1

PUSAT PEMBELAJARAN:

INSTITUT PERGURUAN TEKNIK

KUALA LUMPUR

HBSC3203:

TEACHING SCIENCE FOR UPPER PRIMARY

NAMA :

SIVAJOTHY SIVALINGAM

670728-10-5626

s_sivajothy@yahoo.com

NAMA PENSYARAH :

AZIZAH NGAH TASIR

ngahtasir@oum.edu.my
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CONTENTS

No Title Page
1 Contents 1
2 Definition constructivism 2-3
3 Twelve Principles of Constructivism 4
4 Characteristics of Constructivism 5-9
5 Types of constructivism 10
6 Constructivism 5-stage model 11 - 12
7 Role of teachers and students in constructivist classroom 13
8 Lesson plan based on constructivist 14 – 17
9 Card Activities ( Construct Model of Solar System ) 18
10 Card Activities ( Games of Model of Solar System ) 18
11 Diagrams 19
12 Assessment on games 20
13 Worksheet 1 21
14 Worksheet 2 22
15 Conclusion 23 – 24
16 References 25 - 27

Definition Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory of learning based on the idea that knowledge is constructed by the
knower based on mental activity. Learners are considered to be active organisms seeking
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meaning. Constructions of meaning may initially bear little relationship to reality (as in the naive
theories of children), but will become increasing more complex, differentiated and realistic as
time goes on.

It is impossible to discuss constructivism without contrasting it with its opposite, objectivism.

Bednar, Cunningham, Duffy and Perry (1991) state the philosophy of objectivism as follows:

Objectivism is a view of the nature of knowledge and what it means to know something. In this
view, the mind is an instantiation of a computer, manipulating symbols in the same way....These
symbols acquire meaning when an external and independent reality is "mapped" onto them in our
interactions in the world. Knowledge, therefore is some entity existing independent of the mind
of individuals, and is transferred "inside". Cognition is the rule-based manipulation of these
symbols...this school of thought believes that the external world is mind independent (i.e., the
same for everyone) and we can say things about it that are objectively, absolutely and
unconditionally true or false....Consistent with this view of knowledge, the goal of instruction,
from both the behavioral and cognitive information processing perspectives, is to communicate
or transfer knowledge to learners in the most efficient, effective manner possible. Knowledge
can be completely characterized using the techniques of semantic analysis (or its second cousin,
task analysis). One key to efficiency and effectiveness is simplification and regularization:
thought is atomistic in that it can be completely broken down into simple building blocks, which
form the basis of instruction. (p. 91)

Jonassen (1991) talks about constructivism as follows:

Constructivism, founded on Kantian beliefs, claims that reality is constructed by the knower
based upon mental activity. Humans are perceivers and interpreters who construct their own
reality through engaging in those mental activities...thinking is grounded in perception of
physical and social experiences, which can only be comprehended by the mind. What the mind
produces are mental models that explain to the knower what he or she has perceived.... We all
conceive of the external reality somewhat differently, based on our unique set of experiences
with the world and our beliefs about them. (p. 10)

Bednar, et al (1991) elaborate further:

...the learner is building an internal representation of knowledge, a personal interpretation of

experience. This representation is constantly open to change, its structure and linkages forming
the foundation to which other knowledge structures are appended. Learning is an active process
in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience....Conceptual growth comes from the
sharing of multiple perspectives and simultaneous changing of our internal representations in
response to those perspectives as well as through cumulative experience.
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Consistent with this view of knowledge, learning must be situated in a rich context, reflective of
real world contexts, for this constructive process to occur and transfer to environments beyond
the school (p. 91-2).

Twelve Principles of Constructivism

1. Constructivist teachers encourage and accept student

Autonomy and initiative .
2. Constructivist teachers use raw data and primary sources long with manipulative, interactive,
and physical material.

3. While framing tasks, constructivist teachers use cognitive terminology such as classify,
analyze, predict, and create.
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4. Constructivist teachers allow student responses to drive lessons, shift instructional

strategies, and alter content.

5. Constructivist teachers inquire about students' understanding of concepts before sharing their
own understanding of those concepts.

6. Constructivist teachers encourage students to engage in dialogue, both with the teacher and
with other students.

7. Constructivist teachers encourage student inquiry by asking

thoughtful, open-ended questions and encouraging students to ask questions to each other.

8. Constructivist teachers seek elaboration of students' initial responses.

9. Constructivist teachers engage students in experiences that might engender contradictions to

their initial hypotheses and then encourage discussion.

10. Constructivist teachers allow wait time after posing questions.

11. Constructivist teachers provide time for students to construct relationships and create
metaphors.

12. Constructivist teachers nurture students' natural curiosity through frequent use of the learning
cycle model.

Characteristics of Constructivism

Moving from constructivist philosophy, psychology and epistemology to the

characterization of constructivist learning environments presents the challenge of synthesizing a
large spectrum of somewhat disparate concepts. An appropriate analogy for the way in which
constructivist concepts have evolved is that of a prism with many facets. While the facets reflect
the same light and form one part of a whole, they nonetheless each present distinct and finely
delineated boundaries.

The presentation of characteristics in this section aims to remain true to this analogy in
that it recognizes and attempts to represent the variety of ways in which constructivism is
articulated in the literature. Situated cognition, anchored instruction, apprenticeship learning,
problem-based learning, generative learning, constructivism, exploratory learning: these
approaches to learning are grounded in and derived from constructivist epistemology.
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Each approach articulates the way in which the concepts are operationalise for learning.
The researchers and theorists whose perspectives are listed below suggest links between
constructivist theory and practice. They provide the beginnings of an orienting framework for a
constructivist approach to design, teaching or learning.

Jonassen (1991) notes that many educators and cognitive psychologists have applied
constructivism to the development of learning environments. From these applications, he
has isolated a number of design principles:

1. Create real-world environments that employ the context in which learning is relevant;

2. Focus on realistic approaches to solving real-world problems;

3. The instructor is a coach and analyzer of the strategies used to solve these problems;

4. Stress conceptual interrelatedness, providing multiple representations or perspectives on

the content;

5. Instructional goals and objectives should be negotiated and not imposed;

6. Evaluation should serve as a self-analysis tool;

7. Provide tools and environments that help learners interpret the multiple perspectives of
the world;

8. Learning should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner. (pp.11-12)

Jonassen (1994) summarizes what he refers to as "the implications of constructivism for

instructional design". The following principles illustrate how knowledge construction can
be facilitated:

1. Provide multiple representations of reality;

2. Represent the natural complexity of the real world;

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3. Focus on knowledge construction, not reproduction;

4. Present authentic tasks (contextualizing rather than abstracting instruction);

5. Provide real-world, case-based learning environments, rather than pre-determined

instructional sequences;

6. Foster reflective practice;

7. Enable context-and content dependent knowledge construction;

8. Support collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation. (p.35)

Wilson and Cole (1991) provide a description of cognitive teaching models which
"embody" constructivist concepts. From these descriptions, we can isolate some concepts
central to constructivist design, teaching and learning:

1. Embed learning in a rich authentic problem-solving environment;

2. Provide for authentic versus academic contexts for learning;

3. Provide for learner control;

4. Use errors as a mechanism to provide feedback on learners' understanding. (pp.59-61)

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning
environments:

1. Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

2. Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

3. Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

5. Embed learning in social experience;

6. Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;

7. Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process. (p.11)

Ernest (1995) in his description of the many schools of thought of constructivism suggests
the following implications of constructivism which derive from both the radical and social
perspectives:

1. sensitivity toward and attentiveness to the learner's previous constructions;

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2. diagnostic teaching attempting to remedy learner errors and misconceptions;

3. attention to met cognition and strategic self-regulation by learners;

4. the use of multiple representations of mathematical concepts;

5. awareness of the importance of goals for the learner, and the dichotomy between learner
and teacher goals;

6. Awareness of the importance of social contexts, such as the difference between folk or
street mathematics and school mathematics (and an attempt to exploit the former for the
latter). (p.485)

Honebein (1996) describes seven goals for the design of constructivist learning
environments:

1. Provide experience with the knowledge construction process;

2. Provide experience in and appreciation for multiple perspectives;

3. Embed learning in realistic and relevant contexts;

4. Encourage ownership and voice in the learning process;

5. Embed learning in social experience;

6. Encourage the use of multiple modes of representation;

7. Encourage self-awareness in the knowledge construction process. (p.11)

An important concept for social constructivists is that of scaffolding which is a process of

guiding the learner from what is presently known to what is to be known. According to
Vygotsky (1978), students' problem solving skills fall into three categories:

1. skills which the student cannot perform

2. skills which the student may be able to perform

3. skills that the student can perform with help

Scaffolding allows students to perform tasks that would normally be slightly beyond their ability
without that assistance and guidance from the teacher. Appropriate teacher support can allow
students to function at the cutting edge of their individual development. Scaffolding is therefore
an important characteristic of constructivist learning and teaching.

Multiple perspectives, authentic activities, real-world environments these are just some of the
themes that are frequently associated with constructivist learning and teaching. There were many
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similarities between the perspectives of different researchers in this brief review of the literature.
The following section presents a synthesis and summary of the characteristics of constructivist
learning and teaching as presented by the above review and as suggested by the previous section
on constructivist theory.

These are not presented in a hierarchical order.

1. Multiple perspectives and representations of concepts and content are presented and
encouraged.

2. Goals and objectives are derived by the student or in negotiation with the teacher or
system.

3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors, coaches, tutors and facilitators.

4. Activities, opportunities, tools and environments are provided to encourage meta

cognition, self-analysis -regulation, -reflection & -awareness.

5. The student plays a central role in mediating and controlling learning.

6. Learning situations, environments, skills, content and tasks are relevant, realistic,
authentic and represent the natural complexities of the 'real world'.

7. Primary sources of data are used in order to ensure authenticity and real-world
complexity.

8. Knowledge construction and not reproduction is emphasized.

9. This construction takes place in individual contexts and through social negotiation,
collaboration and experience.

10. The learner's previous knowledge constructions, beliefs and attitudes are considered in
the knowledge construction process.

11. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills and deep understanding are emphasized.

12. Errors provide the opportunity for insight into students' previous knowledge
constructions.

13. Exploration is a favoured approach in order to encourage students to seek knowledge

independently and to manage the pursuit of their goals.
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14. Learners are provided with the opportunity for apprenticeship learning in which there is
an increasing complexity of tasks, skills and knowledge acquisition.

15. Knowledge complexity is reflected in an emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and

interdisciplinary learning.

16. Collaborative and cooperative learning are favoured in order to expose the learner to
alternative viewpoints.

17. Scaffolding is facilitated to help students perform just beyond the limits of their ability.

18. Assessment is authentic and interwoven with teaching.

Types of constructivism:

1. Trivial or Personal

Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the
environment.

2. Radical

Coming to know is a process of dynamic adaptation towards viable interpretations of

experience. The knower does not discover truth about the real world.

3. Social

Individuals participate in the learning of a collective, sometimes with what is learned

distributed throughout the collective more than in the mind of any one individual.

4. Cultural

The ways in which individuals think are affected by the tools, artifacts, and symbolic
systems used to facilitate social and cultural interaction.

5. Critical
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Myths that keep individuals from being empowered should be made visible and hence
open to question.

Constructivism 5-Stage Model

Teaching and learning model is proposed in the "Children's Learning in Science Project
(Needham, 1987). In this model, students are encouraged to exchange ideas through a phase of
the outbreak of the idea. This phase can also stimulate the students review their original idea. In
the phase of the restructuring of ideas, teachers are encouraged to plan appropriate activities to
help students change their original ideas. Pupils are given the opportunity to challenge his own
original idea and the idea of their friends.

Is believed new idea is being built by the students themselves are more easily accepted by
them if the idea is understandable and useful. In the phase of the use of ideas, students can use
their new ideas to solve problems and explain phenomena related to those ideas. Back reflection
phase is the final phase. In this phase the students compare the original idea back reflection is the
final phase. In this phase the students compare their original ideas with new ideas and reflect on
the learning process that has resulted in changes to their ideas. This phase can also develop meta-
cognitive skills.
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Phases of the constructivist teaching model based on 5-phases as follows: -

No Phase Purpose / Use Methods

Practical solution of real
I Orientation Generate interest and provide an problems, a demonstration by
environment teachers, film, video and
newspaper cuttings
Brainstorming So that students and teachers Practical, small group
II Ideas aware of the previous idea discussions, mapping and
reporting concern
Restructuring ideas To create awareness about the Discussions in small groups and
III i. Explanation and alternatives in the form of create reports
exchange scientific ideas. Discussions, readings, teacher
Recognizing that existing ideas input.
ii. Exposure to should be modified, expanded or Practical project work,
conflict situations replaced with a more scientific experiments, demonstration
ideas . teachers
iii. Construction of
a new idea Identify alternative ideas and
iv. Rating critically examine the existing
ideas of their own
Test the validity of existing ideas
Modification, or conversion idea
and development
To test the validity of new ideas
developed
Strengthening the idea that has Writing their own project work
IV Application been built in the new situation and
the normal
Aware of changes in student Writing Self, discussion groups,
V Reflection ideas. Pupils can make a reflection personal notes and other.
of the extent of their original idea
has changed.

Role of teachers and students in constructivist classroom

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Role of teachers in constructivist classroom

In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the
teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to
develop their own conclusions on the subject. David Jonassen identified three major roles for
facilitators to support students in constructivist learning environments:

Modeling

Coaching

Scaffolding

Role of students in constructivist classroom

To explore the learning environment in concert with others and construct meaning from learning
experiences. To apply knowledge in personally meaningful contexts .

LESSON PLAN BASED ON CONSTRUCTIVIST

Class : 4 Adidev

Subject : Science

Total pupils : 40 pupils

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Time : 1 hour

Theme : Investigating Earth and Universe

Topic : Our Solar System

Learning Objectif : 1.1 Understanding the solar system

Learning outcomes : At the end of this lesson, pupils should be able to :

1. List the constituents of the Solar System

2.List the planets in the solar system in the Solar System insequence

3.State that planets moves around the sun.

Scientific skills and Thinking skills:

Observation and sequencing ; Relating and inferring ; Planning and communicating ;

Mathemathical skills ; Discussion

Scientific Attitudes and Noble values :

Being thankful to god ; Being confident and indipendent

• Pupils shoul realise that the use of science is a means to understand the solar system and
be thankful to God for perfecting the Solar System

Teaching and Learning Resources :

Charts of the Solar System, LCD, computer, worksheet,lyrics

Suggested Teaching Strategies :

Constructivism 5-Stage Model

Steps Content P&P Activities Note

– Teacher had chosen 10 pupils as

Orientation Introducing Observation
planets, one of them was chosen
Solar System Skill
(induction set ) to represent Sun and remainders
are nine planets.
( 5 minutes )
– Teacher distributed lyrics about
Simulation
solar system to all the pupils
– Model including the observers. The
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of teacher had drawn nine

solar concentric circles in the middle
system of school field using powdered
– Singin chalk.
g song – Then, the teacher and the student
sang the song together.
– The selected student had took
their positions as nine planets
and moved around the pupil who
represent the sun.
– As the song finished the pupils
stop moving around the
concentric circle.
– Then, the teacher asked
questions to the pupils regarding
the lesson.

Brainstorming Members in – The teacher provided a model of - materials

Ideas solar system solar system to a student and
- computer
asked the pupil to explain about
( 15 minutes )
the members in the solar system. - LCD
– Then, the teacher played
animation related to the solar
system in My CD and had
discuss with the pupils.
Steps Content P&P Activities Note

Restructuring Interpreting – Teacher explained briefly to the -Communication

ideas and analyzing pupils regarding the activities skill
the members which going to be carried out in
(15 minutes)
in solar Simulation of Model Solar
system System – Guideline
– Rules of the activities was activity
distributed for the pupils. worksheet
– Pupil was brought to the school
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field. ( attachment )
– Pupils were divided into 3
Pupil
groups, and each group has 10
construct the
members.
model of
– With the help of instruction of
Solar System
teacher, the pupils , used their
thinking skill to construct the
model of solar system using the
materials provided.
– Each group was provided with
chalk pieces, a few centimeters
Naming the
of square paper, scissors and
planets in the
string for the activity planned.
Solar System
– Pupils used the chalk pieces
provided by the teacher to draw
nine orbits of the planets in the
school field.
– The pupils cut strips and pieces
of paper representing the
diameters of the planets.

Steps Content P&P Activities Note

Application ‘ Tricky Box ’ – Teacher explained the concept of – Card

game the game, which is tricky box activity
(20 minutes)
containing the name of the Games
planets was passed by around the ( attachment )
circle by the pupils. As the
teacher blew the whisel, the
pupil who holds the box will
pick up the name of the planet
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and will start searching for the

position planet which picked by
the pupil.
– The steps were repeated for
other planets in solar system.
– Pupils named the sequence of
planets which is nearest from the
sun.
– Pupils went back to the class
and start doing the worksheet
distributed by the teacher, to find
out the achievement of learning
objective.

– Teacher gave chance to the

Reflection Summary of – Membuat
students to summarise the
the lesson kesimpul
(5 minutes) learning topic.
an
– Teacher guide the pupils to
summarise the lesson of the
topic.
– Pupils were given chance to
present their summary of the
topic to the class.
– Other pupils were questioned the
presenter.

Card Activities ( Construct Model of Solar System )

1. Provide the pupils with few centimeters of square paper, a ball, some pieces of string
and pair of scissors.

2. Cut the square papers representing the diameters of the planet which follows the size of
planet. ( Refer to the text book as a guideline )

3. Build the centre of the Solar System. ( Use a ball as the sun )
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4. Sketch the orbits of the planet using the diagram of Solar System in the text book on the
field.

5. The model was arranged on the orbits according to their sequence in Solar System.

6. Name the planets according to their sequence from the planet nearest to the sun.

Card Activities ( Games of Model of Solar System )

1. With the guide of the teacher, pupils sketch the centre of Solar System and the orbits
of the planet on the field using powdered chalk.

2. Pupils were ordered to stand in circles.

3. A box containing the name of planets were passed among the pupils in the circle.

4. While the students passing the Tricky Box among them the teacher will blew the whisel
The last person holding the box will, pick a name of planet and will look for the orbit of
the planet which sketch by them.

5. The game was continued until the naming of the nine planets.

6. Pupil were required to name the planet form the nearest to the sun to the farer.

7. The game was repeated for several times. ( depends on the P&P time )

Diagrams
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Assessment on games

In this games, all the pupils were provided with assessment worksheet , where all the pupils
required to complete the worksheet during the games carried out. The scientific skills involved in
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the activities are observation and sequencing ; relating and inferring ; planning and
communicating ; mathemathical skills and discussion. The thinking skill used in the games is for
arranging planets in sequence.

Members of Solar System Name

Centre of Solar System
First planet
Second planet
Third planet
Fourth planet
Fifth planet
Sixth planet
Seventh planet
Eighth planet
Nineth planet

According to the graphic above, teacher required the pupils to fill in the blanks according to the
lesson they studied in the learning process.

Worksheet 1
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Name: _______________________ Class : _________________

The Planets

Answer all questions:

1. How many planets and dwarf planets are in our Solar System?_________________

2. Which planet or dwarf planet is nearest the Sun?_______________________

3. Which planet or dwarf planet is farthest from the Sun?_______________________

4. Which planet is the biggest?_______________________

5. Which planet has the biggest, most easily-seen rings orbiting it? _____________________

6. What is the name of the group of objects that orbit the Sun between Mars and Jupiter? ______

7. What is at the center of our Solar System?_______________________

8. Are the inner planets made of rock or gas? _______________________

9. What are the icy objects with huge tails that orbit the Sun? ______________________

10. Which planet is called the "red planet"? ______________________

Worksheet 2

Name: _______________________ Class : _________________

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Characteristics of Planet Name of Planet

– No moon
– Nearest to the earth
– The hottest planet

– No moon
– Second smallest planet
– Nearest to sun

– Has two moon

– Looks red

– Only planet has living things

– Has only one moon

– Smallest and coldest planet

– Farer planet from sun

– Has 20 moons
– Has three rings surrounding it

– Biggest planet
– Has 16 moons

– Has 8 moons
– Second farer planet from sun

– Looks greenish-blue
– Has 15 moons

Conclusion

“Constructivism is a theory of learning, and it is also a theory of knowing. It is an

epistemological concept that draws from a variety of fields, including philosophy, psychology,
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and science” (Walker & Lambert, 1995 p. 1). Constructivism "has become de rigueur in
educational circles and ... stems from a long and respected tradition in cognitive psychology,
especially the writings of Dewey, Vygotsky, and Piaget" (Danielson, 1996, p. 23). Ernst von
Glasersfeld's basic principles of radical constructivism are the following:

1. Knowledge is not passively received either through the senses or by way of

communication, but it is actively built up by the cognising subject.

2. The function of cognition is adaptive and serves the subject's organization of the
experiential world, not the discovery of an objective ontological reality. (von
Glasersfeld, 1988, p. 83)

His principles are built on the ideas of Jean Piaget, who applied the biological concept of
adaptation to epistemology (von Glasersfeld, 1996). Von Glasersfeld (1993, p. 24) refers to his
ideas as "postepistemological" because his radical constructivism posits a different relationship
between knowledge and the external world than does traditional epistemology.

Theories about conceptual change have been built on constructivist principles.

Conceptual change can be subdivided into differentiation in which new concepts emerge from
more general concepts, class extension in which existing concepts become cases of another
subsuming concept, and re-conceptualization in which nature of and relationship between
concepts changes significantly (Dykstra, Boyle and Monarch, 1992). After dissatisfaction with
existing conceptions, requirements for conceptual change are that the new conception be
intelligible, plausible, and fruitful (Posner, Strike, Hewson, & Gertzog, 1982). The status of a
conception is increased as more of these three conditions are met (Hewson, 1996).

A constructivist view does not lead to a simple, uncontested set of rules for pedagogical
practice. General agreement is that students need interaction with the physical world and with
their peers to stimulate meaning-making. The teacher elicits students’ initial beliefs about the
subject to be studied and about the nature of learning. The teacher sets up situations that will
cause dissatisfaction with existing ideas. Realizing that students' expectations affect their
observations and that multiple approaches to problem solving are acceptable, the teacher
monitors students' understandings, requests from them evidence and justification, provides
constraints for their thinking, and gives them opportunities to represent their knowledge in a
variety of ways. The teacher's role also includes introducing, when necessary, new ways of
thinking about phenomena and working with symbols. Then the teacher guides and supports
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students as they make sense of these ideas and tools for themselves in cooperation with their
classmates (Driver, 1995; Driver, Asoko, Leach, Mortimer, & Scott, 1994; Duit, 1995; Fosnot,
1996; Lewin, 1995; Rubin, 1995; Tobin & Tippins, 1993; von Glasersfeld, 1995).

Constructivist approaches to teaching and cooperative learning techniques can be thought

of as having both personal and interpersonal components. Each person constructs his or her own
mental frameworks and conceptions using preferred learning styles. However, this is seldom
done in isolation. The cognitive developmental perspective emphasizes that participants should
engage in discussion in which cognitive conflict is resolved and inadequate reasoning is
modified. Language passing back and forth between individuals in written and oral forms is
viewed as indispensable for the development of understanding (Belenky et al, 1986; Driver,
1995; von Glasersfeld, 1995). The social interdependence perspective has the assumption that
the way social interdependence is structured determines how individuals interact. This, in turn,
determines what is accomplished by the group (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). Intrinsic motivation
is generated by interpersonal factors and joint aspirations. At the same time that students
become more aware of and take more responsibility for their own thinking, they increase their
understanding and appreciation of other people’s thinking.

3500 words

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