Chapter II

Discussion of the Problem

Historical background

The nautical chart is historically the most important and certainly the most
frequently used tool employed by the navigator in the execution of his functional
responsibilities. Maps, charts, and written sailing directions were probably in use by
Egyptian and Greek mariners in the Mediterranean Sea well before the birth of Christ.
Ptolemy, a Greek astronomer and mathematician, constructed many maps in the second
century A.D., among which was a world map based upon an earlier calculation of the
earth’s circumference as 18,000miles. His works remained a standard until the Middle
Ages: Columbus believed he had reached the East Indies in 1492 in part because he used
the Ptolemic chart as a basis for his calculations of position. In the pacific, the natives of
the South Sea Islands constructed and used crude yet effective charts from leaves and
shells, representing islands, ocean currents, and angles of intersection of ocean swells.
Gerhardus Mercator, a Flemish cartographer who produced a world chart in 1556 by a
type of projection bearing his name, is considered the”father of the modern cartography”.
As more mariners recorded extended voyages throughout the world, the accuracy of the
charts continued to improve. Until the invention of the printing press, however, they were
done entirely by hand, and the mariner considered them much too scarce and valuable to
be used for plotting. This led to wide use of mathematical techniques for calculating
position, which was known ( of determining approximate position continued in) dead
reckoning or sometimes simply “the sailings”. These methods of determining
approximate position continued in use until the late nineteenth century, when charts came
to be mass produced and the system of geometric “dead reckoning”, as it practiced today,
came into widespread use (Hobbs,1998).

What is a Nautical Chart?

According to Lee and Weems (1995) Nautical chart is one of the basic tool that is
used by the marine navigators. This is a graphical representation drawn to scale of the
water and areas of a particular region of the Earth’s surface. A chart shows the nature and
form of the coast, the depths of the water and general character and configuration of the
sea bottom, locations of dangers to navigation. It also shows details of the coastline,
navigational hazards, locations of natural and man-made aids to navigation, local details
of the Earth’s magnetic field, and man-made structures such as harbours, buildings, and
bridges. 3
The construction of Nautical Chart

Basically, the construction of charts presents a problem to chart makers on how to

represent a portion of the earth’s surface (which is curved surface) into a plane surface.
Actually, it is impossible to accomplish this exactly without a certain amount of
distortion. For small areas of the earth, perhaps this can be safely neglected.

Chart projections have been developed to provide practical and sufficiently

accurate results, this method is the transferation of information from the sphere to flat
surface of the chart to accomplished with as little as possible in the shape and size of the
land.

Generally, the types of projection commonly used in chart construction are the
following:

• Mercator Projection
• Polyconic Projection
• Gnomonic Projection
• Lambert Conformal Projection

The Mercator projection

According to Maloney (1985) most of the charts used for marine navigation, and
many of those used for air navigation, are based on the Mercator projection. For this
reason it is essential that a navigator have a thorough understanding of such charts. For
the conventional methods of navigation- largely based on the dead reckoning, or the
determination of distances along a course line can be determined without great difficulty.
Great circles distances and directions are not readily determinable without first plotting
the great circle on the line to the Mercator. When compared with a globe, a Mercator
projection shows great exaggeration of the shape and area in high latitudes. The example
most often cited is that of the Greenland, which when shown complete on the Mercator,
appears be larger than South America, although it actually is only one-ninth as large as
that continent.
Since Mercator projection is to be conformal, true shapes of small areas must be
preserved, so the horizontally stretched gore must now be stretched vertically until the
ellipses again become circles, the diameter in each case approximately the major axis of
the ellipse. A position of known latitude and longitude can be quickly plotted on a
Mercator projection, using a plotter or straightedge and a pair of dividers.

4
The Polyconic projection

Polyconic can refer either to a class of map projections or to a specific projection

known less ambiguously as the American Polyconic. Polyconic as a class refers to those
projections whose parallels are all non-concentric circular arcs, except for a straight
equator, and the centers of these circles lie along a central axis. This description applies
to projections in equatorial aspect. As a specific projection, the American Polyconic is
conceptualized as "rolling" a cone tangent to the Earth at all parallels of latitude, instead
of a single cone as in a normal conic projection. Each parallel is a circular arc of true
scale. The scale is also true on the central meridian of the projection. The projection was
in common use by many map-making agencies of the United States from the time of its
proposal by Ferdinand Rudolph Hasslerin 1825 until the middle of the 20th century.
Sometimes, the term "Polyconic group" has been applied to any projection which
is not obviously cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal, such as the Van der Grinten or Winkel's
Tripel the Polyconic projection is an example of a basic scheme of projection, as
fundamental as the cylindrical, conic, or azimuthal. Polyconic can be thought of as a type
of cylindrical projection. Unlike the normal case of the simple conic, the polar case of the
Azimuthal Equidistant, or the normal case of any cylindrical projection, the meridians
and parallels do not cross at right angles in the Polyconic. This was felt to be a defect,
and thus, in 1853, a version in which the scale along the parallels was modified to obtain
this property, known as the Rectangular Polyconic (or the War Office projection) was
devised. Usually given with constant scale along the Equator, this projection could in fact
have constant scale along any standard parallel.

The chief use of the Rectangular Polyconic is in making very large scale maps;
thus, it can be made with other standard parallels than the equator. For another standard
parallel, the scale along the standard parallel is true, and therefore as in the simple
polyconic, but the meridians are represented by the same curves as in the rectangular
polyconic with the Equator as standard parallel, in order to retain the property that they
cut the parallels at right angles; they merely represent different longitudes. In 1921, G. T.
McCaw devised a further modification of this projection; apparently, he worked out how
to increase scale along the standard parallel away from the standard meridian so that the
projection would be conformal along the standard parallel as well as along the standard
meridian. Somewhat later, he explored the possibilities offered by the polyconic class of
projections more fully.

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The Gnomonic projection

The gnomonic projection is a perspective projection in which the reference lines

of the sphere are projected from the reference lines of the sphere are projected from the
center of the earth upon a tangent plane. The point of tangency may be on the equator at
either pole; or at any other latitude. The oblique gnomonic is a convergency of the
meridians increases with the latitude of the point of tangency, from 0 degree in the
equatorial case to 1 degree for each degree of latitude in the polar case. The gnomonic
projection has been adapted to a number of special uses, but in navigation it is chiefly
used because it shows every great circle as a straight line on the gnomonic, then
transferred to the Mercator by plotting a number of geographic positions along it.
The navigator, this is the principal use of the gnomonic or great- circle charts. If a
rhumb line is desired on the gnomonic, this process must be reversed: a straight line is
first drawn on the Mercator, then transferred to its geographic position on the gnomonic.

The Lambert Conformal projection

Like the Mercator, the Lambert is derived from mathematical equations. To aid in
visualizing the general form of the projection, it is convenient to think of it as a cone.
The cone is represented not a tangent to the earth, but as intersecting the earth along two
standard parallels of the true scale. This projection first came into use during World War
I, for the military maps. Since then it has been widely used for aeronautical charts; its use
for marine navigation has been largely limited to the higher latitudes. On the Lambert
chart, a great circle is very nearly a straight line, close enough so for purposes of practical
navigation. Points along such a line can be transferred to a Mercator chart for series of
rhumb line in the same manner as a gnomonic chart.

The desirable properties of a chart projection

The desirable properties for any projections includes the following:

- Desirable shape of physical features

- Correct angular relationship
- Representation or areas in their correct properties relative to one another.
- True scale, permitting accurate measurement of distance.
- Rhumb lines represented as straight lines.
- Great circles represented as straight lines.

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Chart notes and Chart interpretation

Much valuable information is printed on charts in the form of notes and boxes of
data. Notes will relate to such topics as regulatory restrictions, cautions and warnings,
unusual magnetic conditions. Chart notes are used to provide information that cannot be
shown by symbols or abbreviations. The boxes may show depths in major dredged
channels, mean and extremes of tidal stages at selected points in the margins or on the
face of the chart at locations where they will not obscure navigational information
(Maloney,1985). According to Ynion (2001) the scale of a chart is defined as the ratio of
a distance unit on the chart to the actual distance on the surface of the earth. Because it is
a ratio, it does not matter what size the unit is, or in what system it is measured. On the
chart, the navigator keeps a graphic record of the ship’s progress. Such a record is kept
regardless of the method or combination of methods of navigation that is being used.
Lines drawn between successive positions marked on the chart indicate at a glance the
courses that the ship has followed. From scales on the chart the navigator can measure
directly, without computation, the distance that the ship has traveled.
For example, a scale of 1:50,000 means that one unit (inch, foot, meter, etc.)on
the chart represents 50,000 of such units on the earth. In order to be able to use any chart
effectively, the navigator must first be able to interpret the chart; in regard to both its
scale and also its symbols. All explanatory and cautionary notes appearing on the chart
should be read and understood. The scale of the chart, its reference datum, and the date of
issue of the chart as well as the date of the survey on which it is based should all be
checked. As a final note chart interpretation, it should be mentioned that a changeover in
charted depths and heights from the customary (English) to the international (SI) metric
system has been contemplated for sometime, in order to conform to bilateral reproduction
chart agreements with other nations.

The Sources and Publication of Nautical Chart

According to Calder (2008) Nautical charts are based on hydrographic surveys.

As survey is laboratories and time-consuming, hydrographic data for many areas of sea
may be dated and not always reliable. Depths are measured in a variety of ways-
Historically the sounding line was used. In the modern times, echo sounding is used for
measuring the seabed in the open sea. When measuring the safe depth of water over are
entire obstruction, such as a shipwreck, the minimum depth is checked by sweeping the
area with a length of horizontal wire. This ensures that difficult to find projections, such
as masts, do not present a danger to vessels navigating over the obstruction.
 7

Nautical chart are issued by the national hydrographic offices in many countries.
These charts are considered “official” in contrast to those made by commercial
publishers. Many hydrographic offices provide regular, sometimes weekly, manual
updates of their charts through their sales agents. Individually hydrographic offices
produce national chart series is a worldwide system of charts (“INT” chart series), which
is being developed with the goal of unifying as many chart system as possible. There are
also commercially published charts, some of which may carry additional information of
particular interest. Nautical charting may take the form of charts printed on paper or
computerized electronic charts. Recent technologies have made available paper charts
which are printed “on demand” with cartographic data that has been downloaded to the
commercial printing company as recently as the night before printing. With each daily
download, critical data such as Local Notice to Mariners is added to the on-demand chart
files so that these charts will be 100% up to date at the time of printing. Closely allied
with chartwork are many sources of information which the navigator uses when planning
and conducting a voyage. These sources include: Notice to Mariners, Sailing Directions,
Coast Pilots, Light Lists, Tide Tables, and Almanacs. Other British publications also
including The Admiralty Sailing Directions, Ocean Passages of the World, The
Admiralty List of Lights, Radio Aids and Fog Signals, The Admiralty List of Radio
Signals, Tidal Publications, and Admiralty Notice to Mariners.

The Office of Coast Survey (OCS) is the oldest U.S. scientific organization and is
the Nation's only official chartmaker. Its history dates from 1807 when the United States
Congress directed that a "survey of the coast" be carried out. In the ensuing years
additional responsibilities were assigned to the young agency to meet scientific and
engineering needs of a growing national population and economy. The Marine Chart
Division collects marine navigational data to construct and maintain nautical charts,
Coast Pilots, and related marine products for the United States.

By 1836, the (OCS) was called the U.S. Coast Survey. In 1871, a geodetic
connection between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts was officially authorized and the
name was changed to the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (C&GS) in 1878. In 1926, the
production of aeronautical charts was added to meet the requirements of the new air age.
In 1970, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey became the National Ocean Survey under the
newly established National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and in
1982, it was renamed the National Ocean Service (NOS). Later that year in December
1982, the Office of Charting and Geodetic Services was created within the new National
Ocean Service was created to better focus on charting and geodetic activities, re-
establishing the former C&GS acronym. In 1991, the office was renamed to its former
1878 name of Coast and Geodetic Survey.
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The United States claims 12 nautical miles for its territorial sea and 200 nautical
miles fisheries jurisdiction and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) for the exploration and
management of both living and nonliving marine resources. This vast area covers
approximately 3.4 million nautical square miles. OCS provides accurate and timely
nautical charts, maps, and related products for the coastal and adjacent ocean areas of the
United States (including possessions and territories), the Great Lakes, other inland
navigable waters, for the safety and efficiency of marine transportation, offshore
engineering projects, naval operations, and recreational activities. The National Ocean
Service publishes nearly 1,000 charts covering in excess of 86,000 miles. DMAHTC is
responsible for an even greater number of charts. It is obvious that changes can and do
occur in considerable quantities and may be detected by official survey parties only years
later if ever. Thus it is clear that charts must be used will all due caution they are a
navigational “aid”, not a guarantee of safety. It should be equally clear that it is the duty
of every mariner to observe and report promptly and in as full detailed as possible all
inaccuracies noted in his charts to the appropriate agency.

Chart corrections and updating cycles

According to Maloney (1985) a chart is no more accurate than the survey on

which it is based. In order to judge the accuracy and completeness of a survey, note its
source and date. Beside the changes that may have taken place since the date of the
survey, earlier surveys often were made under circumstances that precluded great
accuracy and completeness of detail. Until a chart based on such a survey is tested, it
should be regarded with caution. All charts published by both the Defense Mapping
Agency and the National Ocean Service are edited and corrected to reflect the latest
information available et the time the chart was printed. But a considerable amount of time
of ten elapses between successive printings of a given chart or other navigational
publication. As a result, provisions must be made for keeping mariners appraised of
changes in hydrographical conditions that will affect the accuracy of their charts and
publications as soon as possible after the changes occur. The update cycle for
nautical charts is as often as every 6 months or as infrequently as 12 years for remote
areas. The average revision interval per nautical chart is 2 years. The Cooperative
Charting Program involving the U.S. Power Squadrons and the Coast Guard Auxiliary
provides valuable feedback information on nautical charts. Additional contacts are made
through professional organizations, technical conventions, boat shows, and similar
activities. Marketing studies are conducted to determine user reactions to existing
products and to formulate plans for new products, formats, and coverage.
 9

How does intelligence affects the use of a Nautical Chart specially in performing
corrections of some information

Charts must be used intelligently, not blindly. The degree of reliance to be placed
on a given chart or position of a chart is no less of an art than is navigation itself. With
experience, however, comes the skill that makes the chart a much more useful and
dependable aid. Read carefully all notes appearing on the chart. Do not merely look at it
as through it were a picture. Check the scale, note the date of the survey on which it is
based, if even, and see whether or not the chart is corrected and up-to-date. Check that
the sounding coverage is complete, and if not, note the areas where lack of information
may indicate danger. Note the system of the projection used, so that you can be sure how
to measure direction and distance. All charts in regular use on board ships should be kept
corrected from all sources as the Notice to Mariners and other information disseminated
by radio. Always remember that an uncorrected chart is not safe to use.(Ynion,2001)

How important is a Nautical Chart to the navigators

Nautical charts are essential tools for marine navigation; many countries require
vessels, especially commercial ship to carry them. As to ensure the safety of the ship
conducting from a port to port destination and to ensure the safety of the crew, passengers
and cargoes on board by using the nautical chart properly. In addition to its basic
elements, a chart is a working document used by the mariner both as a “road map"
(Mcniel,2000).

Summary and Recommendation

This study mainly focuses on the production, types and the competency of the
navigator to penetrate and correct the errors of a nautical charts in order to conduct a safe
navigation and so that safety of life at sea is to be prioritized by using the nautical chart
properly even though it is made from the different projections. Thus, a navigator should
be intelligent enough so that he can solve the problems encountered in using nautical
charts.

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 CHAPTER III

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

This study is about the PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN USING NAUTICAL

CHARTS wherein it started from the history and the definition of Nautical Chart. And it
has also covered the construction of a nautical chart in different projections and identifies
the desirable properties of the projections. The sources and publication of nautical charts
are from the different hydrographic offices that also published and distributes charts with
the official information of the different places and sea areas in the world so that of to be
aware with. Notice to Mariners is an example of a survey that can help the navigators to
up-date their charts and put in some corrections.

And therefore I conclude, that a navigators knowledge, dedication and

competency are measured and can be proven by their works and awareness about what
are happening in their field and what should they do so that the voyage will be safe. And
so that they can show and perform their duties and responsibilities in performing the chart
plotting and computations in different form of projections to ensure the safety of life and
properties on board by using the nautical chart intelligently.
11