Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Department
of Agriculture
Forest Service
Wildland Fire in
Rocky Mountain
Research Station
Ecosystems
General Technical
Report RMRS-GTR-42-
volume 5
December 2002
Effects of Fire on Air
Abstract _____________________________________
Sandberg, David V.; Ottmar, Roger D.; Peterson, Janice L.; Core, John. 2002. Wildland fire on
ecosystems: effects of fire on air. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 5. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 79 p.
This state-of-knowledge review about the effects of fire on air quality can assist land, fire, and air
resource managers with fire and smoke planning, and their efforts to explain to others the science
behind fire-related program policies and practices to improve air quality. Chapter topics include air
quality regulations and fire; characterization of emissions from fire; the transport, dispersion, and
modeling of fire emissions; atmospheric and plume chemistry; air quality impacts of fire; social
consequences of air quality impacts; and recommendations for future research.
Keywords: smoke, air quality, fire effects, smoke management, prescribed fire, wildland fire, wildfire,
biomass emissions, smoke dispersion
The volumes in “The Rainbow Series” will be published through 2003. The larger bold check-mark boxes indicate the volumes
currently published. To order, check any box or boxes below, fill in the address form, and send to the mailing address listed below.
Or send your order and your address in mailing label form to one of the other listed media.
RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 3. Wildland fire in ecosystems: effects of fire on cultural resources and archeology.
Authors
David V. Sandberg, Research Physical Scientist, Corvallis Forestry
Sciences Laboratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Corvallis, OR 97331
Roger D. Ottmar, Research Forester, Seattle Forestry Sciences Labo-
ratory, Pacific Northwest Research Station, U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Seattle, WA 98103
Janice L. Peterson, Air Resource Specialist, Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie
National Forest, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Mountlake Terrace,
WA 98053
John Core, Consultant, Core Environmental Consulting, Portland, OR
97229
–– The Authors
December 2002
Acknowledgments____________________________
The Rainbow Series was compiled under the sponsorship of the Joint Fire Science Program,
a cooperative fire science effort of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, and the
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Fish
and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, and U.S. Geological Survey.
Several scientists provided significant input without requesting authorship in this volume. We
acknowledge valuable contributions by Sue A. Ferguson, Timothy E. Reinhardt, Robert
Yokelson, Dale Wade, and Gary Achtemeier. We also thank the following individuals for their
suggestions, information, and assistance that led to substantial technical and editorial
improvements in the manuscripts: Scott Goodrick, Allen R. Riebau, Sue A. Ferguson, and Patti
Hirami. Finally, we appreciate Marcia Patton-Mallory and Louise Kingsbury for persistence and
support.
ii
Contents ________________________________________________
Page Page
Summary ........................................................................ iv Basic Elements of Trajectory and Dispersion ................... 35
Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................... 1 Heat Release ............................................................ 36
Objective ............................................................................. 2 Plume Rise and Buoyancy ....................................... 36
Related Publications ........................................................... 2 Advection and Diffusion ............................................ 37
Scope .................................................................................. 2 Scavenging ............................................................... 38
Framework .......................................................................... 2 Chemical Transformations ........................................ 38
Prior Work ........................................................................... 3 Transport and Dispersion Models ..................................... 38
Smoke Management Guide For Prescribed Plume Models ........................................................... 38
and Wildland Fire: 2001 Edition ............................... 3 Puff Models ............................................................... 39
Wildland Fire and Air Quality: National Strategic Particle Models ......................................................... 39
Plan .......................................................................... 4 Grid Models .............................................................. 39
Introduction to Visibility ............................................... 4 Model Application .............................................................. 40
The Federal Advisory Committee Act White Chapter 6: Atmospheric and Plume Chemistry ........... 41
Papers ..................................................................... 4 Ozone Formation in Plumes ............................................. 41
Environmental Regulation and Prescribed Fire Factors Affecting Plume Chemistry ................................... 42
Conference .............................................................. 5 Emission Factors for Reactive Species ............................ 43
Southern Forestry Smoke Management Particle Formation in Plumes ............................................ 43
Guidebook ............................................................... 6 Chapter 7: Estimating the Air Quality Impacts of
Changes in Fire Policy ........................................................ 6 Fire ................................................................. 45
Joint Fire Science Program ........................................ 6 Emission Inventories ......................................................... 45
Cohesive Strategy ...................................................... 7 State Emission Inventories ....................................... 46
National Fire Plan ....................................................... 7 Regional Emission Inventories ................................. 46
Chapter 2: Air Quality Regulations and Fire .................. 9 National Emission Inventories .................................. 47
Roles and Responsibilities Under the Clean Air Act ......... 10 Improving Emission Inventories ................................ 47
National Ambient Air Quality Standards ............................ 11 Air Quality Monitoring ........................................................ 48
Prevention of Significant Deterioration .............................. 11 Current Monitoring Techniques ................................ 48
Visibility ............................................................................. 12 Source Apportionment ...................................................... 49
Regional Haze .......................................................... 13 Source Apportionment Methods ............................... 50
Reasonable Progress ............................................... 15 Receptor-Oriented Approaches ................................ 50
Hazardous Air Pollutants .................................................. 15 Factor Analysis and Multiple Linear Regression ...... 52
EPA Interim Air Quality Policy on Wildland and Summary .................................................................. 52
Prescribed Fires ..................................................... 16 Mechanistic Models .......................................................... 53
Natural Events Policy ........................................................ 16 Chapter 8: Consequences of Fire on Air Quality ......... 55
Collaboration Among Stakeholders .................................. 16 Health Effects .................................................................... 55
Best Available Control Measures ...................................... 16 National Review of Health Effects ............................ 55
Reducing Emissions ................................................. 17 Occupational Exposure to Wildland Fire Smoke ...... 56
Redistributing Emissions .......................................... 17 Research Issues ....................................................... 57
Ozone and Fire ................................................................. 17 Welfare Effects .................................................................. 58
Chapter 3: Overview of Air Pollution from Fire ............ 19 Soiling of Materials ................................................... 58
Magnitude of Fire Contributions ........................................ 19 Public Nuisance and Visibility Loss .......................... 58
Smoke from Wildland Fires ...................................... 20 Economic and Social Consequences ............................... 59
Smoke from Prescribed Fires ................................... 24 Soiling-Related Economic Losses ............................ 59
Impacts on National Ambient Air Quality Visibility-Related Costs ............................................. 59
Standards .............................................................. 24 Highway Safety ................................................................. 60
Significance of Visibility Degradation ........................ 24 Magnitude of the Problem ........................................ 60
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Fires .................... 24 Measures to Improve Highway Safety ...................... 60
Smoke Management Programs ........................................ 25 Climate Change ................................................................ 61
Chapter 4: Characterization of Emissions from Chapter 9: Recommendations for Future Research
Fires ....................................................................... 27 and Development .................................................... 63
Area Burned ...................................................................... 27 Established Research Framework .................................... 63
Preburn Fuel Characteristics ............................................ 28 Emerging Research Needs ............................................... 65
Fire Behavior ..................................................................... 29 Emissions Source Strength and Emissions
Combustion Stages ........................................................... 30 Inventory ................................................................ 65
Fuel Consumption ............................................................. 31 Ambient Air Quality Impacts ..................................... 66
Emission Factors ............................................................... 32 Effects on Receptors ................................................ 66
Source Strength ................................................................ 32 Conclusion ........................................................................ 67
Chapter 5: Transport, Dispersion, and Modeling References ........................................................................ 69
of Fire Emissions ................................................... 35
iii
Summary
Wildland fire is an integral part of ecosystem manage- Chapters 4 through 7 present scientific and technical
ment and is essential in maintaining functional ecosys- discussions. Chapter 4 discusses the characterization
tems, but air pollutants emitted from those fires can be and production rate of emissions from fire in terms of
harmful to human health and welfare. Because of the fuels, fire behavior, stages of combustion, fuel consump-
public and governmental concerns about the possible tion, and emission factors of various pollutants. The basic
risk of wildland fire smoke to public health and safety, as elements and modeling of transport and dispersion are
well as nuisance, visibility, ozone generation, and re- covered in chapter 5, including, plume, puff, particle, and
gional haze impacts, increasingly effective smoke man- grid models. Chapter 6 considers plume and atmo-
agement programs and air quality policies are being spheric chemistry, the chemical reactions that occur in
implemented with support from research and land man- plumes, with a focus on ozone formation and particle
agement agency programs. formation. Use of emission inventories, air quality moni-
This state-of-knowledge review of what is known about toring, and source apportionment methods, and mecha-
the effects of fire on air quality has been prepared to nistic models to estimate the impacts of fire on air quality
assist those in the fire and air quality management are covered in chapter 7. Chapter 8 reviews the health,
communities for future discussion of management, policy, welfare, economic, and safety consequences of these
and science options for managing fire and air quality. The impacts. The final chapter recommends priorities for
introduction sets up a framework in which to discuss the future research to better understand and quantify fire and
interaction between pollutants emitted from fire, and air its effect on air quality.
quality at the national, State, and local levels applied to
air resource management, fire management, and geo-
graphical scale components. It also provides an over-
view of science reviews conducted since 1979 and
discusses recent changes in fire policy, strategies, and
funding. The Clean Air Act and its amendments are
Metric Equivalents
discussed in chapter 2, in the context of how and why fire
When you know: Divide by: To find:
impacts each issue, what information is needed, and who
needs it to fulfill legal requirements under the act. Na- Feet (ft) 3.28 Meters
tional ambient air quality standards, regional haze and Pounds (lb) 2.21 Kilograms
visibility, hazardous air pollutants, and best available
Acres 2.47 Hectares
control methods are some of the topics covered. Chapter
3 covers the magnitude of the impacts of prescribed and Pounds per acre 0.89 Kilograms per
wildland fire on air quality, and contains an overview of hectare
smoke management plans intended to manage those Fahrenheit (°F) 1.8 and subtract 32 Celsius
impacts.
iv
Chapter 1:
Introduction
A state-of-knowledge review, Effects of Fire on Air, new information is needed to assess, monitor, predict,
was written in 1979 to inform environmental agen- and manage:
cies, fire managers, and land management planners, • Emissions and air quality impacts from wild-
and to guide research strategies in the intervening fires
years (Sandberg and others 1979). That review is still • Acute health effects of human exposure to
technically sound for the most part, but substantial smoke
new knowledge is now available. In this volume, we • Natural and anthropogenic sources of visibil-
update that review of knowledge important for man- ity reduction
aging the effects of fire on air and for adjusting the • Cumulative air quality impacts from expanded
course of new research. In addition, we expand the fuel management programs
scope of our review to place the information in the • Tradeoffs between air quality impacts from
context of new policies regarding fire management wildland fire and prescribed fire
and air quality management
Acquisition of scientific knowledge regarding air Likewise, management of fire and air quality is also
pollution from fires is motivated by active policy devel- undergoing substantial policy development that has
opment both to restore the role of fire in ecosystems led to the need for new and different information to
and to improve air quality. Land managers require satisfy regulatory and management requirements. As
quantitative analysis and goal-seeking solutions to both legal and management issues mature, there is
minimize the negative consequences of fire manage- less a sense that environmental regulation is a limita-
ment. Managing fire and air quality to the standards tion on fire management, and more of a sense that
set by Congress requires an increasingly detailed base ecosystem management goals, fire safety, and air
of scientific knowledge and information systems. quality are goals to be met collectively. For example,
The Federal Wildland Fire Policy (U.S. Department of new air quality rules recognize the importance of the
the Interior and U.S. Department of Agriculture 1995) role of fire in sustaining ecosystems and the inherent
and the Clean Air Act as Amended 1990 (PL 101-549) tradeoffs between prescribed fire and wildland fire
resulted in the need to significantly raise the level of occurrence. At the same time, land management plans
knowledge about fire’s effects on air in order to meet and real-time fire management decisions increasingly
regulatory and management requirements. For example, factor in the expected consequences to air quality.
Figure 1-2—The relations of air regulations and physical processes to the three categories within the air
resource component. OSHA/NIOSH = Occupational Safety and Health Administration/National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (Sandberg and others 1999).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Table 2-1—National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency 2000b). Primary NAAQS are set at levels to protect human health;
secondary NAAQS are to protect human welfare.
The goal of PSD is to prevent areas that are currently defined. EPA recently reaffirmed that States could
cleaner than is allowed by the NAAQS from being exclude prescribed fire emissions from increment
polluted up to the maximum ceiling established by the analyses provided the exclusion does not result in
NAAQS. Three air quality classes were established by permanent or long-term air quality deterioration
the Clean Air Act PSD provisions including Class I (EPA 1998). States are also expected to consider the
(which allows very little additional pollution), Class II extent to which a particular type of burning activity
(which allows some incremental increase in pollution), is truly temporary, as opposed to an activity that
and Class III (which allows pollution to increase up to could be expected to occur in a particular area with
the NAAQS). Class I areas include wildernesses and some regularity over a long period. Oregon is the only
national memorial parks over 5,000 acres, National State that has chosen to include prescribed fire emis-
Parks exceeding 6,000 acres, and all international sions in PSD increment and baseline calculations.
parks that were in existence on August 7, 1977, as well
as later expansions to these areas (fig. 2-2).
Historically, EPA has regarded smoke from wild-
Visibility _______________________
land fires as temporary and therefore not subject to The 1977 amendments to the Clean Air Act include
issuance of a PSD permit; whether or not wildland a national goal of “the prevention of any future, and
fire smoke should be considered when calculating the remedying of any existing, impairment of visibility
PSD increment consumption or PSD baseline was not
in mandatory Class I Federal areas which impairment (Trijonis and others 1991). Currently, visual range in
results from manmade air pollution” (42 U.S.C § the Eastern United States is about 15 to 30 miles and
7491). States are required to develop implementation about 60 to 90 miles in the Western United States. (40
plans that make “reasonable progress” toward the CFR Part 51). The theoretical maximum visual range
national visibility goal. about 240 miles.
Atmospheric visibility is affected by scattering and
absorption of light by particles and gases. Particles Regional Haze
and gases in the air can obscure the clarity, color,
texture, and form of what we see. Fine particles most Regional haze is visibility impairment produced by
responsible for visibility impairment are sulfates, ni- a multitude of sources and activities that emit fine
trates, organic compounds, elemental carbon (or soot), particles and their precursors and are located across a
and soil dust. Sulfates, nitrates, organic carbon, and broad geographic area. This contrasts with visibility
soil tend to scatter light, whereas elemental carbon impairment that can be traced largely to a single, large
tends to absorb light. Fine particles (PM2.5) are more pollution source. Until recently, the only regulations
efficient per unit mass than coarse particles (PM10 for visibility protection addressed impairment that is
and larger) at causing visibility impairment. Natu- reasonably attributable to a permanent, large emis-
rally occurring visual range in the Eastern United sions source or small group of large sources. In 1999,
States is estimated to be between 60 and 80 miles, EPA issued regional haze regulations to manage and
while natural visual range in the Western United mitigate visibility impairment from the multitude of
States is between 110 and 115 miles (these estimates diverse regional haze sources (40 CFR Part 51). The
do not consider the effect of natural fire on visibility) regional haze regulations call for States to establish
Figure 2-3—Regional air quality planning groups (Hardy and others 2001).
Air quality protection instrument Wildland fire managers Air quality regulators
a
National ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) Aware Lead b
Attainment status Aware Lead
c
State implementation plan (SIP) planning and development Involved Lead
Conformity Involved Lead
Smoke management programs Partnerd Lead
Visibility protection Involved Lead
Regional planning groups Partner Lead
Natural emissions Partner Lead
Natural events action plan Partner Lead
Land use planning Lead Involved
Project NEPA documents Lead Involved
Other fire planning efforts Lead Involved
a
Aware: Responsibility to have a complete working knowledge of the air quality protection instrument but likely little or no involvement in its
development or daily implementation.
b
Lead: Responsibility to initiate, bring together participants, complete, and implement the particular air quality protection instrument.
c
Involved: Responsibility to participate in certain components of development and implementation of the air quality protection instrument although
not at full partner status.
d
Partner: Responsibility to fully participate with lead organization toward development and implementation of the air quality protection instrument
in a nearly equal relationship.
independently, fire practitioners often choose fire and a single airshed to schedule burns, avoiding sensitive
fuels manipulation techniques that complement or are areas, burning smaller units, and burning more
at least consistent with meteorological scheduling for frequently.
maximum smoke dispersion and favorable plume trans-
port. The following emissions reduction and redistrib-
uting emissions techniques are a compilation of our
Ozone and Fire _________________
knowledge base, and depending on specific fire use Ozone is a criteria air pollutant, but there is little
objectives, the project locations, time, and cost con- monitoring or research data that directly link fire
straints may or may not be applicable. emissions with ground-level ozone concentrations.
Regulating efforts to reduce ozone have therefore
Reducing Emissions focused on more obvious industrial and urban sources
of the pollutants that form ozone (NOX and VOCs).
At least 24 methods within six major classifications
Fires are known to emit VOCs and a minor amount of
have been used to reduce emissions from prescribed
NOX, but much is uncertain about the magnitude of
burning (Hardy and others 2001). These techniques
ozone formation in the plume, the degree of mixing
include methods designed to minimize emissions by
with urban sources of ozone precursors, and transport
reducing the area burned; reducing the fuel load by
of ozone to ground level. EPA plans to begin including
reducing the fuel production, or fuel consumption, or
fire emissions in future regional ozone strategy model-
both; scheduling burns before new fuels appear; and
ing. Field observations of ozone formation in smoke
increasing combustion efficiency. Each of these meth-
plumes from fires date back nearly 25 years when
ods has specific practices associated with it.
measurements from aircraft detected ozone at the
edge of forest fire smoke plumes aloft. A recent study
Redistributing Emissions (Wotawa and Trainer 2000) did link high ground-level
These measures are commonly practiced in smoke ozone concentrations to forest fire plumes that had
management programs and include burning when been transported great distances. Chapter 6 explores
dispersion is good, cooperating with other burners in these issues more fully.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Oklahoma
Arizona
Utah
Nevada
Montana
Oregon
State
Kansas
New Mexico
Florida
Wyoming
Idaho
California
Alaska
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000 800,000 900,000
Acres
Figure 3-4—States with more than 100,000 acres per year burned by wildfires.
Figure 3-6—Number of acres burned by wildfires per year 1990 through 1999.
Figure 3-7—Big Bar Fire, Shasta-Trinity National Forest, California, August 1999
(National Interagency Fire Center 2000).
a b
c d
Figure 4-1—Fuelbed types and fuel loads (a) grassland (3 tons per acre), (b) sagebrush (6 tons per acre), (c) ponderosa
pine with mortality in mixed fir (60 tons per acre), and (d) black spruce with deep duff and moss (160 tons per acre).
(Photos by Roger Ottmar)
c d
Figure 4-6—The largest errors are associated with fuel loading and fuel consumption
estimates when determining emission production and impacts from wildland fire (Peterson
and Sandberg 1988).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Table 8-1—Pollutant-specific breakpoints for the air quality index (AQI) and accompanying health effects statements (adapted from
EPA 1999).
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
Research Locations