WELCOME

I'm a great believer in luck, and I find

the harder I work the more I have of it.

Thomas Jefferson (1743 - 1826)

 Md. Abdullah Al Mamun
Assistant Professor, Department of
Parasitology, Bangladesh Agricultural
University, Mymensingh-2202,
Bangladesh.

Class lecture
DVM
Level 2, Semester 1
 INTRODUCTION
• Parasitology is the branch of biological
science which deals with the parasites and
their hosts.

• This discipline includes several approaches

to the study of parasitic organism; such as,
phylogeny, morphology, ecology,
epidemiology, life history, physiology,
chemotherapy, serology, immunology, and
biochemistry.
 ANIMAL ASSOCIATION

• Parasitism: Parasitism is a condition of

life, normal and necessary for an organism
which lives on or in a larger organism
belongs to different species and that
nourishes itself at the expense of the larger
organism (Host) by inflicting some degree
of injury to the host.
• Example: Neoascaris vitulorum in calves.
 MUTUALISM
• Mutualism is a condition of life in which the
both partners benefit from the association
and the relationship is not obligatory.
• Example: Small fish of several families,
feed on small organisms and
parasites on the bodies of larger fish.
Small fish get food and the larger fish
are relieved of unwelcome guests on
their bodies.
 SYMBIOSIS
• Symbiotic relationships include those
associations in which one organism lives on
another and get benefited. Symbiotic
relationships must be obligate i.e., necessary
for the survival of the organisms involved.

• Example: Relationship between cattle and

bacteria within their intestines. The cattle
benefit from the cellulase produced by the
bacteria, which facilitates digestion; the
bacteria benefit from having a stable supply
of nutrients in the host environment.
 COMMENSALISM
• Commensalism is the condition in which the
commensal, benefits from its relationship with the
host, but the host is neither benefited nor is
harmed.
• Example: cattle egrets foraging in fields among cattle or
other livestock. As livestock graze on the field, they cause
movements that stir up various insects. As the insects are
stirred up, the cattle egrets following the livestock catch
and feed upon them. The egrets benefit from this
relationship because the livestock have helped them find
their meals, while the livestock are typically unaffected by
it.
• Predation: Predation is a short term relationship
in which larger species (the predator) benefits at
the expense of the other organism (smaller one),
the prey.
• Example: Tiger (the predator) kills the deer
(prey) and does not subsist on it while it is alive.
• Phoresis: Phoresis means “to carry”. This term
is applicable to two organisms which are merely
traveling together and neither is physiologically
dependent on each others.
• Usually the phoront is smaller than the other and
is mechanically carried in or on the larger
species (host).
 PARASITE
• The term “Parasite” refers to an organism
which is metabolically dependent on another
larger organism belongs to different species.
• According to V. A. Dogiel stresses “Parasites
are those animals which use other living
animals as their environment and source of
food at the same time relinquishing to their
hosts, partly or completely, the task of
regulating their relationship with the external
environment”.
 Classification of parasites
• Ectoparasites: The parasites that are attached to
the outer surface of their hosts or superficially
embedded in the body surface are called
ectoparasites. e.g. Tick, Lice, Mite
• Endoparasites: When the parasites live inside the
body of their host are called endoparasites. e.g.
Hook worm of man.
• Facultative parasites: The parasite which has
retained the power of independent non- parasitic
life, but may become parasitic under certain
circumstances are known as Facultative parasites.
e.g. Maggots of blow flies
• Obligatory parasites: The parasites which have
become fully dependent on parasitic life and
cannot survive apart from their hosts are known
as Obligatory parasites. e. g Tape worm of man.
• Permanent parasite: When an organism is
parasitic in the body of the host from early life
until maturity or sometimes the entire life, is
known as permanent parasite. e.g. Fasciola
gigantica.
• Temporary Parasites: When an organism is
parasitic only during a part of its life cycle, is
known as temporary parasite. eg. Tick, Lice.
• Periodic Parasite: Parasites which visit their
host only at the time when need food are
called Periodic parasites. e g Mosquito
• Accidental/ Incidental parasites: When a
parasite establishes itself in the body of a host
in which it does not live is known as
Accidental/Incidental parasite. e.g.
Mecistocirrus digitatus in goat.
• Aberrant parasite: Parasites which follow an
unusual route of migration in their host’s
bodies and usually become encapsulated and
die are called Aberrant parasites e.g. Any
parasite
• Stenoxenous parasite: The parasite which has
a narrow host range is known as stenoxenous
parasite. e g. Eimeria bovis can infect cattle
only.
• Euryxenous parasite: The parasite which has
a large/wide host range is known as euryxenous
parasite. e g. Trichostrongylus axei can infect
cattle, sheep, goat, horse, rabbit, man etc
• Hyperparasite: A hyperparasite is an organism
which parasitizes another parasites.
e.g.Nosema dollfusi (protozoa) is a
hyperparasite of the larval stage of flatworm,
Bucephalus cuculus, which in turn, is a parasite
of American oyster.
 HOST
• Host is defined as an organism which is
physiologically larger than a parasite, belongs to a
different species and provides protection and
supply nourishment to the parasites. e.g. Cattle is
the definite host of Fasciola sp.
Classification of Host: Hosts are classified
as follows
• Final/Definite host: The host in which parasite
reaches its sexual maturity and reproduces itself is
known as final/ definite host. Eg. Moniezia expansa
in goat.
• Intermediate host: The host which harbours the
larval stage of parasites for development but not
to reach sexual maturity is known as
intermediate host.
Example: Snail (Lymnea auricularia) is the
intermediate host of Fasciola gigantica.
• Paratenic or transport host: When the
infective stage of a parasite enters the body of a
host and does not undergo any development but
continues to stay alive and be infective to a
definite host is known as paratenic or transport
host.
• Example: Eathworm (Lambricus sp.) acts as a
paratenic host of Ascaridia galli
• Reservoir host or Carrier host: When a
host harbours a parasite until its sexual
maturity but tolerate the infection of the
parasite which is specially harmful to
another animal is called Reservoir or
Carrier host.
• Example: Dog acts as reservoir host of
Entomoeba sp of man
 Vector
• Vector may be defined as an arthropod,
mollusk or other agents that transmit
disease or parasites from one vertebrate
host to another.
Example: Anopheles sp is the vector of
Malaria.
Vector may be biological or mechanical
The important thing is not to stop
questioning.
Albert Einstein
 History of Parasitology
• Parasites infecting man can be dated back to
1250 to 1000 BC since mummies of 20th
Egyptian Dynasty contained eggs of
Schistosoma haematobium in the kidneys
• Egyptian medical scroll Papyrus Ebers refers
to worms like tapeworm, roundworm, ecto
parasites (fleas, flies) and mosquitos
• Aristotle (384-322 BC), the Father of Zoology
in his Historia Animalium recorded
tapeworms, cylindrical worm as ascarids
• Hippocrates (450-357 BC), father of Medicine
knew about pinworm of horse
• Little progress was made between 1200 and
1650 A.D. Dibothriocephalus latus by Dunus in
1592, Fasciola hepatica by De Bries in 1379,
Sarcoptes scabiei by Hauptman in 1657
• The greatest contributions up to 1800 were
made by Rudolphi in late 1700’s and Zeder in
late 1800’s
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) in his Systema
naturae classified worms into five classes-
Nematoda, treamatoda, cestoda,
Acanthocephala and cystica
The most outstanding contributions in
parasitology are listed below:
• Jean de Clamorgan rediscovered
Dictyophyma renale in 1550
• Ruysch observed Strongylus equinus in the
arteries of a horse in 1665
• Leeuwenhoek described the oocysts of
Eimeria in 1674, scientific and anatomical
study of Ascaris lumbricoides in 1682
• Wepfer stated that Gid of sheep and goat
was caused by Multiceps multiceps in1675
• Hartmann first observed Echinococus in dog
in 1694
• Mongin described the first case of Loa loa
infection thus establishing the concept of
filarial disease in 1770
• Owen described Trichinella spiralis in human
muscle in 1835
• Valentin first described Trypanosomes from
fish in 1841
• Gros described Entamoeba histolytica in man
in 1849
• Bilharz discovered Schistosoma haematobium,
Hymenolepis nana and Heterophyse
heterophyse in 1851
• Malmsten described the first parasitic ciliate of
man Balantidium coli in 1857
• Patrick Manson observed the development of
Wuchereria bancrofti in the body of mosquito,
Culex quinquefasciatus in 1878
• Charles Laveran discovered the malaria
organism Plasmodium malariae in the RBC of
man in 1880
• Thomas and Leuckart worked out the first life
history of Fasciola hepatica in 1883
• Smith and Kilbourne discovered the causative
agent of Texas cattle fever, Babesia bigemia in
RBC in 1889
• Bruce discovered that the Tsetse fly, Glossina
morsitans served as vector of T.brucei in 1895
• Forde discovered Trypanosoma gambiense,
the causative agent of Gambian sleeping
sickness in 1901
• Chagas proved that Triatoma megista is the
vector of Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas’s
disease) in 1909
• Fantham described Trypanosoma
rhodesiense causing rhodesian sleeping
sickness in 1910
• Kleine and Taute in Germany completed the
life cycle of Trypanosoma gambiense in 1911
• Stoll reported “Self cure” in sheep infected
with Haemonchus contortus in 1928
• O’ Roke demonstrated the dipteran Simulium
venustum transmits the Leukocytozoon
anatis in 1934
 Zoological Nomenclature
• Aristotle (384-322 BC) father of Zoology
indicated that animals may be grouped
together according to their characters
• Carolus Linnaeus (1707-78) laid the real basis
for modern classification and nomenclature of
animal. He divided the Animal kingdom down
to species and gave each species a distinct
name in his Systema naturae (1758)
• The International Congress of Zoology held at
Cambridge in 1898 set up an International
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature as
permanent body
The rules deal with all scientific names and
provide an essence as follows:
• Zoological and botanical name are distinct
• No two genera in the Animal Kingdom may
bear the same name and same applies two
species in a genus
• Scientific name must be either Latin or
Latinized and preferably printed in Italic
• The genus name should be single word and
begin with capital letter
• The species name should be single or
compound word beginning with a small letter
• When a new genus is proposed the type must
be indicated
• A family name is denoted by adding IDAE to
the stem of the name of genus and subfamily
name by INAE
• Genera are grouped together into families,
families into orders, orders into classes and
classes into phyla
Example:
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Platehelminthes
Class: Trematoda
Order: Digenea
Family: Fasciolidae
Genus: Fasciola
Species: gigantica
Taxon Ending Example
Class a Nematoda
Order ida Rhabditida
Sub order ina Strongylina
Super family oidea Strongyloidea
Family idea Strongylidae
Sub family inae Strongylinae
Geographic Distribution of Parasites
• Some parasites are more prevalent in
tropical/developing countries than that of
temperate countries.
• The presence or absence of a number of
biological, chemical and physical factors in
the environment affect directly or indirectly
the distribution and densities of parasites.
1. Climate
• The development and survival of free
living stages of parasites are greatly
influenced by the temperature and
humidity
• Intense/severe dry heat or direct sun light
may destroy larval forms of parasites
• Low temperature and humidity may arrest
the development of ova and larvae of
helminths
• Topography may also influence the
distribution of parasites
2. Flora
• Vegetation that serves as food and shelter for
hosts, both definite and intermediate hosts,
greatly influences the parasite population
• This is particularly evident in case of helminth
parasites
• Example: Various aquatic molluscan hosts of
digenetic treamatodes (Fasciola sp,
Paramphistomum sp, Schistosoma sp etc)
survive only where plants in the water and
deciduous trees on the banks are abundant
 3. Fauna
a. Availability of intermediate host
• When a parasite requires an intermediate
host, its distribution is greatly influenced
by the availability of intermediate host
• The availability of intermediate host largely
depends on its ecological conditions such
as suitable temperature, humidity, food,
vegetation and natural enemies.
• Example: Fasciola hepatica is absent in
Bangladesh because unavailability of the
intermediate host Lymnaea truncatula
 b. Availability of definite host and host
range
• Population densities of definite, and transport
hosts affect the parasitic densities and
distribution
• Parasites can not survive in an area where
the susceptible host are unavailable.
• So availability of host is important for the
distribution of parasites
• Parasite is more widely distributed when it
has a large host range.
• Example: Trichostrongylus axie has
cosmopolitan distribution due to large host
range
4. Habits or ecology of the host
• The habits of the host may allow it to come in
contact with the infected materials thus
completing the life cycle of parasite for its
survival
Example: In temperate countries, the habit of
people eating raw/insufficiently cooked food
expose to tapeworms.
• Hindus are never exposed to tapeworm (Taenia
saginata) due to their religious restriction on
eating beef.
 Host specificity
Host specificity may be defined as the natural
adaptability of parasite to a certain species of
host or group of hosts.
• Factors that influence the host specificity are:
a) Close evolutionary relationship: Host and
parasites have evolved closely thus allowing the
parasite to adapt itself with the host environment
b) Physiological condition: in the host such as,
composition of host’s food, blood & lymph and
pH in the digestive tract,
c) Resistance of the host: Immunity of the host
is such that it can injure the parasite for its
elimination.
 Organ specificity

• Certain parasites are usually or exclusively

parasitic to certain organs only.
• This is due to oxygen tension, availability of
composed food and pH & texture of the organ

• Example: Fasciola hepatica inhabits the liver

only of its definite host.
 Immunity against parasitic infection
• The state of resistance to an antigen is called
immunity
• The term immunity is applied to the condition
arising from the defensive response of the host
against the invasion by the parasite.
• Resistance: A host is resistant when its
physiological condition prevents the establishment
and survival of a parasite within its body
• Susceptibility: When a host is capable of being
infected by a specific parasite then it is known as
susceptible
 Classification of immunity
• Innate immunity
• Natural immunity
• Acquired immunity
a) Active acquired immunity
i) Natural active acquired immunity
ii) Artificial active acquired immunity
b) Passive acquired immunity
i) Natural passive acquired immunity
ii) Artificial passive acquired immunity
• Age resistance
i) Inverse age resistance
Innate Immunity
• Innate immunity refers to immune response
where a host is permanently resistant against
the infectivity of a parasite and is not affected
prior contact with the pathogens
• This type of immunity is complete and can not
be broken down by any condition
• The anatomical and physiological features make
the host unsuitable for a certain types of
parasites.
• Example: Man has innate immunity against
Moniezia expansa, a tape worm of ruminants
Natural immunity
• When the immunity is programmed in the
host cell DNA is called natural immunity
• The host is resistant against the infection of a
parasite but this can be broke down under
certain condition such as stress, malnutrition
or heavy infective doses etc.
• Example: Sheep is naturally resistant to
Neoascaris vitulorum infection
Acquired immunity
• The immunity which is developed within the host
after infestation or contact with the parasites is
called acquired immunity
• It is often incomplete and may be broken down
under certain condition such as, stress, heavy
infective doses and malnutrition
a) Active acquired immunity
• The immunity which is developed by the host
own production antibodies against the invading
parasites is known as active acquired immunity
i) Natural active acquired immunity
It is natural when produced through previous low
grade infection. e.g. Immunity of birds to
Ascaridia galli
ii) Artificial active acquired immunity
It may also artificial when produced through
artificial infestation of low infective doses or
attenuated infective stages of parasites. e.g.
Immunity produced in Dictyocaulus viviparus
in cattle
b) Passive acquired immunity
When the antibodies are not produced by the
host, but are received by it either from its
mother through colostrum, milk, placental
blood or by mechanical transfusion.
 i) Natural passive acquired immunity
When the resistant mother passes antibodies on
to their young against the parasite either
through placental circulation or colostrum/milk
is called natural passive acquire immunity
ii) Artificial passive acquired immunity
When the antibodies are transferred mechanically
to the susceptible host via artificial means is
called artificial passive acquired immunity
Age resistance/immunity
• It is a type of natural immunity in which the older
hosts are more resistant than the younger to
parasitic infestation. eg. older sheep are resistant
than lambs to Moniezia expansa
Inverse age resistance: It is a natural resistance
which refers to the lake or loss of susceptibility of
young hosts compared to older to parasitic
infestation. eg. Young cattle are less susceptible to
Babesia bigemina than older one.
• Premunition: When naturally acquired active
resistance persists only so long as the parasite
provokes it and continues to survive in the host is
called premunition eg. Premunition in case of
Taenia solium or T. saginata.
 Mechanism of Immunity
• Immunity production involves phagocytosis by
macrophages and production of specific
antibodies
• The phagocytes engulf the invading organisms
(parasites) and lysozyme tries to dissolve or
destroy the organisms
• Thus, this may carry the organisms to the
organs for further production of antibodies and
leading to immunity against the organisms
 Factors associated with Immunity
Immunity depends upon
• The production of specific antibodies
• Phagocytic activities of the macrophages
• Resistance body tissues
• Other non-specific factors such as body
temperature, action of digestive juices,
impermeability of the skin, physical well being
etc
Parasitic immunity involves the following factors
1. Extra haemopoetic factors
a) Genetic difference: Within a single species,
difference in susceptibility to parasitic infection
occur due to genetic variation .e g. Negroes are
less susceptible to Necator americanus than
whites
b) The body integuments
• Skin is an effective barrier and has the self
sterilizing properties
• Secretion of sebaceous glands, lactic acid from
sweat and high osmotic pressure play a role in
the immune system of the body
c) Mucus: In the mucosa the cilia of the epithelium,
flushing action of tears and urine help to remove
undesirable infective materials
d) Body temperature: High body temperature
accounts for combating many pathogens eg. Birds
are less susceptible to infection than man due high
body temperature
e) Metabolic or physical well being: Better
nourished animals are less susceptible to
diseases than malnourished animals
2. Humoral factors
• Lysozymes: This an enzyme found in the
tissue cells, blood serum, glandular secretions
and capable of destroying many invading
organisms
• Antibodies: Antibodies destroy the invading
organism (parasites), their development or
more rarely neutralize their toxic products.
Antibodies are five types ,IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD,
IgE. IgE is more prevalent during parasitic
infection.
3.Cellular factors: This comprises
phagocytosis by macrophages, leukocytes
 Factors that break down
resistance
• Inadequate nutrition
• Concurrent infection with other parasites,
bacteria and viruses.
• Stress from journey, overwork or climatic
changes
• Heavy infective dose may break down the
existing immune status against this
parasite.
 Source of Infection
The source of infection of parasitic infestation may
be:
• An infected definite host
• Reservoir host
• Intermediate host
• Transport host
• Contaminated food and water
The way through which the parasite leaves from the
host body are:
• Faeces: When the parasites inhabit the digestive
system.
• Nasal secretion / sputum: When the parasites
live in the respiratory system.
• Urine / genital secretion: When the parasites
inhabit in the genito-urinary system.
• Blood / lymph: must be withdrawn mechanically
or by blood sucking arthropods for transmission to
a susceptible host.
• Skin and tissues: The skin and subcutaneous
tissues provide a means of exit from the body and
are readily accessible to insect vector.
 Mode of transmission of parasitic
diseases
The infective stages of parasites may pass from
infected host to susceptible host only by
• Direct contact
• Various developmental stages either as free living
forms
• The intermediate host before becoming infective.
1. Transmission by Direct contact
• This implies the intermediate transmission of
infective stages from one host to another
• Example: Tritrichomonas foetus is transmitted
by direct contact (coitus)
• Lice and mites also transmitted directly
2. Transmission through mouth or food
• The infective stages of parasites may be present
in feed or it gains access to food from
contaminated soil and water and enter into the
host through ingestion
• Aquatic plants and grass may contain the
encysted cercariae of trematodes
• Vegetable may be contaminated with soil, water
containing cysts, ova and larvae of parasites
• The infective larval stage of may be present in
meat, fishes, crustaceans and molluscas
3. Transmission through skin penetration
• The infective stages of parasites may penetrate
the host’s skin by its own effects. e. g Cercariae
of Schistosoma sp, Infective larvae of Hook
worms
• Infective stages of parasites may be introduced
into hosts body by arthropod vectors through
biting. e g. Babesia sp, Theileria sp by tick
vectors, Malaria by female Anopheles
mosquitoes
• Infective phases may also be introduced into the
body mechanically during injection or
vaccination by using the same syringe and
needle
 4.Transmammary transmission

• The infective stages of parasites may enter

into the young /offspring through milk from
the infected mother /dam
• Example: Toxocara vitulorum infection if
buffalo calves
5. Transplacental/Intra-uterine transmission/
pre natal infection

• Infective stage of parasites enter into the

body of young through foetal circulation
• Example: Ancylostoma caninum in dogs
 Effects of Parasitism on Host and
Parasites
1. Utilization of hosts food
• Utilization of host’s nutrients to a detrimental
point by the parasites is the first type of
damage
• Depletion of hosts nutrient by the parasites
through absorption which have serious
consequences
• Tape worms absorb simple sugar, amino
acids, vitamin B12, some constituent of yeast
diet and other nutrients
• Example: Diphyllobothrium latum in man
cause anemia by absorbing vitamin B12
2. Removal of host’s blood and tissue fluids
• Blood sucking parasite sucks sufficient amount
of blood and cause fluid loss due to secretion
of anticoagulant
• Example: Haemonchus contortus of cattle can
remove 0.05 ml blood per day from the body
3. Destruction of host’s tissues
• Some parasites injure the host tissues during
entering
• Other inflicting tissue damage after have
successfully entered
• Some others induce histo-pathological
changes by eliciting cellular immune response
The nature of tissue damage is given below
• Ingestion and lyses of the epithelial cell
lining of host’s large intestine causing
ulceration. e g. Entamoeba histolytica
• Destruction of cells (lung alveoli) while
migrating through it. Eg. Ascaris
lumbricoides larvae in man.
• Tear off /bite off and ingestion of the host
tissues. eg. Strongylus vulgaris in horse
• The cercariae of some parasites penetrate
the host’s skin causing “Swimmer itch” in
man. e. g Schistosoma sp.
4. Mechanical interference
a) Blood and lymphatic vessels, bile ducts or
alimentary canal can be obstructed by heavy
load of parasites, eg.
i) Blood vessel - Dirofilaria immitis in dog
ii) Lymphatic canal - Wuchereria bancrofti in man
iii) Bile duct - Fasciola gigantica in cattle
iv) Alimentary tract- Ascaris lumbricoides in man
b) Causes pressure atrophy of different organs,
eg.
i) Coenurus cerebralis (Gid disease) in the brain
of goat
ii) Hydatid cyst (Echinococus granulosus) in the
liver of cattle
5. Abnormal growth of host’s tissues/ Tissue
change
• The egg of Schistosoma nasalis cause
hyperplasia of nasal mucosa of cattle
• Development of tumors- Cysticerci of Taenia
taeniaeformis causing tumor in the liver of rats.
• Hyperplasia may turn into malignant tumers, eg.
Paragonimus westermanii cause cancer/
metaplasia in the lung of tigers.
• Hypertrophy is commonly associated with
intracellular parasites, eg. Plasmodium vivax
cause enlargement of red blood cell of man
6. Secretion /excretion of various harmful
substances into the host

• Irritating parasitic secretions incite an allergic

reaction in host’s body.
• Example: “Swimmer itch/ cercarial dermatitis”
in man caused by the cercariae of
Schistosoma spp through skin penetration
• Nodules in the small intestine of cattle
caused by the larvae of Oesophagostomum
radiatum that induces inflammatory reaction.
7. Introduce other pathogenic bacteria, virus,
rickettsia and protozoan parasite into host
• Borrelia anserina causing Spirochaetosis in birds
by Argus persicus tick
• Viral lymphocytic chorio-meningitis in guineapigs
caused by Trichinella spiralis
• Rickettsia connori causing Q-fever in man is
introduced by the tick, Dermacentor andersoni
• Histomonas meleagridis causing black head
disease in turkey is introduced by caecal
nematode Heterakis gallinarum
 Adaptations of Parasite
1. Adaptation to feed and attachment with the
host
• Powerful, strong and large buccal capsule with
teeth to affect blood sucking of parasites from
the body of the hosts, eg. Hookworms
(Ancylostoma caninum) in dogs
• Remarkable structural and functional changes in
the mouth parts characteristic of blood sucking
insects to suck blood or tissue fluid of the host,
eg. mosquitoes (Anopheles sp)
• Loss of entire digestive system in tapeworms
(cestode) which have adapted in absorbing body
fluid from the host’s through cuticle, eg. Moniezia
expansa in ruminants
• Incomplete intestine (absent of anus) in
trematodes (flukes) which only can intake liquid
food through mouth, eg. Fasciola gigantica in
cattle.
• The suckers and hooks are the characteristics
structure of flukes and tapeworm primarily used for
attachment to the host but also help in getting food
• The acanthocephalid worms and ticks are
attached with the body of their host by toothed
proboscis and the hypostome
• The other ectoparasites such as lice, sheep ked
and hippoboscid insects are enable to attach the
external surface of the hosts with the help of
claws
2. Loss or reduction of organs
• Parasitic insects such as lice and fleas have lost
their wings but they can move rapidly by means
of their limbs
• Retention of locomotory organs such as cilia, eg.
miracidium of trematodes that bear cilia and
made contact with snail host
3. Reproductive adaptations
• Represent the method by which the parasites
meet the risk of loss of relatively large numbers of
its offspring
• One method is to increase the production of eggs
which may be affected by
i) Increase size of the ovary, eg. When tapeworms
and trematodes mature, ovaries occupying the
whole body
ii) Increased egg production by a single ovary, eg.
A female Ascaris lumbricoides may produce
2,000,000 eggs per day and Ancylostoma
duodenale produce 25,000 eggs per day
• Parasites which have less risk of destruction of
offspring may produce fewer eggs.
• Example: Female warble fly (Hypoderma lineata)
produces 500-800 eggs and sheep ked
(Melophagus ovinus) produce 10-15 larvae in
their life time
• Reproductive adaptation is the method by which
the parasite increases the number of individuals
derived from each fertilized eggs
• Example: A single oocyst of Eimeria tenella may
produce 1,800,000 individuals by sexual
multiplication within 4-5 days.
PRINCIPLES OF CONTROL
OF HELMINTH INFECTION

1. Reducing contamination
2. Avoiding infestation of the host
3. Treating the host/ reservoir of
contamination
REDUCING CONTAMINATION
DESICCATION:
• First and second stage larvae of
nematodes are readily destroyed by
drying out on soil and pasture.
• Eggs and third stage larvae are
somewhat more resistant.
• The longer the pastures are kept free of
airmails, the greater is the mortality
amongst all of the free living stages.
 NUTRITION OF THE HOST

• A well nourished animal is more resistant

to infestation than a poorly nourished
animal.
• Good feeding thus encourages high
productivity in two ways, by providing
nutrients for growth and by assisting the
host to destroy its own Intake of
parasites.
 IMMUNITY
• Initial Infestations commonly lead to
development of some degrees of
immunity.
• Thus, older animals with immunity may
cause safely graze areas dangerous for
young animals.
 ALTERNATIVE HOST
• The larvae of certain gastrointestinal
parasites can develop in different hosts, eg.
T. axei of cattle will develop in horse, and
vice-versa, but the effects of cross infection
are usually not as severe.
• Proportionately fewer larvae develop in the
alternate host. Other larvae will not develop
at all in the alternative host.
• Thus, horse can be used to reduce
contamination of pastures for Cattle and
Vice-versa.
 ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY
• In some countries, animals are stabled in winter
months and graze pastures during other seasons.
Under such management the husbandry alternates
with seasons. Winter quarters are vacant, they can
be thoroughly cleaned at leisure.
• Another "alternative husbandry" system is grazing
during early growth, followed by Intensive fattening
on feed lots. These systems of alternate husbandry
provide an excellent means of improving parasite
control.
• The aim should be to reduce the contamination of
both environments as well as possible by treatment
of all just before they are moved from one
environment to the other and thorough cleaning or
complete spelling of the alternate quarters while
vacant.
 STABLE MANAGEMENT

• Stables should be constructed with a

view to keep the animals away from their
own feces or to regular removal of feces.
• Cleaning twice a week is usually
sufficient, as eggs and larvae are thus
removed before larvae can reach the
infective stage.
 DESTRUCTION OF INTERMEDIATE
HOST

• This is not often practical for animals that

are grazed over extensive pasture areas.
• Fluke-bearing snails can be controlled to
some extent in restricted areas by
drainage or use of molluscicides.
• But, snails can survive many months
under quite dry conditions and their rate
of reproduction is such that if a few
escape destruction, populations quickly
reach previous levels again.
AVOIDING INFESTATION OF THE
HOST
HOURS OF GRAZING:
• Larvae are mostly found in the surface layers
of the soil. They ascend pasture and herbage
stems in responses to light when moisture
conditions are suitable, particularly when
early morning dew is present.
• Keeping animals stabled until the dew has
evaporated will therefore avoid much
infestation.
 LOW-LYING PASTURES
• Rains tend to wash faeces and larvae from
slopes down to lower grounds resulting in
local areas of heavy contamination.
• Usually the combination of moisture and
manure promotes better growth of pasture
attracting the animals to these locations.
• These grazing areas can be highly
dangerous and their grazing should be
restricted, if possible, to the times when
the grass and herbage are dry.
 MOIST AREAS
• In dry period, animals tend to congregate
beside surface water, small streams, ponds,
and irrigation canals where they can drink
and where moisture may provide some green
growth.
• Their faeces are concentrated on these area,
where because of the moisture, a high
proportion of larvae develop and survive.
• These areas should be avoided as much as
possible.
 OVER GRAZING

• Overgrazing of pastures to the extent that

animals are grazing at soil level increases
the intake of larvae which are mostly in the
surface layers of the soil.
• Much infestation can be avoided by
limiting grazing, removing the animals to
fresh pastures before risk of soil intake is
reached.
 ORDER OF GRAZING
• Young, relatively worm-free animals should be
allowed first access to pastures that are
relatively safe before these pastures are grazed
by older animals that would infest the pastures.
• Conversely, if an area is known to be heavily
contaminated, grazing by the older animals that
have some immunity can lessen the risk to
younger animals grazed on the same pasture
later, providing the infestation of the older
animals is not high enough to maintain or
increase the degree of contamination.
 "CLEAN" PASTURES FOR
GRAZING AFTER TREATMENT

• Areas of pastures should be kept free of

animals for some weeks prior to anticipated
treatments.
• The animals should be moved to these
clean pastures immediately after treatment.
AVOIDING CAMPING GROUNDS
• Places where flocks or herds regularly camp at
night are subjected to concentrated deposition of
faeces, resulting in heavy contamination with
infective larvae.
• Management, especially of migrating flocks,
should provide for regular changes in camping
grounds to avoid development of areas of high
contamination where stock are regularly in close
contact with their own faeces and the infective
larvae developing in them.
 TREATING THE HOST-RESERVOIR
OF CONTAMINATION
• Anthelmintic treatment given to destroy or remove
parasites from the host has two objectives, firstly to
offset effect of parasites on the host and secondly
to reduce the contamination of pastures or stables
with free living stages.
• Movement to clean pastures immediately after
treatment is almost as important as treatment itself,
because the animals will soon become re-infested
by larvae developing from faeces they themselves
produced before treatment if they remain on the
same pastures.
 STRATEGIC TREATMENTS
• Correct timing of treatments in relation to the
seasonal incidence of the parasites is necessary if
best results are to be obtained.
• Strategic treatments designed to prevent
infestations reaching problem levels.
• These strategic treatments are based on seasonal
incidence of parasites in normal seasons, and
they should be given as a routine, irrespective of
whether animals appear to be infested or not.
• The whole aim is to prevent the appearance of
symptoms and loss from sub-clinical disease.
• Animals must be treated while they are healthy to
keep them healthy.
 TACTICAL TREATMENTS
• These are treatments, in addition to the above
"Strategic Treatments" that may be needed to
obtain proper control in abnormal years. e.g., if
good rains fall for longer into the Summer,
favouring Haemonchus, additional treatment may
be needed against this species.
• Long wet winters may call for an additional
treatment with a wide-spectrum anthelmintic in
late January or early February.
• "Worms work by the Weather" and tactical
treatments call for "Drenching by the Weather".