudsen number.
• Although not mentioned in this detail, continuum assumption is also used in solid mechanics.
• Actually continuum mechanics, a branch of physics, is the study of matter as a continuum. It
does not differentiate between solids and fluids.
5
Two Different Ways to Describe Continuum
• As a fluid particle moves in a flow field, its properties change from point to point in space and
from time to time.
p = p (x, y, z, t ) , ρ = ρ (x, y, z, t) , etc.
Material (Lagrangian) Description: identified fluid particles are followed in the course of time as
they move in the flow field.
Spatial (Eulerian) Description: attention is focused at fixed points in the flow field and the
variation of properties at these points is determined as fluid particles pass through these points.
6
Properties of the Continuum
Mass Density: (ρ) [ kg/m3 ]
• Mass per unit volume of a fluid.
• Consider the point P inside a continuous fluid of volume ∀. P
∀
• According to the continuum assumption, the density at point P can be defined as the average
density within the small volume of Δ∀ surrounding point P.
Δm
Δ∀
ρ=
Δ∀
Δm Domain of Domain of
molecular affects contınuum Therefore a better definition for density is
Δ∀
Δm
ρ= lim
Δ∀→ Δ∀' Δ∀
Δ∀
Δ∀ ’ 7
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Compressibility:
• A fluid can be considered as incompressible when its density is constant over the range of working
conditions.
• Water is nearly incompressible, but it does compress a little.
At 25 oC, 1 atm ρwater = 999.84 kg/m3
It takes 400 kPa (4 atm) pressure to get ρwater = 1000 kg/m3
• Air is much more compressible (think about the ideal gas law to understand ρ-p relationship of air)
r
Fluid velocity: ( V ) [ m/s ]
• For fluids considered as continuum, similar to density, velocity at a point P of a flow field is
actually the average velocity of the molecules within a small volume surrounding point P.
8
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
r
Forces acting on a body of fluid: ( F ) [ N ]
• Surface forces act on the boundaries of a medium through direct contact.
• Body forces are distributed over the volume of a fluid, and defined per unit mass.
• A surface force can be decomposed into a normal force acting perpendicular to the surface and
tangential (shear) force acting parallel to the surface.
F2 Fi
Fit
F1
F3 F3 Fin
r
t r
n
y y
x
F5 x
F4 F4
5 r r r r r r
At equilibrium ∑ Fk = 0 At equilibriu m F3 + F4 + Fi = 0
k =1
9
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
z
ΔFt ΔF
Stress: ( σ, τ ) [ Pa = N/m2 ]
ΔFn ΔFn
• Normal stress at point P: σ = lim
ΔA → ΔA′ ΔA
P
ΔFt y
• Shear stress at point P: τ= lim
ΔA → ΔA′ ΔA
x
ΔA’
• Note that stress field at a point is a tensor quantity (not a vector quantity). Complete definition
of it requires nine components (not three).
y σyy
τyx
⎡σ xx τ xy τ xz ⎤
⎢ ⎥ τyz
• Cartesian stress tensor : ⎢ τ yx σ yy τ yz ⎥
⎢ τ zx τ zy σ zz ⎥⎦
⎣ x
• Sign convention for the stress: A stress component is positive when the direction of the stress
component and the plane on which it acts are both positive or both negative.
10
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Pressure: ( p ) [ Pa = N/m2 ]
• is the normal component of the force acting on an area divided by that area.
• Pressure always acts perpendicular and towards the surface.
• For a fluid at rest, pressure at a point is independent of the direction (see section 1.5.7).
• Note that it is also possible to think pressure as a thermodynamic property.
F
B B B’
A A A’
Fixed plate
• If a similar experiment is performed using fluid between the plates, a vertical fluid element AB
will deform continuously as long as the shear force is applied.
F
B B’ B’’ A fluid can also be defined as a substance
to t1 t2
that deforms continuously under the
application of a shear (tangential) force, no
A matter how small the force is.
12
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Viscosity (cont’d):
• The constant force F will cause the upper plate to move with a constant velocity of Uo.
• Note that the lower plate is not moving.
• Due to the no-slip condition (fluid particles stick to the solid walls and move with them), speed
of the fluid particles adjacent to the lower and upper plates will be zero and Uo, respectively.
• We will observe a linear velocity profile between the two plates (why linear ?).
Uo
u=Uo
Linear
velocity profile
u=0
Uo
dy
y dx
x
13
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Viscosity (cont’d):
• The deformation of this fluid element will be studied in detail during the class.
B B’ C C’
Uo
dy
y dx
x
y A’ D’
A D
x
14
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Newton’s Law Of Viscosity:
• Relates shear stress (τ) to shear strain rate (dα/dt ).
• For Newtonian fluids, the shear stress on a surface tangent to the flow direction is proportional
to the rate of shear strain or to the velocity gradient on the surface (change of velocity in a
direction normal to the surface).
dα du
τ=μ = μ
τ dt dy
y
x τ coefficient of viscosity
absolute viscosity
dynamic viscosity
viscosity
Sign convention for shear stress:
• On a surface whose normal is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis,
• shear stress is positive if it is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis.
• it is negative if it is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis.
• On a surface whose normal is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis,
• shear stress is positive if it is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis.
• it is negative if it is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis.
15
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Sign convention for shear stress (cont’d):
+ + +
+ - -
- + -
- - +
16
Example
Area = 0.3 m2
Uo = 0.3 m/s (constant)
oil
h = 2 mm
y μ = 3 Pa.s
x
• Determine the
• Pressure is constant everywhere.
(a) velocity profile in the oil.
• Oil is a Newtonian fluid.
(b) shear stress distribution.
(c) force required to pull the plate.
(solution will be given during the lecture)
(d) power required to pull the plate.
17
Classification of Fluids According to the Behavior of Their Viscosity
Fluids
Inviscid Viscous
(ideal)
Newtonian Non-Newtonian
τ Bingham plastic
Newtonian
Movie 1.2: Non-Newtonian fluids
Dialatant μ
1
Elastic Pseudoplastic
solid
Inviscid (ideal) du
dy 18
Classification of Fluids According to the Behavior of Their Viscosity (cont’d)
• Newtonian behaviour simple (it is linear), but not all fluids are Newtonian.
• Fortunately the most common ones, water and air behave as Newtonian.
• Inviscid (ideal) fluids do not exist in real world. They have μ = 0. This might be a useful
simplification for some analytical analysis.
• Dialatant fluids become thicker and thicker under increased shear stress. (printing ink).
• Bingham plastics do not flow below a certain amount of shear stress. (toothpaste).
• Pseudoplastics become thinner and thinner under increased shear stress. (wall paint, blood).
19
Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
• Temperature dependence of viscosity of gases and liquids are affected by different mechanisms.
• Liquid molecules have limited mobility compared to gases.
• As temperature increases average distance between the molecules increase,
• and intermolecular attraction forces decrease.
• Therefore fluidity increases, meaning that viscosity decreases.
• Gas molecules have greater mobility, but weak intermolecular attraction forces.
• Viscosity is due to the collision of molecules.
• As temperature increases mobility of the molecules increase, resulting in more collisions.
• This decreases fluidity, meaning that viscosity increases.
20
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
μ
Kinematic viscosity: (ν) [m2/s] υ=
ρ
21
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Surface tension (cont’d)
• Surface tension creates a pressure difference across a curved interface of two fluids (one of
them is always a liquid).
• Consider a spherical liquid droplet in a gas.
• A more general analysis for a double curvature surface (not the surface of a sphere) is given in
the textbook.
22
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Surface Tension (cont’d):
• Liquid + Liquid + Fluid meet at a point:
σab
Fluid a
α σac
Liquid b
β
σbc
Liquid c
23
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Surface Tension (cont’d):
• Liquid + Fluid + Solid meet at a point:
σab
Fluid a
Liquid b θ • θ > π/2
σac
σbc
• Example: a: air, b: mercury, c: glass
Solid c
24
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Vapor pressure:
• Consider a liquid in a confied space kept at constant temperature.
• Even at temperatures below the boiling point, some of the liquid molecules
will have enough kinetic energy to escape from the free surface to the space
Vapor
above.
• After some time, there will be enough molecules in the vapor above the liquid
and they will start exerting pressure so that some of the liquid molecules will
Liquid rejoin the free surface.
• At some point, there will be a balance of molecules escaping from the free
surface and molecules rejoining the free surface.
• At this equilibrium, the pressure exerted on the free surface is called the vapor pressure of the
liquid.
• Vapor pressure increases with temperature (high temperature → increased molecular activity →
more molecules escaping from the free surface → increased vapor pressure).
• Volatile liquids have high vapor pressure (easy to evaporate).
• Nonvolatile liquids have low vapor pressure (hard to evaporate).
25
Properties of the Continuum (cont’d)
Boiling and vapor pressure:
• When the pressure above the free surface of a liquid is brought slightly below the vapor pressure,
it starts boiling.
• Boiling can be achieved by
• raising the temperature of the liquid, therefore its vapor pressure rises.
• lowering the pressure of the space above the free surface below the vapor pressure of the
liquid.
26