222 Alri;",I" R,.!

tyi"flS C:' Phil"S(lpit y

poorly st:lfIC(!, hal'" malnk expatriate te.Khers, and "OIllC do not kwe
proper or , Most children receive only
formal education wiuch neithcr prepares them for any careers or jobs' nor for
SIX to tell ycars of 19
adult life, This system is s<"cds for social and econolllic chaos
A number Afric~ns have increasingly been going overseas to acquire

facC' great
educatiOll. This is expensive, and most of tbese students CHRISTIANITY, ISLAM &
like insufficient finance, new languages, adjusting to
another and racial in their host countries, Furthermore, since OTHER RELIGIONS IN
every country in the world, they are exposed to dint-rellt
p'{l,,~o,;_ economics and politics, which are hard to harmonize AFRICA
return to their home lands and start working. Yet this is
no advanced education at alL
Modern also brillP"s cultural in Africa. More and lIlore So far \w have c<lfIcclluatnl <'11 ,un'c) of African Jild

educated has alieuated them from their (ollcel'ts .1IlJ, 1Il the
traditional substitute. This INIltlld,

vanous
and a revival of interest in tradi­ Inc-ratm,:
tional music, ond folk Itories. At the same time, African artists are AfrICa, Jnd it l ' neither
to create art, drama, poetry, novds and Inusic which arc the scope 110r thl' lntClltWll tkal wah the !]lam' faITh of these
peculiarlv African and yet set ill the modern world. and the nthe'r 1 sbali cOllf'ille m\' <lb,t'n'atlollS to Sclllle 01 thL' mal[]
It remains now to ,ay something :lbotlt the characreristics 01" bl)th Cillistial1ltv allel hbm 1Il tbel[ lllodern expallSioll in
in Africa, We shall devote a whole chapter to it. though obviouslv it deserves Africa and their (;IlCOllllter with the lradiliollal backgwund \~hicb we have
more, just as these other dimensions of the changing man of Africa could be ill thi, hook, III dlt' ne"t allJ final chapter [ ,hall raj"" sonte of tire
treated lllore COI1Iprehensively than space allows us here, I issul's tlus mili"ll alld modern change ill wInch Africa
finds itself at preSl'llt, U\wjoUlly tllne j"lIcs arc tno cOlllrlex to he premltcd
I The ,ubject of nlOd cIll changes 111 Africa has been giveIl a great deal of :lltt'mi'.HI alld
in J few pages anJ desL'fI'L' ,1 full :lnd separate' trcatlllcnt. But raIsing
there is :1 vast :llllnuut of literature 01\ it. All we can mention here arc some of tile'
them should at lea,t com tit ute' :l wav 01" c'lIlcluding thi, imroJunion to African
books: G, HUllter Tl'l Ncw S(ldell'" <if' TropicIl/ A/r;,u (Oxford 1%2); p, C. Lloyd
ill Sori,'! Ch,mr!<' (LllTIdml 1967); C. Achclw TIII'I~s I,ll
III'"rl (Londol1 1955): religiom and pillio"'l'hy,
A, W. S,)utldl & P. C. W, Gutkind T,'U"Wllt'rI in ,he ,naking (London 19S(,); M"
Bantoll, cd" l'.)/il;(,,/ ,'YS[('tIlS ",ui ,he dislrib!lri,,,, "jpm<'er (London 1965); J, s, C 111~m<I!'
& C (:. Rosb:11.!. i"I~, pt,lukt..li p~lrl1C3 ~lIId tUJli\mld inlt',~rllfhm tr1 A)n,J
196·+); B, David""l ~VI"il, w"Y /I)r'(II?: Ihe d ",'ii'

lal Chri,'liillliry ill /t/r!("

{[ C'ndnn K. NkrllIllall Ct'tl.", rend';;"! (Ll1l.1don 1964) :::H1d ;t (~h.l nIH::1 !il!!!!
Cbristr,mity in Africa is sO nld that it can rIghtly bc describcel ;JS all illdig"'Il(1l1 S ,

196.1, \: L. 1,::10 Jell Bendlt.', cd .. A fjUlL .\t1(1ct! r'rl)M(1n~ \.l(rhu1r!t' ,ltlh '\l/1lh,"1 (S.lll
traditional alJd African L.HIf! before tll( start of blalll ill the sC\'cnth

jl){':'i:'f rr"",J,'fl/fi,iddlr,l,(L')lldOIl1963). i\, A, MnrUl 1',.","",/" wa, wdl cst:lblishcd 311,lVcr nun h Alrie.!, Egypt, pans of
t\.J) F.tt:;rd:: ~illnhid stzr]/l hi jr,'{ (L(Yldt 1 n l'-}{'LJ, J. i It was ,I dynamiC t()rrnl'l Chri,stianitv. pruducing great
l'ih:,! I ij\iE~(',) <;,.,),,[
like Tcrtulli,lll, Ongcil, Cit'Plellt (If A!cx.llldria ~dld
(Poris 19'16/. ,'I.
\X,"
made J W(.!! "outributiull tn Chri,tendullI
Church cIllmllis, dcfclIl'" of the Faith,
tr:m,i3ttnll .wei prese! 1',HiOIl tlIeor
223
 224 to Is/tim If" I !~', ,/ 225

mal the t.llIl<'UI Catl'clwtic:d S,h,,,,l pI

th.,HH.d~ _ II
!'1
r, ~ L it!!l< found ill
use Arabic (
and <,veil hen<sie, and C(llllrnYl'hi"s.
.ir,,,('r\"\..' llL1!lV (In",, and
liturgical bonk, but
Isbn, ., and pvlllical I'r"SWlT l'H'lItuallv cbeck",1 OPt only the reflect the rvpc "I ( j:n tl,licH :1 U1J\\i~ s of

expansIOn hut ,11so the verv existence of Africall (:hristianity, nmil tlwallcient of (It',le, IU '. f)n(--;..~_-;. 1";hhor... the
Church in !Ifrica wa, grcarly reduced, onlv in Elhiopia amI \it:. .U(;,;-' 'In -l to"bv \vherc ('hri"ti;nll~V I~,
These then
h,b 'African 1 t 1!1', 311J r L~.,LtJ('flJL \\;ith H\ rno r,';
history alld ,r;;,lltHlJll ,r tIl,'s,: Wil," thnl'. hi Nuhu JIk1 "tbeT 1',1[1'
1m)],·" \1
()r~ !f)f :tntd
DUIlV Ct'IHlH-ic"l \V!ll'tl it
the Sudan It
1974. For lll:mv centurie, the Church in
to forces. lilc ,IIlCl<'ill t:hunh ill tile'se two ""Lwtrie,
ellt offfrnIlll'l)mt:lllt conlact with the fl"t "fClmstcndnIli. WhlCh
lacked a COllSCJl)U.\ lui"ion,lrY CX}'JIJ>lOn,
it to ,\lrican hut whicll
extended furtht·r lhall
comerVJtisIll extreme)" difficult In (lYcrC,)!llt' ill
Roman Cat/ll.ilc Chtm;h its h-'l!1I
tilIle". Round church,,,, Illanv saint"
work along tht: west co,!>t, the elbt (,O,1\t and :It. dle
place
the fifteenth century Most of dus worl-. was ailllcc1
order of dC,lCl)m,
a traders, and III fev.: place<s Jid it pClletrate llItl' the luterior anJ rCJeh a
hUI IJI 1'!V wcll-cJuc:Jtccl clef VV, ;wd a MnnnpiJ\,\lfc are the number of l\fricans. As Dl'lllnark. Holbnd and Britalll expanded their
main clnLKlnistic-s of the EthinplJj] ()rdll1dllX Chun h !t b tTuly • Alncan' in maritime, cOllllllercial and ((lionia] activities, their c1em'v abo "Jtcrcd f,)r the
the S(,IlSC of rhat rill'Sl' tc..1tures have evolved over mallY Cl'lltllrics Jnd reflect a increasing' number of
t<)Ul:iIeo African
rhilt has not beeIl illlPOSt'd fr,'lll outside. Ollt' eil'lllenr which But this preselle<:' of
illustrates this p()lllt is the: f:Jet that the (:hristi;lJ]s there 'believe in a whole host though a lew COllllllullitles, estuary, seem to have been
of evil spirits' 'For protection against these and other converted, The real 11J(.dcrn ill Africa started with
amulets, which arc magical pravers and formulae written freed CI,rbti'lll slaves who begall to return to western Africa towards the end of
in little hooklets and carried in leather cases around the neck and arms, and the eighteenth century. By the middle l)f the nineteenth century,
Muslims will be found wearing t11cse Christian amulets as well as others had illcreasingly large followers along the coast from Sierf<l Leone to
obtained from their OWll holy men. ' I Exorcism is a major function of the clergy, This was a spontaneous expall sion, sometirnes without even the constant
Christianity in Ethiopia was the state religion, and imperial historv and the clergy. Ir also began to penetrate into the interior.
were intricately involved in Church history and life there. The Ilext phase is represented by nllSsionary activities, starting ill the
Whereas the Church in Ethiopia survived Islamic invasions and retained its nineteenth century. That time, Britain. Europe amI the United States increased
of being the main religious force in the COUll try, in Egypt, as in other their interest in Africa, as evidenced by the arrival of empire builders,
parts of northern Africa, it was almost wiped out. What remains of this Coptic llllssionaries, hUll ters, traders, ,journalists and others
Church has a long tradition going back to the apostolic times and strongly from these countries. For our purposes here we must note that Christian
belieyes that it was 5t Mark who founded it. The Arabs conquered Egypt in the missionaries from Europe alld Al1lerica penetrated into the interior of Africa
mid-seventh ceIltury, and Islam established itself firmly in that land. The either shortly before, or simultaneollsly with colonial occupation. The ill1age
Church went through periods of calm and peace as well as persecution and that Africans received. and to a great e.xtent still hold, of Christiamty. is very
pressure from Islam and Islamic government which reduced t"~ 'lumber of much coloured by colonial rule and all that was involved in it. We are still too
Christians to about seventeen and a half per cent of the population \:n 1987, do.\e rn that period [(I diSSOCiate one from tbe other. A Gikuyu proverb
compared to about fifty-nine per cent in Ethiopia,) The Coptic Church has SUllllllaflzes this fact very well: 'There is 110 ROll13ll Catholic

many points of similarity with the Orthodox Church in Ethiopia and the two ano a European- both are the .,arne l '

were for many centuries under the same Patriarch of Alexandria. The Christians Another feature characteristic of Inis>itl!1 ChnstiJllitv 1\ that vlrtuaUyever"
sect ~mJ denomination in Eur<)[J;:, BriDIn and America. has started its worl ill
Islam (Oxford/London 1952), p. 28. Africa, The remit is that Africa doc, not have J single image of Christianity hut
 226 ,if! Chrisfimllfy, L;/d/ll (:r {lUll'r """n~H'''' ,,,. ')'" ..

severaL Ihltercllt (:hurch structures and traullh'll" h:l\"c been
ovcrs,,,!.s, and AfrieJll Chnstiam have lllherikJ
Tht',e del1\l!llmalion~:
ROlllan C:1thoIICs, Lutheralls. Baptists,
Seventh Day Adventist". Quakers :llld SO 'lIl than to male their converts good
followers of Je5m Chnst. Denomlllationalism 15 one of the worst
e1cnl<'l1ts in modern Africa; and somc of the dcnomilntions have
while COlllpete for converts and in
propaganda, There are, efforts to remedy this situation through
vanous joint and ministries, such as Christian councils, work
and victims of famine or civil wars, Bible
education and fragile efforts towards forming united
has expanded rapidly in the first half of this century. through the
efforts of overseas missionaries and African converts. Schools became the
nurseries of Christian congregations, and converts earned the name of
'Readers'. The same buildings were used as schools froll!
Lutheran dud Pmtest3Ilt Church back~roun,b. with a few from the
t/,,;m without even Roman Catholic' Church and nOllc from the ()nlr,lt1<'x Cburch. At
least thirteen pcr cenl of tile Christi:ms in Africa
Churches. Several causes are respomible for their proliferation and cuntinuation.
We can only" ('uumCfdte them without i!lling into further discussion. a, there is a
vast literature on tbis subject. 1 Whatl'ver else lIlight be said III general about the
independent Chnrch movements in Africa,
attempts by Afric:lIl
apply it in ways that,
and meaningful to them,
The scandal of division in Protestant mi"io11 Chmches has set an example to
African COllverts. This is made worse by the fact that lIlissionaries who brought
and prop:1gate divided Christianity, an: (or were) proud c)f their
founders, traditions and brand of Christianitv. This the
Church divisions do not mattCf. The logic, frolll the African
that since missionaries belong to so many denolllinations.

as churches on Saturday (for catechulllcn le"oll:;) and Sunday not have their own Churches. founded and led by fellow African Christians?

Wl' saw, it is Africam ,,·ho have been to school that are most After all. home-nude produce is often cheaper than imported

modern changes, One of the thing, that off separatism froIll mission ChLllches is the
Another point is that the missionaries who began this control that missionaries exercise over their African converts :Ind congregation"
Christian expansion in A frica. together with their African This meam that Europeans and i\menC:1l1S are seen as ruling Africam both in
sincere and dedicated men and WOlllC1L But were not theologians; SOlllC of and matters. \Vhcre Africans rebelled
them bad little education. and most of the African evangelists and catechists rule, thev were fined. impri'wlled. deported or put to death" If
were either illiterate or had only little formal ieaming, TIH'se workers were rule in the Church. at the worst could only he
and if so they could start their own cburches free from
more concerned with practical evangelism, education and medical carc. than
In tbeir own churches they would become masters.
with any academic or theological issues that mIght arise from the presence of
and over-domination have led many African
in AfrIca. Mission Christianity was not from the start, prepared to
and scvcr their nr",onizational ties with
face a serio liS encounter with either the traditional religiom and philosophy or
the II10dern challQ"es takin" nlace in Africa. The Church here now finds itself in churches"

19605, political stage; and as as the: Church is in

the brethren ,md ,islers in Christ. Ati·ican, will rebel

great momentum 1"11 recent .vear,. This ,mcmpts, all10ng ,Jther forecdesi,lstical frcecloll!.l! O"t'lh'fallv 111 Of ri1rmwi1

to u!Illnst,lIld and imcrnrct the Chmtian faith to tbe such freedom" realIzec\.
w,th the b,;, caUse J!, the fact also th;lt clash",; of rilld
the t'"'tai African '''l,texl, t;lkil1~~ into cOllSidcratiol1 Gnth the cultura!
;lIld rb e (OntcllIporarv ,inution, Thi, il all o!,cn-, ded t;!"I, :Hld ,Tcatiw bctvv,t"t't} \ni:-,')iL)ll~ries and ,Afnc:rn C]nisti"ln~, 3~ \-vell a~ het 'vvt"cn SOlnt:

1lt'V(~I Find it;:eif nt;[ \~f \\";)rK of til<' Alr;,";am tb,'p""!Vt'" bv,' ",>,'"J ,">ira! e'd the hreabwav pf churche,.
c'vi'lent is dI:lt Hmo,iOll
j

A t-," nd.ln1l'Ilt .11

l!l[I"' I\ln,,'an \X,',
:n~)dCr !j '\i:Jt:.11" \).\'vtH C\;rh
lLKlnitlll:11 hfl' ti1\'\" ,-iel [H)l
lIn the <1Vt·r{IL~(', '1t'(t~ that ha\'c brdkcn off fr(iln .hurchl" 111.\ \" >h~"\"\'11 L()v¥ !

,'Inc .Hlotht':'. j;ht rh\)I!"';:Pl~~ (1t- ,!let! :H(L Dt'ndC'l \'. f

) (h,; Jl!" ;,( ,'L:~:

, ~]!'
 1/ . . l(·.JJl
PllllosOphy Christiarlity, Islam (:7 Or/llr It: A /rl(,1 229
j.dlO\\ il(l\\, [(\ :::\'1."': \Vitlil
nldllV ,\£ri,-a~J\ ~,ifllplv.1 ('iP<illillt\ iU,';lllkt0111Canfor
African languages in 1984) anJ a fllturisrie 11<11'" "f .an llllllll'diatl' arri\'al of
I]('X( V.'nrld. thnd··\) h\ 1tHh !" j" expected in Since, as we haye seen. traJltHm) COlll:CptS ot time elllphaslze the two
, ,
'':In;',lId ''t! JflU a
of Zamalli and S,1\:I, with little or Ill) conceru for what lil~S beyolld a
d Wl(·~. meeting
Week. It is a a rc;d

which call1hlt he fitted into the imlllediate

tion of individual llIen and women. '.vait for this to come, but then
they see their Christiall relatives hcgillnillf. to Jie. There is disappoilltlllclIi from
For example, the second of Christians onwards: Jud it IS preciselv at this moment
.... [henne'
( :Jmstians ttl taLt~ niJce. Those wli() make
nor re:ld; the rLl;"Lred from f-lll "[',;.l!1. that
American VCf,sinn, :llIcl ,]['e sung /;,rc'ign tulles wbeL La\'[' little and unconsciously. at least ;] I'llrll;)1 realization \If their
without !lo,lil" flJ(lVemCnt.I li~(' the 11:H1d.s ur t .. , iUI[]S anda
as of heaven OJ pJrJdise Illc.lrJI:lted in their ic:ltier ;mel or tCJtures

\\inr,hip in Illi"i"/l dillrclles is dull for mOst

characterize thl'Ir lIt'w sect. It is iii that J III tmc
eh ur,"b.'s .1re J i I ,Ht"fllpt to !lllJ .J f(l leel a thome' , I
dimension oi rime is !II,,,t
tIl worship bur ill tll1' wIlnII: profession ami expressi"1l of
At tbis Wl' lllight also sketch S,)Jlle of th,' cll.1rackri';ril'\ of tliese
bith. Beneath the umhrella of lndepcllJl:'nt Churches. Afrrcan
African church mcverncllts, as
freelv shed their tears. vOice their ,orrows. pre.\cm tiJcirsflIritll,d and
continent. Most of them on

needs. r('spolld to the world ill which they live :lnd elllf'tv their Ic!\""s before controL It is to be noted. howcver, while- Sl?VCn thom:lnd of tlies"
God,

movements have severed themselves from miSS;,ll1 Churches, another ,)lIe

The
sense of t'str:lllgc!lI<'llt hal
hcelJ thousand are still ;lttached to mission Churches. Independence is chiefly ill terms
tlot oniv
but also bv modern
of organization. leadership, decisions. finance and direction. In other matters
chapteL These
h;lvc copy mission Churches. and some of them want to be linked with historical
increasing number of African ,1n Churches both in Africa and outside.
ndepcndent Church movements are The Revelation and healing important roles in the ndencndent Churches.
which may perhaps I()[)n a substitute for the Some of them forbid their followers to use
ity, The rather slllall groups of members of IIWCpcnclent members to depend entirely on God's power through prayer
areas where upromed lllen and Women finJ some conlfort, a seme
services, Revelation comes through dreams and visions, and through meditation
of belonging together, a feeling of oncness, and a recognition of bcing wanted
when leaders withdraw to solitary for varying lengths of time. Emphasis
and accepted, It is relevant to note here the observations of SUIlJkler that in the
is also laid on the place and work of the Holy Spirit, and during worship services
ofSollth Afr1l''' the policy of apartheid is one of the mam cause, of the
people seek to be possessed Him. When they become so possessed, they speak
Ie, there.
in other tongues.
I sec aho the question of time ,1, ;1 hndall1elltal rt t calISe for The literal interpretation of the Bible is common among these Churches. It is
Churches. It significant that all of them have Sprullg from to be remembered, however, that some of their leaders cannot even read, and the
Protestant Churci1!nJmhip which ill has m,ioritv are poorly educated, so that only a few of them have been to theological
rt'dding the JlJhle (whicb indIvidual or seminaries. There is a tendency among some groups to stick almost
or part IS translated I1)t(1 540
exclusively to the Old Testament and its precepts. Some of the leaders are
by their fC1llowers.
! Til" 1'11[3',· ~' B \~' db,,!,!,!) Jlid B. 1\. ( 'fudy. /1

women, and these are fully accepted and respected

,/I /;"''11' (O,iorJ N:1Ii,)bi 1966;.
Discipline varies widely. Some independent Churches are very strict,
r their members to cat pig meat, drink alcohol, have more than one
g, G. M. Sundklll B,IIIIIJ j""piJclS iii .'i"lIIit /11;i,.,) (London 1'I4R. 2l1d "dlti"li 1961).
smoke, dance in European style, tease, beg and so on in addition to urging
 i< ( ['/,ifll (Ifill'r III /lli'I,'[ 231

rh .:!"'1 clV\'H: iilJ;! 'f" 1'.1, t! IC'" 1\1);S101l ChrlStiJ']it\" ret.1ins TIlJny
I :,l/lTl~'," ()th~rs are off than otl :eIl
It:l}\l't;r. ( lffl'!ldl':'"\ '\c;;\ ;li\iJt .".. I. • I h.. : n ,Oln('
;Iud Allie'rit-an origins have
, ~rticll's lIt faitb, doctrines,
\~l111l" :irc tJ(ii('f: ; '! ['~ ,I tl \ ); J 'l1!ili.· r' \ .~ begun to shed, imtJllCe
''i lllllU1)ICated !IS
vvht'll prt)\'l' td he t'.'U lHtt\\fJr. \"i\lut aids, ()fIll ,)! tlJVlsi()tl of the Church and structure
th~;~ C~hurcb :\l'r\'i(c\ Ill(' Ih,' pattern of of the minim\"
flfllf\{' I)lt. Hilt Like nl0re African COlwcHS who profess missioll Christianitv are ntt('p. eag-cr to embrace
itCTllS like ftn rIll' 'dth, t'X\)fO:-.Hh and
pl.1VIIlg as much of it as possible, But it is a Chnstianity deeply rooted in Huro-Alllerican
the gl\'lllg (If llhHlc'V or In SUP!"'] t tLei; Ie:lc!c[, Jnd prllgr:!llUlles culture, What Williamson has observed in his study of Christianity alllong the
MOil"f tbelll, It llPt .llL Ob"TH' d:e' );tniJlIiClli "t Hil!,lilll!, WI\;I ,SOllie Akan, seems to summarize the situation in other African societies. He writes
J' "hell OJ, thn! wl,h; kit the 1101<: Fuc!lJli" II ;1 relatIvely that missionarv effort has been directed towards drawing converts away from
1 he (·,ld'rJrwn ('if (,hrhtian te,tivar, varies traditional life towards what missionaries thought was the proper, civilized alld
,
allO ;"Ii1IlH: gn)up' (:h;-i"t]lj;i\ J) rhtT (on"id('f it to be Christian expression of the new Faith. 'The Akan became a Christian
linked with pag.11l cleaving to the new order iutroduced the mi>sionary rather than
It 1, diffiCi!!t ,mel ,taJ1d:lfd ,,( the out his salvation withiu the traditional religious milieu. ,'The reslllt has been
(~l;urch:·\ ilj Arne;!. ~dnh' of rIL'ji\ lL,\'~' \Lldilll)IlJII'LlCllU'\ which that 'what passes for Christianity, as so man v understand it, i.\ disbelief in
arc c1e:ll !lot { 'hristl:ill rnbce tlll'll ( and fetish, membership of the Church. payment of its dues, and obedience to its
to a
Very In\\ ill,,1 '11 Kt'l "Iv Ill:11I1Ll!1l ,; Il:lnd,lrd of . He cowes to the cOllclusion that mi"ion
Chn'ti;lIl lif", of their fono\v~·r\. tht'ir llliirll'ric:d exp:111­ unable to with or rebte its message
\1011'1 and their ill \A luci: the hUllt:!lJ 1'1 "bien,s "f theIr outlook. It,
is thereby dulled' . This form
tellri~)l1, :')Oillc ,,)t the: !!fIlUP', t)r tll"i! out of their traditional ellvironment: it did 110t redeem them within it. I These

aft.' to prt"~~lrt' :luJ Pl'I'·('('.lt£t)11 h(Il!1 nl\ . . ~ll,',:j (~j)nr(ht'.;, ;-u.,j g liV l'f1l'­ are the dIsturbing di.,coveries of OBe whn work('d in Chana for twenty-six vears
rnent:-:" ChHh COL.HJiJi Jnd At"flcao. rhi) frnill fll'r~l't,"lltinn ufteu j as a missionary alld who died there,
d affairs is Both WelboUfn,
drivel the !ll(\VClllcnts ilild <:llCOUr,])!", thCII! t\l From eastern Africa similar state
In0f11cntttfll. \X/batt'vC'f IlLl\' he r1lcif l;jU\t.:~ ;}I1J t1iCq'
warden and lecturer in Uganda for
himself
Churchc,\ :lfe an illl['ortJnt (("JUtre ()( Clln:;tiallitv ill J\tncL It lll,l\,. il<)w('\"('r, be twenty years, and Ogot write that the Protestant and Roman Catholic
Airicans from their mcietv and
111(' ,'as" h' cO!lslder t1H'lll a, comlituting all '/\fric'cPJ Rc'l'''rrllilt'lHl', forms of
a,1 \()m(' writers tend t,) j wig.: t helll I taking
There i:) :dso \,/r1Jt l)llC nJ:1V (an Ifli:;sillfl mission Chllfl~hcs, receiving literary education and
l!lU\t sav Stlllll"tillfl,Q". SlIlte it ,ilew tWe) types of wbi, This form of Christiamtv made no positive
most !11 the CtlIltJct bl't.wcell ('Iiri,uallJt\' and African tradaiullal attempt 'to iucorporate ancestors and witches, lOug and dance, into the
:-'O!1i(' of it, features h:nT bet'l' a!hllled JS we c· llsideled what ,'Jlhed dw ChmtI:l11 ,chellle'. The two writen conclude tbat 'ill ternI, of the conversion of
Churche, the Ilro ::est ft'ature of l1Iis,ion J people. r.!l\: Churcb bas failed, and11 has failed, rartly at kaq, because it has

, it hCdr" 11'.>t henl unable to presellt tf1 Africa l1wre than a westem image <)f its faith
Church) nuke men at ilOlllC in J lLlt;Of1, or in tlrc~ ",,,rid, onl}' If
imf!tutinllallSTll. links "I; h the hbtllncl1 tr,l'!;­ thev 11;1\( fir", 1,"lrIli to he at h01lle ill j(1c~ll tefnl',', In Jlhlthcr \tnth, \1/ c!hourn
tiOll' of C:I.lri-'(l'nduJfl, f]i!~l!lCla! :'C\uurcc,\. !':'(\1l1 UVCf'">c,l>;, an

eCllllll'Ill(Ji COllcern. a d,·lilwrall' iltt.clllpt to rl'bre Chn\ti,lflitv III

jl)(u;, l-rU i
in ,'1fnCil, i'l.ltIll",lli;, ,OIlIC of thl' illi"I"ll ( ,hlac/rl" al"c' I;enn p, ') ;'11'/
~,' ~

1 \{'(' (h~'
lOt" rh,.',;t' '\tri",Hl !('lii!,l('ll~ '"
rno\'{'tncuts hv 11 B. I( ,'/i,'waf (L\lliJllll N,llrnhI 11j(,H) ,
 L"iL I }{ /SidtH C,",' tJlrln 1",1 "ywn.' '''­

aT !!tl< d:,l( V.;;U( I1ll','\i{\ll,lrit'-, dlC,li,f I )j tI i ~ ~ other inGlVlUU;U' ;Ill "wr AfneJ wlw haw fOllnd " Failh for which they died or
h,'ell 'Il I'.lll v,hik \tIl are prepard to die ,f !lcd h~. There i, abo the Ea,t African Revival which,
;-',:(('n'{·d 1 Il Pdr~ \\·!li!v tl~:t-~ l .Hllt': t',lP surting ill R wand:! ill til<' btt' ninctl;t'll twenti"" hJ' over large sections
v\'li.Jt Ii,' ,:,)ll" culture ;iil.] lh,., /\iric:;i! of the Church and cOllllllllnity in ('astern and central Africa. Its chief contribu­
AiH.ltiH.'I' ""lit<:'i tion to the Church is that melllber, of tlte Rcvlvalluw continued within their
thc (-',}nCL1\1('11 tiLH '( rarber than a ":parate ,,'ct, and show :1 waflll sense of
and brnthcrhnot1 which illlmediateiv Clits across and
. and
dIe' JdmlJ:",nJril'n of the tribal, racial ;1nd other differenc,'s,
ignores
~<llrJlllCTH:" I\J\any lOH\'Cf'-;l\,lI).\ ha\:t;" hL't'D fo! n:'::H:'nal lC,1."Olh 'l'tHh h1r to meet and
Missioll
C:hnstialllt\ .,,1 bJS H·.d ";!"wers to life's at least SOllle of the llcelh ot modern
il!;!1l\ j, '-illite . ,Inti 11<' exercise a ministry ail11el! at
difticultic,. nor an;, rt',d lllfluCllCt' Illl "xul pmbbm." In Africa. \Xi e have ,('ell how llli"i(1[laries forlllal education in
the ,'13 lr! L' \tuJv, an()fi1cr \\'ritcr on tbe' \iiii:ttl011II1 the (,:Jl1i~rrH'lh llb\l'l'Ves that Africa. They and i\fnull Christian, have c'l)lltinll,~d ttl !1l3kc
"J ("bri:)tl~1l1 \va~ defllJl-:d a:; "nlll' \vlh) IJ{b ab:li1Jlilh"d thl: .,.:u~tunh·· . t(1 prima!'\' Jild "t\;lOtlllll, even whell seho"l, havc
rfaditl'Hl) vverc rh( W.ll lb.;! 1)1' a Cultural be'en l.1kc'n ,WeT. anti finJ1lciallv, b\'
which ,"oldJ.
\"d,:Ulllll 1<' J cxtCIH, ill' .lttnbut,'d to A African !!,owrlimeIH,. The Churdl al,!'> makb Ih cOlltnhllii(1I1 in lh,' lllc,lic.ll
cunkl sal' at thi, rC1illt: "\V,' nlall<lt.lctllrt.' ChristLlIls but lile take, them field, again Illi, ,,'r"Ke III i\trica and (IHltlllllillg to run Jnd
aw;n froll1 1..,." rhis ;ll11lltl!lts to that the cultUl.d lub,;tl'atli\ll wa, not \\"il ;1< Cliri,tiall dO('lnr l ,1I1d llurlCl t,) wmk in
cOllvertt'd. ' g(lVCfllllll'llr l'lrahlilhlUt'IltS. In tbe field or literatllll' there
of this ob"ervation c;lll be quoted from lllany parts nf Arnca. They nr lwoks, trach and well as
a pictllrt' of mis,ion Christianity as one which IllS [tot gone prograllllllt'S pllt Oil the radio and tdeviliol1 Church hodles,
iuto Afncau traditional " Its greatc.\t impan hJS been 01; cultural arrangclllt:llt with national radio statlollS and the six Clrlllch radio
level. In the mdustrial aud urban sitllatiom, auother stations ill A frica. There is also, but less overtlv, the level of Christian ethics
that' fOf many African Christians the function of and morality which permeate, the lives of l11any men and women in Africa
that aft: lareelv utilitarian and materialistic .. IS who have been exposed to Christian teaching. Many of the leaders of inde­
aSSOCIJted with the concept of' 'CIvilization" . . . . To be able to call oneself a pendent African nations other than Muslim states are, to a certain degree,
church member, even though ()ne'~ association is extremely tenuous, confers a the product of Christian education; and nearly all of them have
certain statm; and loss of stallls is often regarded as the greatest dis:rdv,1l1tage in the Faith at one time or another. It is not hard to sec signs of Christian
being sllIpcndcd from a church or ill changing from one denomin.nion to ideals in their service for Africa; and some of them play an active part in
another. Thm, ill the village JS well as in the tnWIU, one aspect of Illission the Church's life as laymen. There is, also, the large number of African
I:, that it is superficial, blended with western culture and catechists, evangelists, laymen, Church ciders, nuns, deacons, pastors, minis­
materi:rlislll and still estranged to the depths of African SOl eles. ters, priests, bishops, archbishops and cardinals, who make up the formal
It has. however, its other aspects which equally can Dot b" ignored. contingent of the Church's officials. These at least symbolize the concrete
modern Africa bas contributed, as did the ancient Church ill Afric), its ,hare of and serious presence of Christianity in Africa, and its acceptance bv African
Christian martyrs, 311lLlng the Ragauda and v,,"ell as many peoples.
Many of the Churches in Africa are awakening to the social needs,
! F. B. \l'/e:lb,)Urn I:.m A/ri,,111 r"l,eis (LI'l1cioll 19(1), 1',169 f. in urban areas and those raised by modern changes. Both study programmes and
I, B. .:'. J.. '( :Ollcl'l'tlom /lIn,": practical steps are under way in different areas to assess the meaning of Chris-
Nl~l'ri;:Hl. r<':ll'r:i..lIb ttl it;;; JJVt'lH . C:l:-;JV ··I/rl.,; C C. BJ,'tJ in Africa and how best it can serve, and not only convert, African
Oxf,:rd I%H), p 221)
peoples. The All-Africa Conference of Churches founded in 1963 has
1 R. BUfClU, 'InnW.'l1Ce de IJ Chri'<tiJn;S~Hit111 'Jllf les in"ritllt;nu\ tr,ll11uoI1llclle;-. dc~
(>1 hnie\ nHll'rC) Ju (:JliltrOU11'. e,S<;JY many responsibilities ullder its various organizational departments. There are
s rV 13vi01 &. D. !". LtillllJlll1 Cltri:.II,HI" Christian Councils and Federations in over twenty African countries. These,
 1'\ ("

/\Ji- 1\)1 ( h<. Iii','

I',,'!' t \ e:c~i 1)0t groUPS, Hut I ile""
vV~ t:i :\1 Ii! lit!·
'J! ,jill'\r;\ '1), II \ ~ ill\. ,( [ J \ ; I l, ", \ tit Africa, whl't ,r :\\.( 'iJe>
t.,1 l\tTlCllJ trJlll:1uua; ,Ition, and
I1tt-Lft Url\lll llk'tlJ \:IU,ttl, 'Ib, Church mUI'r;Pl'IJI I·) L',';1

iu\'c 11 ,,:ctJ ll.1ufcfCl1u·, like tlll' htl~lllJtV .

Ihl' All-t\tril-,i Lt)lIkr ,:tll(' of l

(~hllr(h,:\ V,,:,1\ f(lrnlcd :H .1IhJ lu:.. held .1\',l'iHP]il"\ ill Ab;dlJll (

'\lgn" nf
Lu\,lb iF!;,\), N.ilI"i"! t-nrnl'. ,It \ 'hrl\fi.1I11t\' IIced \;','ich uthef, are
1'11-17), 'h,' \ :hlhtllili

,J) N.liru1'1 (D'lcldwr l(jf)2 tk' fir·,; C(lI",lirJtl\)1l of Ir the tlh:ll1t'l1t. and J l:u,nbL' cu~~"')PcI:lt~,}ll bc-rv...'Ccn thenl
AtrlulJ ;11ll)J;lm 1')61», JlJd tilc 'v :'UCI,ll Coutlcd /I at
cilb~ln((' lHip,iet l)t tJlrt~f1:ltl!('.,
HI AflicL The ancient

R'Hn,' which \,'\'CI))\' l\fuCJIl elencs 1.)ok [':In, ,\I1,i Ftl:i"pi;1 ila, it, "trengtil :Illd WCJkllC", Jnd can hoth
C~bn:-[i]ll ,:,)~1f('r(>lk'(" 1:;1\'(' btYOll1l' !U /\tTit.:~lt \0111(, w IJIlll It'dnl !n\Jll tilt' t"" fl,'WCt tunll\ "I ( III recent

W"f!ti'hl,1c Chn"tctld,'m. ,uei! Ih thl' Filth A''''l1lhlv ,,[ lil" \V"rld (\'lIllcil of years there In, h,:ell ,1 ",tlhlhil J c\,»cr lmk between the
lll(>\'C I"

C!mteht'\ IJ . ,ld HI Nlinlbl ill 1'liS, Jlld til,: f:u,ilJri,tic c"ugn',' ill Nairobi in ancient ane! the ITW l<1nll' ell CIllhtLHllt\', hut pr,'\IPlhl v there well' frictions
1985, )ll1lil.lrk \(!cd ,md r':!.'lnnal ,I ~UIU[Ur, arl- en
frol11 the donrilW<, and l1H.'-rb),j, i.i'C;.1 hv t('ft':gn Illt"sio!J:lncs,
0; )('il111l:niv), 1Il "t ccntrl'\ ;j\ :,1iJH..L.iJI.'
Lesotho 1:- rlH' 111tht \ ~hrl:-ti~u1 l'()UlllrY In '\frl{",i., {,)Jl(l\\'ed hv the
South Afr"';I, l;,lhm. ~ollth,\\:','" i\\rj, ,J.
(:.lllI'Cl Klmha,a.
rq\rl·~vnr.;Hl\-l·'i l'lHl\i..' fron)
:HllJ,,·, i!id;,fK ::llel Lrhi""iJ C(,mc first. In

t lHhl'r.l~l ,1ud ()!hCl :hurch tLhJinnll'. I.n

addiiitit1 hl th(':--~' ('n!1t,·t!'.:c :lrtt'!llpt.'i tt) articuLHC (il" :i:ri f\) t lIt' L,h
there ;i!'C 1"01 (:Lll1,~11 i'tlll<lllll1ltlc',
d:.:",(u~_')i()ll. Vt.dllIlLH\" ~~r work. duh"
\\'orf.::., tr:1I1")hrtt i ll df b\)dKS, 111illlStn;. \\'lUiC\'-" of the f-aub .1lHJ \l) I.)n.
to fir intt' 311l~,)\f dll~'((ljn~~ ditfclt'lif t~ft,ur';' \\;1

Sl)lnl' ,-,f thi.''ie Indi\'idilJIs Jud CnJ1l111Ullitlt" an

southern Atn~':i :1"1(' Lhn,,~:i:jJ'lit\ tn ~;,l~tif\- thz:il

10 ~'XtfCl!H~!\, difht-ult CUlh,h!lI.1I1\, likc tiHh;t,' In ",uthem

~H!a\n\t l\tI'i',-,ltI CUk)i.If('d

n:Jtiollalisti..:
Africa, t;l~ht' 11ll'l)IOll1;J! h:rritcQ'lC). th(l'\(.'
gtl,)UP'" ,nl' '.i;nuh:1Dl'OH,h'. if IH't
.
3n'J.'i ot C1Vil
, '1
C\ltlLlct...,. nlOVCillcllt>. "Ollh: 111:,>.,101::1: lC'> l:~1\"l.' L!h,-~h rhat /\ hicath ;uc the cursed
j "cl' nlJ"..\u:nl tberd, )rc, [(':I! ,·(llltnhut !nll Jlld des(cnd':lIlt" ,;)f NO<ih, lILlliV :\t'nCl!l (~hri .. ti:n1\ ill \ol1tht'nl (>\frlc:l ~carch fOT a so­
progfl'" III Afnca, J;l cailed 'Black Lhnq' Thl''': "nc !lllill\' (It!J,'l'\ ,Hl {he' I.,,'" t(l w~llch
Such lhcll i, ChmtL1tl1t\· Itl ]\frica, with divi,jolJS Iltld in AfriLa hal ['''':11 ,llld be'lug pUL \\'h,.,j"r III not t.hl~V can be
.lChievcmc'nt, Ilild chalk,!]!!". r!.',p(JIl~;C' Jnd 5U(Cl"Sl'l, blluls" ,wei dr;1\\·hack" \)V]::II,'\'('r (:hlhIlJlJitv l1\eal;, til inJivichnb :mel cl)llJ!lnlllities 1Il
it hnlJ, grc.lt \')("\"cch ill tin, '»11tlll('nt, llllltr,lr\' thc view of ,,'me
csrr;l!Jgc'JllC'nt ,md cngagement, and
tc>wards
ndtuLli ir)\'ui\'c"tllcnt ,lnd undt:rrllining, \vith ~t E';rd\Vlllf! indi­ writer, wh" ,ce 3 glllll future for It. Ull tbe wIll'l" Afncam 3re

, Imel 1\\ thr,:e forms

ans] with J 'trong tl'Jm of lOLl I Jnd 'cr'c:!, ,qlTkc:r" h I' a

and of

force: to i'c reckon,'d WIth. both in tlte alld ill tho to'l"m, in ,ehn,'[' Jnd constinlft' J

ill ,Iullh, in p:uv'c'rnrlll'llt JIllI m bl"inc'" Its adherent, nuv be br;md,'d 'Made III the total Africa1l lll'iieu,
'Malk ill Llithcr3111,m', 'M,ide in R(llll:111 C3tit"]Iclml' 'Mad"
,) r 'rv1:Idl' lion Afne.1l1 Clmrch 01 t hl Trw (."ei Then j., ,1 ,--'.it dl':1i ~.t l,tl'r;\tt.:!I.' I,)t \-]1 \,~11~~ em ,,:hri\ti:1l1it:' in Africl.
~'r .il1\' ~)IlL' t1 t- the !llldtinHl.. ,< I,)f l1H\'iil1tl huGte . . :lfld ;111 \ It t 1i.' I dL\l[~ \.\ ith l~:' l'!l~ nUll! 1.::'[ '-.\ it!~ ~rdditiol!ai fc1il:;1.On'- ~~IlJ
\-\:t~rk\ \\t \.;J\~lJ Pl,.,lttinn. ill t\l r!lO;;t' cHrll Jh,n,e. tlll- fI.Jllo\ving:
\,clh'''rti, 1:,1" ;l-'~"'d'; ( IN:;I!"'[,;, (h.l,",i 1'16:'); K A. I)Il:ks"" and p,
, H,{;ci: 1'161'); D. ll, Barrett.
i 1ll' l·\ . :\. Ui~11t!\\ 11lr!l, l'\l..,._
)XI\,rJ 19H::i: l. S, Mhri, {lIMe ,!llIi
'1 In:,,) iL,"Hldcl1j l\H,-:~ Pl'- f)! -!4q L,\.l • rf \,rU (:iln.:n-dfl
(';nm); .1 1111 ,'11\,\(,'1: il: ,\1')(// m ,-]lrj,',1 (I "n~Ll!, 'f/:,
\;,( j, ill P F. 01,";. ( .,1tr/"J- A Sc1((w'!'
 236 (~
, ,
r r~ 1~;
1.\Jtllli
237
SCCll. (Imstianin has exploded ill Afr;,:a duri!Jf' the twentieth But even l1J
!"\ \",'h\ ,'-, ;'\1L:\1!tlJ n~nlnHUlltics tCnlalEcd in (he
the sout han twn-,hirds d the (\1lltillt'llt and lowlands
Christi:lll. while tht' northern ('nc·third i, "'Ie.k 1 , between west African
Muslim, African religlt)1l is still verv pInent, eVCll if this IS !lot cvidcnt from states and th, tv\i!"i ;:, ,,,,rD. III ,1
[,ctl<''.lJt(' directiOll
statistics, sincl' it perllleates the whole world-view of lllallV Christians and intowes~ Arnc,in l(:ti,-,~ (,"Ip~'\.;dJl,\: thn~t"OH ;b,~~ trln!Ic,\f
Muslims, III 1900. out of .1 tutal of 107.9 million. there were ten as the nillt!, [",Iiiilllu\'<'li !W1ll thee,lst to the
millioll Chnstians (or ,),2% of the popubri')I1). c,)mparcd to 34.S west thrOufh Ar,lh tr,ld,'i\ .1ih.1 t_'{~llqdcrc,r"l \vh\! t.~pt.tHI_'J the t1f
Muslims (or 32';:,). and mil:ion adht'rellts of African Christian [\.j,.d.!l,; il< Jl Kiunnull:, rhl' '.}.',1\ tor f,;J:Htl CV~:i~tU<l!iV to
SIl'?;,), :lI1d ahotlt Ollt' millioll fo!!,1wers l,F oth"r such as replace Cb,i,t!.llHt." lcvcn tht'll J[ !'lad.. lilti~ l't'Ill'trJlIUll,

Hinduism. It is IlllW rc,-koll<;,d, that in till' vear 2000. there will b,~ a only as far as al)(lu[ ,ell !lerth,
of 814 million t>l whom 394 lIJilli"il (Hi.4";'J) will he Christiam. 339 million It is nmbahk tbt Islam ;;nl\','d Oil til!' L'ast (O;ht of Afti"J the seventh
(41.4'\\') Mmlims. ~·2.4 1l1l1li"il ) adherellts of African and 8.5 century. whell' ,h,'rt' WlTc' 'V1cli'cstabl"tH'ei AJ.lb settlcnh'lH, lmel a
million (I ''7;,) f"lInwns "f other tradc. But "p'irt fmnr what rill'" the Somali Islam 'was
confined to the nla,t Jnd 1'111, begail to ,11tW(' rnLnd i.tl the /att' "jglrteenth and
nineteenth n'llturic's whl'!) Ani> and "bYe:. al"t\ v.,'I"llt further
the interior. On tlIe ,"',I'! hlaln (,<'IItred in Zanzibar.
Like , I,j::tll in /\frir.l be' de" 1'Il',',1 ,I' <H.1it1oDal'
Mombasa, Kdwa, Lll1lu JDd "ther lOWlb and Islands, The Portuguese who
JDd • /\ hical]·. \Vithill :l C('1lf llt \' after ~h(' cleath ut the J'v1z,h;J,I1P1Jd in
arrived there at the end of the fifteenth cemury dashed With tbe A rabs on .SCVCJ al
!\. I) 632, Ishlll Lhl swept lleW" th" whc,!e the
occasions in the sixteelltb lwd \('ventecllth centurIes. At the ,amc timl.' African
Hom llf Atric! i he east
\X/here it
COJSt.
s,'em also have mll.dc life difTicult, with the re,sult thtH many of these
bim)\.' ulltil it firmlv est,lblished
coastal centres of Islamic culture were reduced to will';, By the time the Arab
itself except ill though it was Iwt until the late thirteenth
and Swahili traders revived their positi(HI and began to advance iuto the interior
ur early fourtecmh century that the Christians lost effective power in
in the nineteenth cellturv. reaching the now Uganda, Malawi. Zalllbia and
Congo. was also
G. Baeta Propiletism in Gila/iii (London 19(2); R. Oliver The economic and
(London, 2nd edition 1965); V. E. W. Hayward, cd., the pelletration of Islam before m3llY
Ajrican Independrnt Church mOlJt?men/s (London 1963); C. P. Groves The planting (if' become cOllverted to it.
Christianity in Africa (London. 4 vols. 1948-58); J. Mullin The Catholic Church in as it now stands is that Africa is predomillantly Mu.,[im in the
modern Africa (London 1965); H. W. Turner History of an African independent Church
areas approxllnatcly llorth of tht' tenth parallel. These ,tretch I"astward, frolll
(Oxford/London, 2 vols. 1967); J. F. bupcl African holocaust; the
(London 1962); H. Burkle, ed., Senegal up ro hut excluding most of Ethiopia, the whole of SUllialia aud the ea,t
V. Taylor The,~rowthof!heChur(h
coast as r~r south as Lamu in Kenya. with comparatively small clusters uf
Vision (London 1963); E. C. Parrinder
Uganda and Tanzania. Over per cent of
Brandel-Syrier Black wornatl ill searrh
NIger, Chad, Nnrtheru Nigeria
study seminars and conferences

and tbe Sudan i, Mmlim, the percentage above ninety in rhe Muslim
(Makumira, Usa River, Tanzania), Ministry (Morija,

Cameroon), AFER (Africa E('clesial Review, Eldoret,

States of Africa. The total number of Muslim, in 1')84 WJ' cstIlmt(~d at 211
Theolo,gy Accra, Ghana), Sierra Leone Bul/etin of religion
million (41 '70 of Africa' s total to the estimated of
Leone), Bul/etin ofAFican The()lo,~y (Kinshasa, Zaire), Ori!a (Ibadan,
234 million Chmtians (45%). Up to about 1972 there were more Mushrns than
of Religion in Africa (Leidcn, Netherlands). and a number of local
Cbristiam in Africa_ Since then Christiam have
French and African languages.
them. because of tilt' ,'xnln>lvc exuamioll ot Christianity iii the twentieth
I am very grateful to my Islamist colleague, Mr Said Hamdun, for reading this sub­
section and making helpful corrections. centurY.
2 Some would date this statement SiHl'htlv earlier. Muslims itJVc their factions. the number IS like what
L'1:l /IJrt~'(11j K.fn~:hHlS ('1"' r)'fllh1S(Jl'ny LJ:n,tld!l:ti. :1.I1-tJ f'·· <. ~;fI('! l<JL' ';,'11.- I,; 1

Chri,n:ms h)J'C Meht of 'hesc' he'll)II' from (1utsi,kot Afrita. ot , \\'\ilot ~.n\·', ,In
dlr'[C arc 3i,,; Mu,lin, ,eet, whll'h

Ahmad

history. It JS extremely actIve 111 western f\tncl ami more recentlv. III east fWlli :,11 eVll DJvill.HI('1I l(lJllhiIlC' buth traJltlunaJ
Africa, though ket'ping its headquarters still in InJi;l. This sect is Ill<'dw,i, and the me "I hial1lic [e'ar \vitdh.Tah, '!'IJl'll
proJlgions growth hoth nUTllcrically and ill i I s of reforming or behd ill the CXlstellce JIId w"rK tilL' ,,[ thc
1, ,trullft.
Islamic orthodoxy. But, as for anv d"ep impact of the Ahmadiyyah Islalll upon incorp()ratill~ [[(Jill Isbill 'the devil ('''ltatH:) who lIIaKes I'copie llIad and wllo
AfncallS, one writer ohserves that ill we,st Africa 'the MoveJllent is sometimes may IIC;li:1 dnld Jud sub,tltUlc a ddurmed or .lbl1l'lfllal infJIIt', The Ifllntl are
presented by its adhert'[1S as a missiunary force extending the fold of Islam there, divided illiO wwd. evrl anJ Illi" hicVllll1 onl'l a diVision which nbviollslv
In fact, Ahmadiyyah contributes almost nothing to the conversion of the Pagan derives from Muslilll teaching, '11I SOIll,: areas. VI hile tlw llIell arc Mmlillls, the
world. There are only a few Ahmadis here and there who were born Pagan. and WOllJell have n:tJit]('d an earlier nllt of 'pir!t
mmt of these were first converted t.) Islam, then to Ahmadivyah. AhlllJdiyyah The Wol,,[ stiil ol"'~I\'e IrJditi()Jl.II ntes dIem with
draws almmt all its membership from orthodox hlam and froIll r'l,";",;,~;,,, ' J
There the Shi'a ,ect, an early division ill hlam, but rJg'. \..)i

among illlflligr;!I1t Muslims of Indo-Pakistan

on the eastern seaboard. The Sunn! is another but later se,'!, and
most dominJnt group of nearly all the mdigenom Africa Mlhlirm, The Ismaili, 011 their rerum be.H the grave of th"lounder with their branchc':,'
comtitute the liberal wing of the Shi'a schism. III Africa are fullc'\\' .! r:lixturt: of both tLl(iitlOllJi .md bbJl1IC ]'fOcedures, hut
alld tbeir descendants from India and Pakist:m. with a few African fUlleral ceremonies ten,j td he IlJPrc hblll,. TIle overall ,itllatioll "I !,lam
converts,l hough slllall in number, this sen. under the direction ()f it:; among' the \1'/ ubf i, IlllllfllCd up hy C;ambl,· tilat 'Ill c:f the impxt ~)f hLlIlI.
and spiritual head. the Aga Khan. is fin;lIlcdlv well off. very active in social there i, ,till :1 1II11lh deeper laver "f 1':11,:111 belief Jnd observallce JllIong the
St~rVlces. especIally educ;nion Jnd medicine, and politically involved in the Wolof. . Men alld wOlllen arc loaded Wltl! alllulets. l\lund the waist. neck,
countries where Its COlllllluuities are living. The Indian and African lllt'Illbers of arms. both tor pn 1
tcctiOll agaimt ail ,,,rts of possible evil>. Jnd to hell' theIlI
this sect, however, do flot have much or seriolll colltact, though their schools achieve certain desires. Mo,t frequently rhest' conuill a paper 011 which :l
are oren to regardless of race or creed. te:tcber has written:t passa~c frum the Kurall. or;1 diagralll from J bouk
There are other Islamic sects and movements illto which We; need not enter. as on Arabic which is then ellVt'loped III paper. dowil and wvered
our imllH.'diate concern here i, with Islalll JIld its relation with African tradi­ with leather. but sOllletimes they cndo".· a plCce of bOlle or wood, a powder. or
tional We shall first take sOllle concrete of different an animal cbw,' J These are typical African. fatber
and societies wllere Islall1 ha<; established itself among Africa )eotlles. Then we have enColllltere,j
draw SOllie' c<)nclmiolls, ,tarted with tfleir
lIialll c.1me W the W 010£ of in the elcI'cnth centurv, the sOlHe ot his bear IsbIll Ie nJmes,
most ill t1h: bit' nineteenth century, the end of that centurv Idam \vas well clltrcnc:\wd in the ":('lllltrv, Yet. hl;I'11 hJS
, ,

\\/01,,1 Mu,Jilm adhert' til til<' 1 he five 'reached a porli(.'l1 df the :Ind ill til;]l It (,ilen r':wamcd
i.bilv Icst;qi,., ,providiflg the people wah lIew cerell10llies III adJitioll to, but [lOt ill
1.1);.',1:' l'~ l11:lde nor Tn MI:t"e:l hur t; :l1ncll n~n-"qu(' Jt na\,:l, \~,:hicll th,: ,"t'lltrl' of place of. their tiaditioll;d oncs. In the carly phase COIl\'crSllln was motivated bv
rh.' Ml,uridhlil 'e~·j !'ol:l: .. L·..! ,:1; l\rnLli~ ~"ll).\lilL Ar()1!J"; 19H() Fn"l'~: dH' 19t' since the ruling clals WJS Muslim. PWlllilC elf pWlc'ctioll froIll siJvery.
and patw]j.lgc of the nobi!itv to the pe:lsants am! cr:Jftl1l1ell. Nupc Mu.slil1ls do
110 r·

I D. p, CJllIbic f'h, fj ,~I ",.11,",'dlil/llo (l.ondoll. 1'1:'7), fT. 64..

 JfI ,1 '::'f 1
240 Philusophy Christianity, lsi,lIn c: Oliltr l~,

not fotlow strier Isbm Ie t rad i tions. Islam 'cauSt:' little- iiHend cil,aal':lllc, ,he IlJ!\lLd "Ull Jl1<.\ ilh s'Xla! lil,' ,IUs!
two of the
the of customS, for hL.!lll t:lk ..'s ,,"cr the: l".'ntr::i j·::ttl1!T' "I
(;od, . tht' last of these is not syncretism, Tht: p"t~alI Clb("Ili'; ,1ft' rCI:lIncd 111111>1 the it th., cllSWlll is
in their trJc!it!ollal 10st: 1 Allot her Wrllcr Isbm ,\IlIOlii! rhe Nub" III rill' rq!:i(ll', ft'.ldlC\

similar conclusion, Itlat 'blalll h,h !lot made vcrv senOl" llin,ads lilt" Nuh,l
Arabic, but sa\' their structure ; Jnd cvell whc:n: it ~()CS back ,,,vL'ra] s·<:lltUriCS. 'the l.l:m
three "r the seven Muslim testivals. these heing the New Year structure and mall v tr:ldlliOln] cl"IllCnb ITlllJl'l'. On th~ cllhU:31lcvel. like tilt:

cl ritr (at the e'nd ,)f the fast month, Rallladiull) and Id el Azha naming CC[cllHmics, iuiti:moll rill" "11<] lllJrria?:l' pr,xecturL'S. trJdititlll,d
or Id d Kibir (the great feast in the pilgrimage month which ends the year), It is 'element, becollle partially hiamizl'd. or :lfl' fl'lllodt:lled, or l'l>lltinue as hei;ne
that the- Nupc lack interest in the histoncal development and expansion but with all bialllK cachet."
of Isbm, :md arc CIlnfnsed on Muslim and Muslim Tabn?: clur brief survey further l'~bt We luok .It the situation "f Islam
women :lrc nCVl'r \'eiicd, and while they are Iwt allowed in the lllmques, tile Ethiopia. Eritrea aud Somalia. Trilllinghalll Sl~e, t Wc) ,trams lli Islamic culture:
fWI11 upper cb." learn tile Koran, Muslim fe.tehers and leaders, that of the Ilolllaos and that of the WWll'nllagc dwellers, Of the first typc he
of whom there are mallV. have little or no leaminU:lt all. :lpart trom able writes thai there is 'practicallv no Islamic Illfluellce llpOI1 pagam', Wherc Islam
to recite a few from the' Koran, has been assimilated the process ~oes through three sllg"'. III tltc' iirst phas(:, the
rull's. Jnd C.1sy divorce, people 11Ierdy adopt 'superficially certain ell'llll'nts of tile m:lteriJI culture of
atc Doims of Muslims'. such as dress, ornaments and food hahit.s, In the second nhase. 'actual
e\elllellts Df Islamic culture' are
or awareness of an power resident in and workmg through persons
or things. This as we have seen, found in African traelitional
societies. As such it is not peculiarly Islamic; but It tOllns a pOllll of contact. The
traditions concerning levirate marriages. In matters of inheritance. there is a third phase is 'characterized by a genuine belief in the of Islamic unc­
complete divergence so that Nupe practices prevail Islamic law. This has tions, and involves actual in custOIll' and habitual conduct', This is the
prevented the fragmentation of the land which would ensue if Islamic rules were when adherents use places for public worship, recite their ritual prayers.
followed, Nadel concludes that since Islam came to the Nupe as a religion of keep the month of fasting (Ramadhan) and observe a IlUmber of Islamic taboos.
conquerors and the ruling class, 'what counts is, first and foremost, the assimila­ Yet, as Trhumgham goes 011 to Gbserve, evell at this stage 'the old beliefs do not

tion to upper-class culture, and only secondarily the deliverance from unbelief'. lose their validity to the African Muslim's lik on the contrary, certain beliefs
This is 'social' rather than 'religious' conversion, providing a point of reference gain a renewed vitality by acquiring an Islamic orientation', He gives the
for a sense of pride and superiority; but not touching the deep levels of what is examples of continued respect for the beEei about spirits associated
considered to matter most in life. Mystic and ecstatic obs( ances of Islam are with natural objects, the use of charms and fear of witchcraft, all or which
obviously unknown. I a new vitality. Islamic law clashes with traditional customary law,'
In his study of Islam ill the Sudan, Trimingham reaches the conclusion that We Illight here cite a concrete case from the Boran ot northern Kenya wllO
south of ten degrees, Africans are almost completely uninfluenced by Islam. form part of the peoples in this gener;t\ region. I t is observed that among them
North of that latitude, 'Islam spreads only through the breakdown of the the Illain or ;mnarent intluence of Islamic culture' is chiefly in material ohiects like
extreme dan system'. But even then it is not revolutionary, since 'it does not
conquer the animist soul because it accommodates itself to the animist 24R r Mr Hamdan
J S.
.3, l delineation of
the line i~ 'extreIildv
The result of this accommodating character of Islam is tbat it has not helped the (c'Il

higher religions development of the African.' A great deal of interest is shown nf I:-.bm In the Noba nlOUl1t;lln~
}{, C, S(l'v,-'n-;otl. 'SnflH." :I:>pect'l of dll'
only in Islamic eschatological hopes of a future life of material bliss. Otherwise
(Konh>fall Province, Republic uf the Sudan)'.
es,:IY in l. M. Lewis, cd .. lsi"", ;u
1%6), p. 226 t.

1 S. F. Nadel Nllpc (1954), pp. 232-58, London 1952). p. 270 f.

L,IL 1\(·!:,~,'1 . . 1tlS j l lt l,l j \-'phy

J
d/r1,"t11i Chfl_'li(/Iliry. C:" ()£ilt'r III
('T'
U(H/I 243
()nU111t'll! thllt, the "I iive,tcKk, which i, their Ug:1I1d" bdvre the middle' ot the nineteenth cent un' _ J n r;:ccnt vears, however,
affected bv I,Jam, imtltlltiU1!\ JIC still these Mnsiim, haw lllcrcdSllIglv ,!\Serted their to CXlst as J
.he rite, of passage JnJ •. lther or comlllullltv. they h"ld le,ldlfl(? a, butcbers :md taxI drivers. and even'
rites are :l mixture ot traditional and Islamic COllccpt, and DIvorce is year nwrc and llIore ot tbem Mecca lor African Mu"liIll
said te' be 1l01l-exhtcllt, contrary to. and in of I\lamic ~omlllunities I!l C;btern A frica are tmlllJ chidiy III to\,'I], :llld thinly III the
and inheritJnce rules remain deeply traditional and untouched rural areas. The
The comlmioll is that the Boran who have heen ddeated sionary activities in Mombasa III 1 "yt, llJS spreao HUJnO as rar a, Kampala 1Il
SOIlJJiis and i,obwd, arc Islallllzed, the linc:, of the Somali brand of the wuh headauarters in
whereas tho,e who still live in the traditional roots have reiected Islaln all African
or have hardly taken notice of it. the translation of the Koran into
On the east coast where Islam arrived in the seventh centurv. it has sillce made local paper (in EnQ'lish. Swahili and
a strong footing_ }\!lIong the Africans it is the Swahili who have attack 011 and other brands of Islam.
all embraced it, in addition to locally like the These of the encounter between Islam and traditional African
Arabs and Shirazi of this region, Among the traditional societies. the cult of the societies give us a clear indication of what the siwatton is like_ The DosltlOn IS
has been embedded within Islamic But it is to be observed well summarized bv Lewis in his introduction to islam ill
that some of the dead include Mllslim 'holy men', make to shall refer to his main points and add a few more which arise from a $Urvey of
their shrines and some have mosques erected in their memory .. Less pious people Islam in traditional African societies. On the political scene Lewis observes that
are a],o venerated, though in a wav more of ancestor worshlp_' The African central rulers have been more inclined to receive dCll1cnb of Islam and
Ii villg-dead are 'appeased' through a 'special formula'; and sacrifices of Muslim culture and organization which can be applied to reinforce and extend
white chickem are given to them; and thev reveal themselves to their human their established authority. They also add Muslim and ritual dements to
relative.s in dreams. hbmic illfluencc enters in where spirits an' thought to live in their royal rituals. The so-called 'holy war' (jihad) has been waged [rom time to
th~ ndhcr world until the day of resurrectiOiL Divination and gCOIllJIlCY are time, with religious zeal and conviction. A good example of this is the Mahdi
basically traditional. but astrology is borrowed from I;lamic background. The movement in the Sudan which was led by Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abdullah
Muslims make sacrifices and give alms to obtain success or ward off evil. They (1844-85). This Muslimjihad, though a bloody one, had a legal system and fine
wear amulets fm fishillg success, and as protection for cattle and homesteads. organization.
Some of their charms contain Koranic verses_ Magic, sorcery and witchcraft When it comes to the contact between Islamic law (sharia) and traditional
have their h<)ld upon the people; and i IJ additil11l to treating human complaints, African practice the situation is complex. In matters where the two systems
the medicine·men perform exorcisms, sometimes using Koranic quotations as correspond. such as concerning illicit sexual relations. theft and restitution, they
f<)t'!1I11bc. 2 These last obsl'rvatiollS illdlrate a dear millt!limr ofIslalllic and strengthen each other. But in matters of the inheritance of
ideas with those of traditional property and family, traditional are followed more often
I t seems as if further iniJnd on the east of if than Islamic policy. Lewis observes, however, that with the economic
For and ib conditions which now favour individual enterprise, those aspects of Islamic law
cllIWf(',]re which stress economic independence of the individual, are seized upon.
stIli (Jme to For example. there is a wide difference between Somali nomads and their
urbanized kin: the latter relinauish the traditional ohlilO'arioTlS which
their behaviour in a strict of the sharia.
cnangea in a few cases to suit the Islamic

1 I. M_ Lewi" ed., IS/11m ill pp. 20-91.

book contains a collection of ,tudie, and diseussed at the 5th Internat;on;;!
African Seminar held at Ahmadu in IJlluarv 1964.
244 Alri(Wl R ,S
law as, tor among the i lausa whose WOIllt'1l tr~dlt;ollall\' do the
but abandoll this occupation, it to tbeir hush,mds when
are converted
There IS also a great di\'ersitv betwecl! I slallllc and traditional patterns of
marriage ideas and A major source of conflict is illlllatnlineal societies
when the husbal!d is a Muslim while the wife is n()t. as tillS pUh their children in
an extrelllciv difficult p,,,ition. If the wite also embraces Islam, they both switch
from the traditional to the [slanne rules of inheritance and aifiliatioll of
The Islamic marriage gift (main or sadaq) is easily and usuallv adopted into the
traditIOnal African sy,tellIs of exchanging marriage gifts, The only slight change
ht're is tht' tendency to the larger "hare to the bride :md not so much to her
relatives, for exampl<.' among the Somali, fulani and Hatlsa, In situations
for inheriting the widow, levirate and sororate marriagt' arrangernt'nts which
are disapproved the Islamic law, 'traditional marital replacement rights are
retained', Widows who, however, wish to sever connections with families oi
their dead husbands, may do so by
these widows are obliged to keep the Isiaullc period of continence,
remarrying: this being also a point of sil1li];lrity with some traditional practices. I
Concerning purely religious beliefs and rituals, there are elements of both
contact and bt'tween Isl:nn and traditional religions. As we have
seen, the concept of God is univt'rsally acknowledged by African pcopb. This is
the key dc)ctrine of Islam, as taught and recited in its shortest and most
iundamental crt'ed: 'There is but one God, Allah, and Muhammad is his
prophet', Here then, there is no need for Islam to stress the ont'ness of God, as
far as traditional religions art' concerned. The position of Muhammad, however,
seems difficult to relate to traditional conct'pts, which is unlike that of Jesus
Christ who intt'rmingles easily in African traditional life situations.
The Koran mentions many spiritual beings, including iinns and devils,
which are easily assimilated into the traditional religious
not ask its new adherents to abandon their accustomed cor. lence in all thcir
forces'. Traditional heroes and forcbt'art'rs, some of whom are in posi­
tions of intermediaries, fit into the Muslim concept and recognition oi saints.
Traditional cults of the living-dead are accommodated and 'persist in a Muslim
, so that the departed forebearcrs take on the role of intercessors in Islam,
betwet'n man and God, For example, 'Somali clan and ancestors are in
effect canonized Muslim saints and classed among the saints of Islam
Among the Songhay some traditional heroes are a>silllilated as angels and others
But since orthodox Islam little consideration to
cOllnected WIth natural nhenomena and \)biects. African Mmlims tend to
lcwi" 45 ~7"
Christianity, Islam (1' Other Rel(~ions Itt 245
have a neganve attitude towards them, condemning and incorporating them
into the world of non-Muslim jinns. Spirit-possession cults tend to survive in
situations, as among the Swahili, Songhay and west Airican secret­
The ideal Muslim attitude disapproves of them, but African Muslims,
women, revert to these cults to seek relief from afflictions that are not
remedied by Islam,
Another area of ready agreement between Islam and traditional concepts and
practices is in matters of divination and magic. Islamic practice encourages
and the use of good magic; it a).,o recognizes the efficacy of sorcery
and witchcraft but condemns them, Islam 'approves and sanctions nugical
procedures which are directed towards such ends as the cure of
disease, the and curtailment of rnisiortllne, and the assmance of
and success', even ii In the background the people retaiu hope in God.
Some Muslims use divination to impress and win converts; but thev Of others
justify the me 01 witchcraft and sorcerv when cmployd to protect the
rights of and trap wrongdoers, I
Islamic ritu:t!s and prwcrs WllllccteJ wah birth, lIlarriage and burial afC
assimilJtcd illto existing rraclltion:ll ideas and practices. In SOllie ca.sc.s,
Islam introduces new inllov:HiollS as, for circlIlIlcision among the
Bagallda ami Basoga Muslims whereas by traditlOll these ,oclettes do not
circumcise their hoy>. It is reported also that Islam has mtrodul:t:d or reinforced
clitoridectomy and infibulation among pen pIes of the Sudan. alld
Somalia, In funeral matters, the Islamic practice of washing t he corpse is
a, arc also the incensinl' of the bodv, the u.se of a bier and thc
orientation of the grave towards Mecca, Points of similarity cmerl'e in ritual
mourning which includes washing, cleallSing, seclusion and purification, But
Islamic eschatology takes over from traditional beliefs in the continuation oflifc
after death so that With a predominantly materialistic bliss, lIOW
bt'comes the destiny of the Muslim faithful, while hell!s reserved for the infidels.
In traditional religions there is no such division the fate of the depar­
ted; and apart from a iew vague exceptions. the and 'bad' continue to
live in the sallie next world, without receiving either rewards or pUllishmcllt.
the Islamic year, Lewis observes that 'the Muslim lunar calender
PHPrm"hpre adopted with Islam; and tends to displace other systems of tillle­
except where these are very firmlv entrenched in an
seasonal of economic interests', Arabic names for months arc
given vernacular traIlSlatiom 'expressive of the social and
contellt \)[ the mOllth in question'. I:or t'xamplt', among the Mende Muslims.
Rarnadhallls knowlI as the '1110e)!! of dcnrivation'. Of tbt: chiei Musi11l1 fCJst"
I lewi" 1'1'. 5~-6S.
246 A e:;. Philosophy t...;,,;.. .,HV Islam c:'- Other In 247

lei el Fltr at dJe ,'nd of Ramadhan is celt>brated most widelv and interests arc invL11vcJ. especially when people leave the country and establish
The (!Ivin" of alms w the poor h said to he homes ill the to\\/11'. In this case, nt'\V economic :lIld edw:ational conditions
fo, hlisstul reward in the hereafter or a IllC'JliS indtvlduab clallll justificatt,'l1 trom rhe KI'IlJIl ill ()rder to protect their
!.lvOur frolll (;'x1. 1\1111\ 3fe "onsidncd svnmlVIIlOHS with sacrifice's. Pilgrimage personal illiercsh at th~ expellSt' of tradinOllJI
t() M"CC3 j, ,'xpcmivc ;md difficult tl' fuitil, but n<:vcnhdcss among Unlike Chmtlanitv, IsbIll in ;nmiLlI Atrio clol's not seem to be
to meet ttle social l)t modern
i\ fncan Mmlilw. Lll·h war "f pilgt ;ms ,He rqlortcd in many concern cd wi t h
cnuntflcs :lew'" tropic-II-equatorIal Africa; .llld Muslim, who canllot afford t~ There arc. bmailis arc dear eXJmple oi a
get group which endeavours in ilWfl' wavs than simplY giving alms, to
Africa seell1'. 10 have hCllciited from rhe arrival and attend tl' the wider needs of nlOdcrtl society. The Mmlim ,tates of Saharan and
presence of coloma) rule. Lewi, tells m that the new power, dltl not ,eck to northern Africa have their social programmes. But "Iamie communities in tradi­
di,estahiish bialllllor even <;[jccecd in restraining itl exn:pr ill the AfncJn societies that have CUllie into existence ove[ the last one hundred
'TIll' overall effect of colonization was rather generally conducive \() a new years 01 so. [(']v more 011 the traditi()llJI methods of help trom corporate and
of the faith'. and the colonial rulers evcn •helped their Muslim kinship , than on
'IIVtlll!1R' sueClticallv Islamic. Conservatism and

,ubjects to hllild mosque, and schools, and often mhsldized legalism ill tropical African Isiam .seem to P(HC the greatest to the future
to Mecca or hcilitat..d its nrganilJtion' .In dm:c! wavs, colonial rule also created of Islam there. Hamdull ,ells me abo that sCClt!aflSLTI IS another and serious
wnciuiom which tactlitatcd the spread of Islam. such a, increased trade, new to Islam ill western Africa.
!llwn, and elllCS. iml1Hgration of Muslims from India 3nd Paki,tan to Africa, No douht conversion to blain will contimlc hom illilowers of' both tradi­
and :lIId more peaceful lllf'am of travel The net result of 311 this was that tional religi<1tls aud Christianity. Bm relIgious elements of Islam which, as
within half Cl'nturv, the numher of Muslims in Atnea doubled. 'The we hay(' seen, have hardl.v heen embraced. are unlikelv to find wot in African
total effect of the pax rolnmci. as much inv(,luntarv as intended. was to promote societies tiiat embrace Islalll, p',)ll1ts of similarity between Islam and traditiollal
an nnl)fe(('mlcntl'd ,'xPJllsion of Islam', so that 'lJl half a ccntllrv of EllWpeal1 religiom 1Il belief aud 1'1 ttlal, I'Jradoxicall V bcili tate quick pr slIJooth cOllvl'r51011 .I
more widely and more profoulldl.v than in ten but hinder the pwcess and manifestation of;) deep or radical Islam. It means,
historv'. HamJun, ill a personal cOllllllunication, says, then. that traditional reli!!i'llls accommodate Islam and Islam accommodates
tn doubt 1I10re and more the claim that colonial them: and this is t1w current trend, to the few studies made on the
,)i biJm in Africa: ii subject. This lack of 'radicaltty' in the encounter between the two
the case'. Whichever oi these two views is more correct, ()ll(' tlllllg IS 11l1ques­ systems, one the impression that III traditional societies of
that there is a clear coincidence between wilial rule and the southern Africa, Islam has a future as a veneer of religious experience and
and numerical expansion of Islam in tropical AfJ :3, and African social concern. In thiS region, furtherJ1lore. Muslim leaders are poorlv educated
has not halted the incrcase of Islamic influence. and not always opell to either the understanding or a,similatioll of modern
Such then is the picture of Islam in traditional African societies. Ou the issues. Their knowledge of the KorJn and Islamic bw IS not questioned, but if
religioJlS front, it has done Iittie to add to or alter African they are to present and relate their faith to the modern world, that knowledge
except in the (ill any case exterual) ritual side where islamIC practices have on the alone will not get them very far. Unless they make Islam relevant to the issues,
whole been introduced anew or to and situations in which younger generations increasingly fi!ld
of great value remain basically traditional. even thcrnselvc" Islam will become' rusty in their ha!lds. Ironically, there are more
III a few Islam about change, such as when matrilineal Christian schobrs of Islamics in twpicai Africa than there ~re Muslill1 ones.
families arc converted aIld adopt a patrilineal pattern of familv life and rela- the !1ll1nher of the latter is steadily increasing, Ii Islam is to surVIVe and
Modern chanee seelm. however. dlOW itself whele individual contribute seri()ltSiv towarJ, providing directioll and guidance to modern
Africa's search for new values, foundations and identities, it mnst 1I0t
couvert p,'ople but be redely itself to be converted b\ modern lIlan. that is to
I Lewis, PI'. 67- 7 4

LeWIS. PI'. 7(,_1),'.

be 'modernized' :md 'lIDibted'. If it fails to be so stretched, or if it is too
248 African Rclir;iiJns [7' Philosophy I.,I,Ifr! (:7 Oliz", RI'li~i"II' /11 ,'1 249
and legalistic to be bent into the changing shape of our world, then Islam will wert' 16.000 Atriean Jt'ws ill Lr.1<'I; the relll:tIl1Jcr 01 ahllllt 70,000 were still in
remain a statistical giant but a religious anachronism in the new Africa.' Ethiopia. II IS said bv SOllle Israelis, that the Atriran Jew, have Isrdcl new
pride Jnd :1 scm.: (,f respon,ibili tv. They hJ\'e reportedh· hecil !Jearn!> receiwd 111
rradilioll.l ill Africa ISlde!. The pmcl"s elf their iutcgratlUn had ilS OWIl problems at tbe
in at least two areas. The oldest community is made like that of I1lJllY other illlllllgrating to Israd, hut arc lIOW nUlllerous
who form part of the peoples of Ethiopia. For manv alll! ice! at hOllle in modern
have observed a combination of Old Testament Israel.

and Christian element,. do not know Hebrew, but their Another

i, found e:lstern
use tbe Old Testament (Jewish Bible) and the Apocn'pha a, their (Jews. Of­
the Ge'ez language. Adherellts of this religious system strictly observe ill that it callle into existence at the ,tart of
tion laws and the keeping of the Sabbath (Saturday) as prescribed ill the Bible. this century. and is made tip of AiriCJns frof}} tbe local inhahitallts arollnd
They also circLlmcise boys and perform clitoridectomv on the ~irk As a MbaJe. It was started by au African, Semei Kakullgul u , who was a leading
COl1lI11unitv. they are verv skilful and industrious. The blaslra.1 number about personality in the bistory of Uganda at the turn of the century. Kakungulu was a
nil1l~ty thousalld. It is imprcssive that thev have kept tlIcir cOlllnlllIlity and ChristIan in the Anglican Church. took p:lft in the 'religious wars' and latCT
solidaritv in Christian COllntrv. :lIld can helped the British to set IIp an administrative footillg in eastem Uganda.
still he identified as a!l of]udaislll in Africa. that neither the Church nor the British gave hlln a
do Ilelt the Bamaiaki group, founded around 1913,
Mi"il'naries \vlrn rcached the falashas tht' nineteentiI <'enturv trcated them and whose be aided in eastern
as lews and codirmed for reader of the Bible, and it was this that drew him
Jews. When the ltalialJs and away from even the Church. In 1919 he was
in 1936 and remained for a while as rulers, the v made laws for circumcised, with his first son; and he circumcised later sons 011 the
these African Jew,. In ISl7} thl' Chief RabbI of the State of Israel moved that eighth day after birth, giving them Jewi,h names. Yet, he kept Christian tradi­
thev were full Jt'ws likc himself and all.\' other" al1(l cOllse'lllcntIy thcy to tiOn> like the Holy Euchanst (Communion). baptizing the children and
receive help frOIl! iell"w Jews. They als" began to migrate to Israel in greater saying the Lord's Prayer but still calling hilmelf a Jew from 1919 onwards. In
nUlIlber, than befort'. A strong wave of thell! went to Israel at the end of 1985, 1926 he met a Jewish trader, Yusuf, from whom he learnt Jewish rites and
otapliited by a sevef/.' famine outbreak (though this is not said to have beell the customs and the basic principles of Judaism. This contact with Ylisuf brought
basic reason for their illlll1igration to brad). It was estimate' ~hat ill 1986 there about the most radical change in Kakungulu's concept and practice of]udaism,
so that he acknowledging Jesus Christ and the New Testament or
'ollowing any more Christian practices, and to observe Saturday as the
Sabbatb. He adooted lewisb dress like those worn Yusuf; and with his
sub-section, vvc ll1ay n)en~ festivals and lise Hebrew names for the
tiell! a few more: A. L 'Is/,un ,/,11].' O·,i.1ent4/" From\'ais 1952); V. months. Before he died two years later, he met two more who further
MOllte;1 L 'Islam N,),,,' (Pan, 1964); 1l11111ghalll Is/,wI ill I·Vesl
instructed and encouraged him and his followers by then numbered about
1959); J. c. Froelich /,(s Musu/mtJlb ""ir<, (p",;s 19(2); 1. M. Lewi." cd.,
two thousand) 111 Judaism.
19S0); L O. SaJlllc/r, 4
Isi,ml (Lond,.," 1979); A. H. Nimtz, Islam alld P,,/ili(s ill LIS! (Minneapolis The Abayudaya (plural) later dcrreased in numbers, but recently the
19i1O). COlllprebclhive li.,t, are ;n P. E. Oinri. Is/am itI A/ri(" SOlIII, ,,( Ih,' S,liJllra movement has been gaining momentum both numerically alld in its contact
(Ncl1d,·I". LiedHl'llStcin 1977) JJld S. Zoghbv, Is/,iln i" ,\"b·S,d',Jr411 lIFied with world Judaism. Thev have a main synagogue at their centre, and a few
(\X.hili"'>;l"" 1978).
smaller ones in the surrounding villages. Their children are forced bv
E. l ;lk"J,'rf, ·Il,·br,,;,'!cw;,b d(,l1h'll" in
~n tile /,1!lnltd ;l( SI'lIllfi[ \(udic.\. (19S6), pp. circumstances to go to ChristiJn scbools: and the followers have no strong
(i..,ncion '( hford 1952). 19: F. [hmnl3lHl Dit ' leadership, nor are they properly instructed in Judaism. now pray towards
the north facinp' fermal/lm llnder the leadershm (,f Samson Isradi. Oded who
250 /llrli ,1// R1'11I:i,,//, I,' l'ill'l,'«(l/,hy Chrisric1 l lily, I,I>lm {~ ()i!r"r l\"li['I(1IIS III /l,trt(d 251

h.1, made ,I ,Iulk "I tin' C""lIIIUIIl[\', d(",llbn thcIll .h 1<lll,,\n: ·'i.IIll'"I' hradi might refll:1il.l llO morl' dLl11 relic. perhaps \lIrtable a, .1 tOl1ri,t
11ll',l, hlllhclt II grc;!t expcrt III the Hilde I k klll'W n.l, IIv curimitv but witiluur a ICld (,\'('n (\11 lhl' religiolls asplrJcioll\ lit it,
.mel HI',,', )11 the tJlhk dC.1ir "1l11 ri,l' llllicrl'1l1 ;v1i;'"I)lil, i it- kllt'\'.. a mcml",c'rs,
,L(1l'Jt part of Ihl' ( )ld T("IJlllt'1lt in tlll' LlH?:\ild.l ht1gll,H~c be ill';}rt II, .J!,,) kllew It is to be remellllxred ab" that !udaiml established itself in llorthem alld
IlllHh of the dCllul, (11 el1(' rimal Lw;, , .'\lJ 11Iemher, llf ,he nlllgreg.tlll)11 fa,! on north-ea"tern Africa cTnturic's bdmc Christi31l1tv was born, Alexandria
YOIlI Kippul Jild celehrall' ail t'c,u \'.1 I., Illl'lIlilllll'J 1!l Ihl' ~)ld Tc,t.lllll'll[, for ludai'lll :md learnillg. f'urthcrmorc,
N"l",dv e;lI, hc;],l "II P(·\\:Ih. Th('\, had he.lIJ \el\' similar to that of many Afncan
(h.,\, wcn: vcr,>, int<:H',lcd III .mel asked whether the societies whose
huilt :mcw At the end thev differences lie in the fact that nrnnhetic movement aud a
receive> lrolll "r,lei a S,'fcr Tllrah. Tallittllll in African traditional
more 'African' than 'A,ian' in many
respects. Africans feel clost'r to the than to tbe Arabs who migrated into
that Olle of their V(lUllg stuJellh. a took awav land from the indigenous and over many centuries
l ravel to I,raei ;lIld be Imtructed III enslaved them. Even today they deny Africans full in their own countries
woulJ he their Rabbi alld could such as the Sudan, Israel. though so smalL has involved itself tremendously in
1(1 the: kwish Law.' development projects and cOIllmercial in lllany African countries,
and is thereby contributing far more than mallV and bigger natiom of the
Uninll for the of which ha, sCllt 11I fillllnci.J! :l'>siqauce. industrial, socialist and oil-rich countries. In modern times we find Jewish
Betweell his first and la,t vi'lt' Jllllmg th"1ll (ill 1962 lllld 1966 respectively), congregations in southern Africa, Kenya and other areas, occupying themselves
their nUlllbers increa,,·d Imlll three hundred and fift\' tll five Illllldred. SOl1ll~ of with commercial transactions, Jews of Egypt and north African states have deep
the COIIVl'rt., cOllling from JlllOng the Christialls :lIld Muslim" That they are historical roots in Africa; and formerly there were conversiollS :lIIlong African
missiollary oricllted i, reflected on the heading of their letter, which reads: THE peoples, like the Saharan Berbers, to Judaism. But the current tension between
PROPAGATION OF JUDAISM IN UC;ANDA, EviJelltlv they are Jews and Arabs has created an exodus of Jews from these north African
conccrtll'd about keeping up to the standards ofJudaisIll. 'They would like to be countries. The Jews, conscious of their identity as a people, and perhaps also
as good and genuine Jews as any other orthodox Jews III the world. With the through the persecution that they have endured throughont tbeir wandering
connection thm recently established with the World Union they hope to reach and disDersion, tend to keep to themselves. This should not overlook the fact
their goaL' I have produced great men in all fields of culture and
I have no further information on this communi tv. eSDec Jiv concerninll the on the world scene. But on the level of the
encoullter between Judaism and traditional could make an even greater
possible that point; of contact. than has so far happened.
nature, may be many which. SiOll which has ensured and as a
among these African followers, If, however. the interest tends to orient and
the followers only towards the Zamani profession of Judaism, without any
attempt to corne to terms with our modern
Hinduism is the chief of India. In Africa it found almost
among Indian communities who are reported in western, southern and eastern
1 A. Oded, . A congregation of Africllll Jews in the heart of Uganda. in Dini "" Mild Africa, For several thousands of years India was III commercial contact with the
Vol. Ill, No. I. 1968, pp. f. This is tbe llllly ,tud:-' of the community,
Jlld I Jill illd~bted to the Jrticie for my inforllliltioll. An abbreviated sDtemellt was
east coast of Africa, but permanent settlement of Indian peoples in Africa only
published by the SJllle writer ill the JI'WiJIl CIr,,'II;, Ie, A (uller study waS bdng started with the period of colonial rule. Hinduism is a complete way of life, with
written bv A, Oded ,mc! M. Tw .•Jdlc called "1ha)'lIdllya C"'ml/nwity 4 fllSifTf/ its own religious and philosophical precepts. social and economic structures
lr~"nda (due til be publIshed in llJ6lJ ()f 19711. Up to l')H') I have nut seen the which goverll the life of the Hindus. The caste system has been exported to
book).
252 .·1 6;
Atrica, number ,11 tlH~ lllltou,:II,lbJc., IS extn"lllc!v small.
COl1nnullltic, obscrv~ I'itn of hirth, :I!ld d,,:lih,
01 bv lllt'am of trt>llIation; :ll1d !ollow :1
which accept:; allJ rec'lgIllZt" lTlanV dinll! lics ana a host of other beliefs. As in all
otlwr rdigious systelm, there Jre orl hod.lx adherents as well "s Hindus who
know very little aJwut tile rdigiou., and philo>ophicai element> of Hillduism.
There are also sects within the major body of Hinduism, and others which
branched off some cellturie.1 or millcnllia ago.
In castef11 Africa, at kalt, Hindu temples 'welwme' :dl the different
divinities; and anybody, regardless of ca.lte, creed or race, Ill:!y go illto them to
or meditate, proVIded he ukes off his shoes before entering the
But much of Hindu worship goes on in the homes, Illost 01 which contain
shrines where family members lJlay make offerings and say their prayers. At
these shrines there are idols, statues and pictures of divinities :l!ld holy men,
some even illclude pictllres of Jews Christ. I ioiy men from India visit Hindu
communities i [l Africa, which helps to renew and strellgtben their cults and
life. Diwali is the most important Hindu festival observed in Africa,
the triumph of good over evil, which is symbolized by the use of lights.
Some Hindus claim the Nile to be one of their sacred rivers; they aho regard as
christianity, Islam & Other In Africa 253
oIle of my informants to which caste these African Hindus belonged, she
h:lVe no caste; we shall have to create a new caste for them if more
Africans become Hindus!' On the question of whether these men would be
to marry Indian women, she replied, 'I don't think so, I doubt it!'
These statements indicate that African Hindus are not fully integrated into the
Hindu communities, even if Inay be accepted on certain levels. But there is
no study made of Africm Hindus. and we cannot here present their case
Among the pe0pies of Indian origin in Africa there afC other but smaller
religious COlllIllullities, including the Sikhs, and Par.>ces, in addition to
Christians and nUllwrous Muslims. Sikhism and Jainislll are distant branches of
but the Parsees follow <l form of ZOTO;jstrianislll fWIT! Persia. The
Sikhs in east Africa aTe keen to make permanent homes there aud w comribute
to the efforts of nation hedding in the countries 01 thc'ir new homeland.:' 1 have
heard of only African who has the Sikh community, and bs taken
their name and their form of dress. I do not know of African J;]iTlS or
Parsecs. These Jnd the Hindu COlllllluuitics arv self-contailled, shut-up social
entities but with a relip;ious which qualifies them t" be of as
COllllllllnties'. whether OJ [he individuals live up to, or even
1)('(

sacred tbe 'Mollntains of the Moon' (ill Uganda-Zaire) and Mount Meru precepts 3lld of their COlllllnlllities. They have
The Nile is a local substitute for the Ganges, though one does not get like Christians and Muslin:s, and so have IlO mis­
mpressioll that in practice this is actually so. In any case, the ancient belief sionary
their li!e and are <lIle, rather like what we have seen
that Hindu divinities should Hot cross the seas and that temples should not be cOllccrIlmg African traditional
Their main inwact :md
built in alien lands has been abandoned since these have now crossed the Indian upon African life is ccollomic rather than
AfricallS
ocean, some never to return to India. Yonng Hindus are less rigid in following know these Indiall cOllllllunitics ill terms of their being made up

the caste system or avoiding the rules of defilement; most of them eat meat traders, busmessmen, builders, craftsmell. derks, chemists and doctors ..'

including and keep only a vague belief in the aminis, flt God, without
to get deeply involved in Hindu philosophy. It is ~n the question of The Baha'i Pairit IS th<~ latest :Iddrtioll to world religions, baving been officially
marriage, however, that they must bow to the wishes and traditions of their proclaimed in 1863 by Baha'u'ilah (bom 1817 in Persia, died 1892\.' Its world
parents, this involving, among other things, arrangement of marriage bv the
parents and within tbe same caste. [ lUll llOt aW,lfe 01 aflY literature nn Hiw.lmslll in AfricJ. M,v inf.)flllalioll wa.
contact> with Indiws in C:lSt Africa. Siuce Indian COlllDlunities
To my knowledge only about a dozcll Afric:ms in eastern Africa have
are llccply lllVO],vCU in cOl1unerrial enterprises in Africa, ecollomic literature covers this
embraced Hinduism. A person has to be born and made a Hindu to fit into the
aspect of their life. Literature on Hinduisll1 in general is, of comsc. vast,
social structure and assimilate the of Hindu beliefs and practices. This is worb like: A. C Bouquet Hlt/d"j",] (London 1948); J. N.
what nlakes it virtually impossible for olltsiders to be 'collverted' to I finduism. l/iud,,;s,,; 1915). S. Radhakrid}[]Jn ;1 ililll/"
Most of these Africall 'converts' arc women who have married Indiam: and 1933); Til,' e.hriol)) and commentaries.
information ;lVailable to mt' indicates that thev have become in the 2 See the Sikh st:1tC1llellts \ll suppor: ot lIt"',,· natioliS of Airica in: N. Sing!., cd., Sikhs
." KCII)"I s"Y 1l.mJI1I},t'( (Nairohi 19f>3): ( «rmhlll)' III'U' Si!.c'ir [,./11/,/" (Sri
social circles and life of their husb,mds. I kIH1W also of two African men, one in
SJbha, NJirnhi 1963)
Mbalc (Uganda) and the other in Nakuru (Kenya) who have become Hiudus, An intcresting of the uIK,-third IuillioJl A~ians flldo-·Pakistiln1
being of Indians. They have kana ~.llJ3rat1, ar~ 'Hi~ill ill east Africa 1;: [). P. ebai. ,·cl., [\)f{rdi[.,(" mil/'ifily (OxfnrdiN;lirobi 1965).
accepted in Indian hrlllles, shrines :md observe Hindu iestiv:Jis. \X>'heu I j In Hl(,3 B,lhJu'lbh announced toh" fnllowers t";lt he WJ, the 'Chosen ol(;od, the
254 Ajriran RI'I(~i"ns C;t Philosophy ChristiallilY, U,lIn {:, Olher Rt'li~itlrls hi A/ri(11 255
headquarters are in Haifa (Israel), but for Afric:l they arc III Kampala (Uganda) Such then is the hlp: feligi,)u.s c3uldrollIll Africa. MlllY 01 the tropical African
whc'rc thc're IS chief House of Worship (Temple) ill Africa. The
Jiso I he
llniversllies, like thmc l1t \ic'l'r.l Lcone, Lcgoll (;Inll.1), [badan :lIld others (ill
teJchings of Baha \1' Hab first [('Jched Airica thwugh his ",n :l11d heir 1Il 1911 M;lkcft'rc (ill Kinshasa [in L3I1T), Nalrnbi and (HI
whell he lll,lde a teaching t,'ur (If Egvpt and wt',rern coulltries. In tforical Jnd Addis l\h:lha rill b and the ul1lversitlt'.s (Of Lcs(1tb(l, Botswall:l
s()uthcrn Afnc;!, however, the Balla'i F;Jith arriwd much later: only III 1951 did a,d S'''\a71iand, havc
Jlld UQ':Jnda. lim irs adherents cbim tbat there are hodv "f (OUne,. This lH'oglllle,
:lS
lift:, ,md the of which IS fOf
Jud 'iCC:S.
traclltlem;!l and modern Africa. it deserve, a
with SCKnee; condemns cUfnclIluJ1I, wher,.. i( Illav and should he sCflltinlzed as JIl
asceticism, fl10nasticism and and ad V'ocates a(;ldemi, discir1i;w. in dlf'se facilltie,> or departmems where
compulsory education, elilliination of poverty, monogamv and obedience to Christi:l!lIty, hl:lln. AfrIcail tradition;;1 and other Iehgiom ,\'stClTIS are
one\ government. t\ll these 3rc noble aims, hUI OIl the African sceTle (llle docs studied. no attc'llI['t is made tn pn:st'llt ()Iit' tll the nciusinn ()f disparageillent (){
not sec sigm of their being ['llt Illto concrete and practiCJI appliedtic)I!. At the the otli,'rs, or to try to t'onllllbtc out of the lllaBY vlll' 'ingle religious system for
main Baha'i temple in Kampala only d few pcople gatber for wordlip. Theft:' is the whole of Africa. Each is presented and studied lllI its own acadcmic merits,
no, or only Ilttie, sensc' ,)f 'Baba'i COlli I11U lllty' cotJSciousnelS amoTlg the African and weakne.". III this wav. students of feii.Q'i0II are
followers of this Faith. This generollS readiness to unite is in itself tbe from each system; and cael: in i" OWII way, ie.
factor in the Ihha' i Faith: it lacks a Q'elluine mvthical .mal in which
of Oil'.' or more the utller tradition;. But
tht' indIvidual call feel that matters. does not
1Il th.: strCJIll of
Jnd attentIOn indIvidual currcnt as it l.s in the traditions \vhich
cven if it aim'> at have inilerit",1. C\'l'II some of those traditiom. I maintain
the Baba'i hllth are :Ill alien
that whatever /llav be llf mav have been its c0l1f(>ssl0l]al and external
element in the African tradition. it .s('elm as if Africans in the towns
lllaniiestaliotlS, bJ, J ccntLII pbll' III traditional Africa and a crucial role to pla\'
may readilv pav attentlOlJ to the lcachings Jnd ideals of Baha 'ism, and some are in lllodcln Africa. It i, to this quc,tioll that WI' ,hallilow devote the wlJduding
accepting t11l'm as sensible ideals in life, but I do not get the impression t.hat this chapler In "m survev of ;\friclli religiol1s alld philosophy.
Faith got's very nor has it vet begun to reach village colTlIlJunities.
Followers of the Baha'i Fait.h are keen missionaries am3 "1ropagators of their
tez,chil1g, ming literature in African and Ellfopean lant lages as their lIlaUl
weapon. In even have t\vn scbools attended children from
Christian, Muslim and traditional Afncan homes. No doubt this is a
nursery for the faith, and increase its followers.

Promis('d One of all the prophet'. A few ycars brrr he ~nn()l1nccd his
mission. won ,nore follow"rs-knnwn rhereafter a, Bah",is: and then begall to send
out a series of letters (I)r mmmom) to the kings and rulers of the world. TIi,' Feast of
Ridvan C()n1mef11orate~ Baha 'u 'Ibh" DeclarJ' ;011 "I' 21 April to J M.1Y 1863; there are
,)thef feasts conllccted with his life and ,,,,,xiaks. Fastinf: is kept f()f nineteen days
pri0f to the 1 do ,wt know iww rllltlb :md ieJsting are
"b,en'cd hy
l~tcrJtlHl' on Bah~I'l::'ln i..; l1rl th(' iocreosL' of
.Afrlcan ibb'j, hal been done. Herc :lrt' a few b,.1uks:]. ,md
tilt' ",'W, rd (\N'il!llt'ttt', 11Ii'1\'[' Tn'. ]9:;0): [hila';
{he and
,1/Bulw 'II nIh (Lnndon ]949), and ri", Ruh,} 'i

s <·"doll 195");
Abdu 19·15).