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PROPAGATION
Overview
Figure:-Ducting phenomenon
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)
Temperature Inversion
Temperature inversion frequently occur in trposphere.
The are so called because, in contrast to usual lapse of
temperature with increase in altitude, temperature rises
with altitude.
These inversion aid the uhf and microwave propagation
as this inversion sharpens the vertical boundary of
troposphere. Thus the amount of refraction becomes so
severe that signals extend a great distance as though
caught in a duct.
Lowest frequency which is super-refracted is
determined by the depth of inversion.
Troposheric Refraction(cont…)
Tropospheric inversion can be classified on the basis of
how they are created, such as
1. Radiation Inversion
2. Subsidence Inversion
3. Advective Inverison
4. Evaporation Inversion
Tropospheric Scatter
This mode of propagation is particularly used for
the long distance propagation of radio
frequency(practically upto 300km).
This mode of propagation uses the tropospheric
scatter phenomenon, where radio waves at
particular frequencies are randomly scattered as
they pass through the upper layers of the
troposphere.
This mode is very useful when the transmitting
station spread beyond horizon.
Tropospheric Scatter(cont…)
If antennas are pointed along the great circle, their
beam will intersect a common volume of air which
lie almost at the centre of the path.
Part of the signal common to both station will
undergo tropospheric scatter aiding the radio
communiction.
But frequency is the limiting case for this
communication, only the frequency up to 2GHz can
be transmitted through tropospheric scatter.
Tropospheric Scatter(cont…)
Scattering Loss
Scattering loss in this propagation can be assessed as
Ls = 21 + 10φs + 10 log(f) + Lc
Lc is aperture-to-medium coupling loss(dB)
f is frequency(MHz)
øs is scattering angle
Ls is scattering angle(dB)
Tropospheric Scatter(cont…)
Naturally occurring factors which contribute to the
scattering are
Rain Scatter
Snow, Hail, and Particle Scatter
Lighting Scatter
Ionospheric Modes
The ionosphere is a shell of electrons and
electrically charged atoms and molecules that
surrounds the Earth, stretching from a height of
about 50 km to more than 1000 km.
Ionospheric mode of propagation relies on
refraction of radio waves in the ionosphere.
F2-layer is the most important ionospheric layer for
HF propagation, though F1, E, and D-layers also
play some role.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
Highest usable frequency for F-layer is about
70MHz, while for Sporadic-E maximum of 220MHz
of frequency has been use.
Phenomenon like Aurora, meteor scatter, and
transequatorial spread-F have been observed at
432MHz.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
Aurora
Scattering from Aurora borealis, has
been widely used for many years.
By pointing the directional antenna
towards the centre of aurora, very long
distance transmission on radio
frequency is carried out.
Contacts over 2000km have been
made of 144MHz and over 1900km on
432MHz.
Aurora is closely related to solar
activity.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
During massive solar storms, high energy stream of
electron and proton spew out of sun. Earth’s atmosphere
trap these ions in northern and southern magnetic polar
region.
Thus the trapping of ions increase the density of the E-
layer dramatically, which is sufficient to scatter the
radio frequency.
This phenomenon is restricted to E-layer only.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
Transequatorial Spread-F
First discovered in 1947, transequatorial spread-f
makes possible contacts up to 8000 km across equator
in UHF and VHF range, at least up to 432MHz.
Station engaged in this mode of propagation must be
roughly equidistance from the equator.
Physical mechanism of TE Spread are not well-known
but this phenomena like other ionospheric mode is
linked with the solar activity.
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
Ionospheric Modes(cont…)
Meteor Scatter
Meteor scattering relies on reflecting radio waves off
the intensely ionized columns of air generated by
meteors.
While this mode is very short duration, often only from
a fraction of second to couple of seconds per event.
This mode allows remote stations to communicate to a
station that may be hundreds of miles up to over 1,000
miles (1,600 km) away, without the expense required
for a satellite link.
Meteor scatter is generally useful on VHF frequencies
between 30 and 250MHz .
Reflection
Rigid objects like buildings, towers, and airplane
are large enough can act as the reflector for UHF
and microwaves.
Contacts in the path ranging from 300 to 700 km is
reported from this mode.
In this mode, two station point their antenna towards
the common reflector. Reflecting objects must be in
line-of-sight to both the stations.
Appreciable loss is experienced in this mode of
propagation for higher frequency(above 10GHz)
Reflection(cont…)
Radar Eqution
The radar equation may be applied to communications path
completed by reflection
P tG t G rλ 2 S
Pr = +
4πR t 2
( 4π ) 2 R r 2
Pt transmitted power(in Watt)
Pr received power(in Watt)
Gt transmitter antenna gain
Gr receiver antenna gain
Rt range from transmitter to reflector(in m)
Rr range from receiver to reflector(in m)
λ wavelength(in m)
S is radar cross section of reflector(in m)
Reflection(cont…)
In terms of dB
λ2 S
Lr = 10 log 2 2 − 153
Rt Rr
VLF Very Low Frequency 3–30 kHz 100–10 km Guided between the earth and the ionosphere.
UHF Ultra High Frequency 300–3000 MHz 100–10 cm Direct wave. Sometimes tropospheric ducting.
Extremely High
EHF 30–300 GHz 10–1 mm Direct wave limited by absorption.
Frequency