1/19/2011

What Is Chemistry?

C hapter 1 ‡ What chemists try to do is discover the

relationships between the particle structure of
M atter and matter and the properties of matter we observe.
E nergy ‡ Chemistry is the science that seeks to
understand what matter does by studying what
atoms and molecules do.

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 2

Chapter 1

Structure Determines Properties The Scientific Method

‡ Everything is made of tiny pieces called atoms and
molecules. ‡ Observation
‡ Chemists believe that the properties of a substance ‡ Formulate a Question
are determined by the kinds, numbers, and
relationships between these pieces. ‡ Pattern Recognition
‡ Develop a Hypothesis
‡ Experimentation
‡ Summarize Information

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 3 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 4

Chapter 1 Chapter 1

What Is a Measurement? A Measurement

‡ Quantitative ‡ The unit tells you to what standard you
observation. are comparing your object.
‡ Comparison to an ‡ The number tells you:
agreed upon standard. 1.What multiple of the standard the object
‡ Every measurement measures.
has a number and a 2. The uncertainty in the measurement.
unit.

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 5 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 6

Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Scientists have measured the average

global temperature rise over the past
century to be 0.6 °C
‡ °C tells you that the temperature is
being compared to the Celsius Scientific Notation
temperature scale.
‡ 0.6 tells you that:
1. The average temperature rise is 0.6 A way of writing
times the standard unit of 1 degree
Celsius. large and small numbers.
2. The confidence in the measurement is
such that we are certain the
measurement is between 0.5 and 0.7 °C.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 7 T ro's Introductory Chemistry, Chapter 8
Chapter 2 2

Big and Small Numbers Scientific Notation

‡ We commonly measure 7KHVXQ¶V ‡ Each decimal place in our 7KHVXQ¶V
objects that are many times diameter is
number system represents diameter is
larger or smaller than our 1,392,000,000 m. 1.392 x 109 m.
a different power of 10.
standard of comparison.
‡ Writing large numbers of ‡ Scientific notation writes
zeros is tricky and the numbers so they are
confusing. easily comparable by
$QDWRP¶V $QDWRP¶V
91RWWRPHQWLRQWKHUH¶VWKH- average diameter is
looking at the power of average diameter is
digit limit of your calculator! 0.000 000 000 3 m. 10. 3 x 10-10 m.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 9 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 10
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Writing a Number in Scientific Notation, Writing a Number in Scientific Notation,

Continued Continued
12340 0.00012340
1. Locate the decimal point. 1. Locate the decimal point.
12340. 0.00012340
2. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10. 2. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10.
1.234 1.2340
3. Multiply the new number by 10 n . 3. Multiply the new number by 10 n .
9 Where n is the number of places you moved the decimal 9 Where n is the number of places you moved the decimal
point. point.
1.234 x 104 1.2340 x 104
4. If you moved the decimal point to the left, then n is +; if you 4. If you moved the decimal point to the left, then n is +; if you
moved it to the right, then n is í. moved it to the right, then n is í.
1.234 x 104 1.2340 x 10-4
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 11 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 12
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Practice²Write the Following in Scientific

Notation
Writing a Number in Standard Form 123.4 8.0012
1.234 x 10-6
‡ Since exponent is -6, make the number
smaller by moving the decimal point to the 145000 0.00234
left 6 places.
9When you run out of digits to move around,
add zeros. 25.25 0.0123
9Add a zero in front of the decimal point for
decimal numbers.
1.45 0.000 008706
000 001.234
0.000 001 234
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 13 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 14
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Practice²Write the Following in Scientific Practice²Write the Following in

Notation, Continued Standard Form
123.4 = 1.234 x 102 8.0012 = 8.0012 x 100
2.1 x 103 4.02 x 100

145000 = 1.45 x 105 0.00234 = 2.34 x 10-3

9.66 x 10-4 3.3 x 101

25.25 = 2.525 x 101 0.0123 = 1.23 x 10-2

1.45 = 1.45 x 100 0.000 008706 = 8.706 x 10-6

6.04 x 10-2 1.2 x 100
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 15 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 16
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Practice²Write the Following in

Standard Form, Continued Inputting Scientific Notation into a Calculator
‡ Input the decimal part of -1.23 x 10-3
2.1 x 103 = 2100 4.02 x 100 = 4.02
the number.
Input 1.23 1.23
9If negative press +/-
key. Press +/- -1.23
¾(±) on some.
9.66 x 10-4 = 0.000966 3.3 x 101 = 33 ‡ Press EXP. Press EXP -1.23 00
9 EE on some.
Input 3 -1.23 03
‡ Input exponent on 10.
9Press +/- key to change Press +/- -1.23 -03
6.04 x 10-2 = 0.0604 1.2 x 100 = 1.2 exponent to negative.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 17 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 18
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Exact Numbers vs. Measurements

‡ Sometimes you can determine an
exact value for a quality of an object.
Significant Figures 9 Often by counting.
¾ Pennies in a pile.
9 Sometimes by definition
Writing numbers to reflect precision. ¾ 1 ounce is exactly 1/16th of 1 pound.

‡ Whenever you use an instrument to

compare a quality of an object to a
standard, there is uncertainty in the
comparison.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 19 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 20
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Reporting Measurements
Estimating the Last Digit
‡ Measurements are written to indicate the
‡ For instruments marked with
uncertainty in the measurement. a scale, you get the last digit
‡ The system of writing measurements we use by estimating between the
is called significant figures. marks.
9 If possible.
‡ When writing measurements, all the digits
written are known with certainty except the ‡ Mentally divide the space into
10 equal spaces, then estimate
last one, which is an estimate.
45.872 how many spaces over the
indicator is. 1.2 grams
Estimated WKH³´ LV FHUWDLQ
Certain WKH³´ LV DQHVWLPDWH
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 21 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 22
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Skillbuilder 2.3²Reporting the Right Skillbuilder 2.3²Reporting the Right

Number of Digits Number of Digits
‡ A thermometer used to ‡ A thermometer used to
measure the temperature of a measure the temperature of a
backyard hot tub is shown to backyard hot tub is shown to 103.4 °F
the right. What is the the right. What is the
temperature reading to the temperature reading to the
correct number of digits? correct number of digits?

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 23 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 24

Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Significant Figures
‡ The non-placeholding digits in a Counting Significant Figures
reported measurement are called 12.3 cm
significant figures. has 3 significant
‡ All non-zero digits are significant.
9 Some zeros in a written number are figures
only there to help you locate the and its range is 91.5 has 2 significant figures.
decimal point. 12.2 to 12.4 cm.
‡ Interior zeros are significant.
‡ Significant figures tell us the range
of values to expect for repeated 12.30 cm
91.05 has 3 significant figures.
measurements. has 4 significant ‡ Trailing zeros after a decimal point are
9 The more significant figures there are in figures significant.
a measurement, the smaller the range of and its range is
values. Therefore, the measurement is 12.29 to 12.31 cm. 91.050 has 4 significant figures.
more precise.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 25 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 26
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Counting Significant Figures, Significant Figures and Exact Numbers

Continued ‡ Exact numbers have an unlimited number of
‡ Leading zeros are N O T significant. significant figures.
9 0.001050 has 4 significant figures. ‡ A number whose value is known with
¾ 1.050 x 10-3 complete certainty is exact.
‡ Zeros at the end of a number without a written 9From counting individual objects.
decimal point are ambiguous and should be 9From definitions.
avoided by using scientific notation. ¾1 cm is exactly equal to 0.01 m.
9 If 150 has 2 significant figures, then 1.5 x 102, 9From integer values in equations.
but if 150 has 3 significant figures, then 1.50 ¾ In the equation for the radius of a circle, the 2 is
x 102. exact. diameter of a circle
radius of a circle =
2
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 27 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 28
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Determine the Number of Significant Figures, Determine the Number of Significant Figures,
the Expected Range of Precision, and Indicate the Expected Range of Precision, and Indicate
the Last Significant Figure the Last Significant Figure, Continued
‡ 12000 ‡ 0.0012 ‡ 12000 2 ‡ 0.0012 2
From 11000 to 13000. From 0.0011 to 0.0013.

‡ 120. ‡ 0.00120 ‡ 120 . 3 ‡ 0.00120 3

From 119 to 121. From 0.00119 to 0.00121.

‡ 12.00 ‡ 1201 ‡ 12.00 4 ‡ 1201 4

From 11.99 to 12.01. From 1200 to 1202.

‡ 1.20 x 103 ‡ 1201000 ‡ 1.20 x 103 3 ‡ 1201000 4

From 1190 to 1210. From 1200000 to 1202000.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 29 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 30
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Multiplication and Division with Rounding

Significant Figures ‡ When rounding to the correct number of
significant figures, if the number after the place
‡ When multiplying or dividing measurements with of the last significant figure is:
significant figures, the result has the same number of 1. 0 to 4, round down.
significant figures as the measurement with the 9 Drop all digits after the last significant figure and
fewest number of significant figures. leave the last significant figure alone.
5.02 89,665 0.10 = 45.0118 = 45 9 Add insignificant zeros to keep the value, if
necessary.
3 sig. figs. 5 sig. figs. 2 sig. figs. 2 sig. figs.
2. 5 to 9, round up.
5.892 6.10 = 0.96590 = 0.966 9 Drop all digits after the last significat figure and
4 sig. figs. 3 sig. figs. 3 sig. figs. increase the last significant figure by one.
9 Add insignificant zeros to keep the value, if
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 31
necessary. T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 32
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Rounding, Continued Rounding, Continued

‡ Rounding to 2 significant figures. ‡ 0.0234 rounds to 0.023 or 2.3 10-2.
‡ 2.34 rounds to 2.3. 9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be and the number after it is 4 or less.
and the number after it is 4 or less. ‡ 0.0237 rounds to 0.024 or 2.4 10-2.
‡ 2.37 rounds to 2.4. 9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
and the number after it is 5 or greater.
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
and the number after it is 5 or greater.
‡ 0.02349865 rounds to 0.023 or 2.3 10-2.
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
‡ 2.349865 rounds to 2.3. and the number after it is 4 or less.
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
and the number after it is 4 or less.

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 33 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 34

Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Determine the Correct Number of

Rounding, Continued Significant Figures for Each Calculation and
‡ 234 rounds to 230 or 2.3 102 . Round and Report the Result
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
and the number after it is 4 or less. 1. 1.01 0.12 53.51 96 = 0.067556
‡ 237 rounds to 240 or 2.4 102 .
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
and the number after it is 5 or greater.
‡ 234.9865 rounds to 230 or 2.3 102 .
9 Because the 3 is where the last significant figure will be
2. 56.55 0.920 34.2585 = 1.51863
and the number after it is 4 or less.

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 35 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 36

Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Determine the Correct Number of

Addition and Subtraction with
Significant Figures for Each Calculation and
Round and Report the Result, Continued Significant Figures
1. 1.01 0.12 53.51 96 = 0.067556 = 0.068 ‡ When adding or subtracting measurements with
3 sf 2 sf 4 sf 2 sf Result should 7 is in place significant figures, the result has the same number of
have 2 sf. of last sig. fig., decimal places as the measurement with the fewest
number after
is 5 or greater, number of decimal places.
so round up. 5.74 + 0.823 + 2.651 = 9.214 = 9.21
2. 56.55 0.920 34.2585 = 1.51863 = 1.52 2 dec. pl. 3 dec. pl. 3 dec. pl. 2 dec. pl.
4 sf 3 sf 6 sf Result should 1 is in place 4.8 - 3.965 = 0.835 = 0.8
have 3 sf. of last sig. fig.,
number after 1 dec. pl 3 dec. pl. 1 dec. pl.
is 5 or greater,
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry",
so round 37up. T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 38
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Determine the Correct Number of Determine the Correct Number of

Significant Figures for Each Calculation and Significant Figures for Each Calculation and
Round and Report the Result Round and Report the Result, Continued
1. 0.987 + 125.1 ± 1.22 = 124.867 1. 0.987 + 125.1 ± 1.22 = 124.867 = 124.9
3 dp 1 dp 2 dp Result should 8 is in place
have 1 dp. of last sig. fig.,
number after
is 5 or greater,
so round up.
2. 0.764 ± 3.449 ± 5.98 = -8.664 2. 0.764 ± 3.449 ± 5.98 = -8.664 = -8.66
3 dp 3 dp 2 dp Result should 6 is in place
have 2 dp. of last sig. fig.,
number after
is 4 or less,
so round down.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 39 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 40
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Both Multiplication/Division and Example 1.6²Perform the Following Calculations

Addition/Subtraction with to the Correct Number of Significant Figures
Significant Figures a) 1.10 0.5120 4.0015 3.4555
‡ When doing different kinds of operations with 0.355
measurements with significant figures, evaluate the b)
significant figures in the intermediate answer, then 105.1
do the remaining steps.
‡ Follow the standard order of operations. 100.5820
n
9 Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally. -

3.489 (5.67 ± 2.3) = c) 4.562 3.99870 452.6755 452.33

2 dp 1 dp
3.489 3.37 = 12 d) 14.84 0.55 8.02
4 sf 1 dp & 2 sf 2 sf
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 41 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 42
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Example 1.6²Perform the Following Calculations

to the Correct Number of Significant Figures,
Continued
a) 1.10 0.5120 4.0015 3.4555 0.65219 0.652
0.355
b)
105.1 Basic Units of Measure
100.5820
4.8730 4.9
c) 4.562 3.99870 452.6755 452.33 52.79904 53

d) 14.84 0.55 8.02 0.142 0.1

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 43 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 44
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Units The Standard Units

‡ Units tell the standard quantity to which we are ‡ Scientists generally report results in an
comparing the measured property. agreed upon International System.
9 Without an associated unit, a measurement is without ‡ The SI System
meaning. 9Aka Systèm e International
‡ Scientists use a set of standard units for comparing
Q uantity Unit Symbol
all our measurements.
9 So we can easily compare our results. Length meter m
‡ Each of the units is defined as precisely as Mass kilogram kg
possible. Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 45 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 46
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Some Standard Units in the Experimental Quantities

‡ Mass = amount of matter in an object
Metric System 9 Measured in kilograms (kg)
‡ Weight = force of gravity on an object
Q uantity Name of weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity
Abbreviation
M easured Unit ‡ Length = distance between two points
Mass gram g 9 Measured in meters (m)
Length meter m ‡ Volume = space occupied by an object
9 Measured in liters (L)
Volume liter L 9 Remember that 1 mL = 1 cm3
Time seconds s ‡ Time ± measured in seconds (s)
Temperature Kelvin K
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 47 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 48
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Common Prefixes in the

SI System Common Units and Their Equivalents
Decimal
Pre fix Symbol Powe r of 10 Length
Equivale nt
mega- M 1,000,000 Base x 106 1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 mile (mi)
kilo- k 1,000 Base x 103
1 meter (m) = 39.37 inches (in.)
1 meter (m) = 1.094 yards (yd)
deci- d 0.1 Base x 10-1
1 foot (ft) = 30.48 centimeters (cm)
centi- c 0.01 Base x 10-2
1 inch (in.) = 2.54 centimeters (cm) exactly
milli- m 0.001 Base x 10-3
micro- or mc 0.000 001 Base x 10-6
nano- n 0.000 000 001 Base x 10-9
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 49 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 50
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Common Units and Their Equivalents, Problem Solving and

Continued Dimensional Analysis
M ass
1 kilogram (km) = 2.205 pounds (lb) ‡ Many problems in chemistry involve using
1 pound (lb) = 453.59 grams (g) relationships to convert one unit of measurement to
another.
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 (g)
‡ Conversion factors are relationships between two units.
Volume 9 May be exact or measured.
1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliters (mL) 9 Both parts of the conversion factor have the same number of
significant figures.
1 liter (L) = 1000 cubic centimeters (cm3)
‡ Conversion factors generated from equivalence
1 liter (L) = 1.057 quarts (qt) statements.
2.54cm 1in
1 U.S. gallon (gal) = 3.785 liters (L) 9 e.g., 1 inch = 2.54 cm can give or
1in 2.54cm
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 51 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 52
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

Problem Solving and Density

Dimensional Analysis, Continued ‡ Ratio of mass:volume.
‡ Arrange conversion factors so the starting unit cancels. ‡ Its value depends on the kind of material, not the
9 Arrange conversion factor so the starting unit is on the amount.
‡ Solids = g/cm3
bottom of the conversion factor.
Mass
‡ May string conversion factors. 9 1 cm3 = 1 mL
Density
9 So we do not need to know every relationship, as long as ‡ Liquids = g/mL Volum e
we can find something else the starting and desired units ‡ Gases = g/L
are related to :
desired unit ‡ Volume of a solid can be determined by water
sta rt unit desired unit displacement²Archimedes Principle.
sta rt unit
related unit desired unit ‡ Density : solids > liquids > gases
sta rt unit desired unit 9 Except ice is less dense than liquid water!
sta rt unit related unit
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 53 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 54
Chapter 2 Chapter 2

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Density as a Conversion Factor

What Is Matter?
‡ Can use density as a conversion factor between ‡ M atter is defined as
mass and volume! anything that occupies
9Density of H2O = 1 g/mL 1 g H2O = 1 mL H2O space and has mass.
9Density of Pb = 11.3 g/cm3 11.3 g Pb = 1 cm3 Pb ‡ Even though it appears to
‡ How much does 4.0 cm3 of lead weigh? be smooth and continuous,
matter is actually composed
4.0 cm3 Pb x 11.3 g Pb = 45 g Pb of a lot of tiny little pieces
1 cm 3 Pb we call atoms and
molecules.

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 55 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 56

Chapter 2 Chapter 3

Structure Determines Properties

Atoms and Molecules ‡ The properties of matter are determined by the atoms and
molecules that compose it.
Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide
‡ Atoms are the tiny particles 1. Composed of one carbon atom 1. Composed of one carbon atom
that make up all matter. and one oxygen atom. and two oxygen atoms.
2. Colorless, odorless gas. 2. Colorless, odorless gas.
‡ In most substances, the 3. Burns with a blue flame. 3. Incombustible.
atoms are joined together in 4. Binds to hemoglobin. 4. Does not bind to hemoglobin.
units called molecules.
9The atoms are joined in
specific geometric
arrangements.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 57 58
Chapter 3

Classifying Matter Structure Determines Properties

by Physical State ‡ The atoms or molecules have different
structures in solids, liquids, and gases í
‡ Matter can be classified as solid, liquid, or leading to different properties.
gas based on what properties it exhibits.
State Shape Volume Compress F low
Solid Fixed Fixed No No
L iquid Indefinite Fixed No Yes
G as Indefinite Indefinite Yes Yes

‡)L[HG 3URSHUW\GRHVQ¶WFKDQJHZKHQSODFHGLQDFRQWDLQHU
‡Indefinite = Takes the property of the container.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 59 60
Chapter 3

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Solids
‡ The particles in a solid are packed Solids, Continued
close together and are fixed in ‡ Some solids have their particles
position. arranged in an orderly geometric
9 Although they may vibrate. pattern²we call these cr ystalline
‡ The close packing of the particles solids.
results in solids being 9Salt and diamonds.
incompressible.
‡ The inability of the particles to ‡ Other solids have particles that do
move around results in solids not show a regular geometric
retaining their shape and volume pattern over a long range²we call
when placed in a new container these amorphous solids.
and prevents the particles from 9Plastic and glass.
flowing. T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 61 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 62
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Liquids Gases
‡ The particles in a liquid are closely packed,
but they have some ability to move around. ‡ In the gas state, the particles have complete
freedom from each other.
‡ The close packing results in liquids being
incompressible. ‡ The particles are constantly flying around,
‡ The ability of the particles to move allows bumping into each other and the container.
liquids to take the shape of their container ‡ In the gas state, there is a lot of empty space
DQGWRIORZ+RZHYHUWKH\GRQ¶WKDYH between the particles.
enough freedom to escape and expand to fill 9On average.
the container.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 63 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 64
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Gases, Continued Atoms and Molecules

‡ Atoms
‡ Because there is a lot of empty 9 Are submicroscopic particles that are the
space, the particles can be unit pieces of elements.
squeezed closer together. 9 Are the fundamental building blocks of all
Therefore, gases are matter.
compressible. ‡ M olecules
9 Are submicroscopic particles that are the
‡ Because the particles are not unit pieces of compounds.
held in close contact and are 9 Two or more atoms attached together.
moving freely, gases expand to ¾ Attachments are called bonds.
fill and take the shape of their ¾ Attachments come in different strengths.

container, and will flow. 9 Molecules come in different shapes and

patterns.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 65 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 66
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

11
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Classifying Matter Properties of Matter

‡ Physical P rope rties are the characteristics of matter
that can be changed without changing its
composition.
9 Characteristics that are directly observable.

‡ C hemical P rope rties are the characteristics that

determine how the composition of matter changes as
a result of contact with other matter or the influence
of energy.
9 Characteristics that describe the behavior of matter.

67 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 68

Chapter 3

Some Physical Properties

Mass Volume Density Some Physical Properties of Iron
‡ Iron is a silvery solid at room temperature with a
Solid Liquid Gas metallic taste and smooth texture.
Melting point Boiling point Volatility ‡ Iron melts at 1538 °C and boils at 4428 °C.
‡ ,URQ¶VGHQVLW\LVJFP3.
Taste Odor Color ‡ Iron can be magnetized.
Texture Shape Solubility ‡ Iron conducts electricity, but not as well as most other
common metals.
Electrical Thermal Magnetism ‡ ,URQ¶VGXFWLOLW\DQGWKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\DUHDERXW
conductance conductance average for a metal.
Malleability Ductility Specific heat ‡ It requires 0.45 J of heat energy to raise the temperature
capacity of one gram of iron by 1°C.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 69 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 70
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Some Chemical Properties Some Chemical Properties of Iron

‡ Iron is easily oxidized in
Acidity Basicity (aka alkalinity) moist air to form rust.
Causticity Corrosiveness ‡ When iron is added to
Reactivity Stability hydrochloric acid, it produces
a solution of ferric chloride
Inertness Explosiveness and hydrogen gas.
(In)Flammability Combustibility ‡ Iron is more reactive than
Oxidizing ability Reducing ability silver, but less reactive than
magnesium.

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 71 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 72

Chapter 3 Chapter 3

12

P ractice²Decide Whethe r Each of the O bse rvations
About Table Salt Is a Physical or C hemical P rope rty
‡ Salt is a white, granular solid.
‡ Salt melts at 801 °C.
‡ Salt is stable at room temperature, it does not decompose.
‡ 36 g of salt will dissolve in 100 g of water.
‡ Salt solutions and molten salt conduct electricity.
‡ When a clear, colorless solution of silver nitrate is added
to a salt solution, a white solid forms.
‡ When electricity is passed through molten salt, a gray
metal forms at one terminal and a yellow-green gas at the
other. T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 73
Chapter 3
Changes in Matter, Continued
‡ Physical C hanges²Changes in
the properties of matter that do
not effect its composition.
9Heating water.
¾Raises its temperature, but it is still
water.
9Evaporating butane from a lighter.
9Dissolving sugar in water.
¾Even though the sugar seems to
disappear, it can easily be separated
back into sugar and water by
evaporation.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry",
Chapter 3
Thermite
Fe2O3 + 2 Al
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WrCWLpRc1yM
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry",
Chapter 3
1/19/2011
P ractice íDecide Whethe r Each of the O bse rvations
About Table Salt Is a Physical or C hemical P rope rty
‡ Salt is a white, granular solid = physical.
‡ Salt melts at 801 °C = physical.
‡ Salt is stable at room temperature, it does not decompose =
chemical.
‡ 36 g of salt will dissolve in 100 g of water = physical.
‡ Salt solutions and molten salt conduct electricity = physical.
‡ When a clear, colorless solution of silver nitrate is added to a salt
solution, a white solid forms = chemical.
‡ When electricity is passed through molten salt, a gray metal forms
at one terminal and a yellow-green gas at the other = chemical.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 74
Chapter 3
Changes in Matter, Continued
‡ C hemical C hanges involve a change
in the properties of matter that change
its composition.
9 A chemical reaction.
9 Rusting is iron combining with oxygen to
make iron(III) oxide.
9 Burning results in butane from a lighter to
be changed into carbon dioxide and water.
9 Silver combines with sulfur in the air to
make tarnish.
75 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 76
Chapter 3
Is it a Physical or Chemical Change?
‡ A physical change results in a different form of
the same substance.
9 7KHNLQGVRIPROHFXOHVGRQ¶WFKDQJH
‡ A chemical change results in one or more
completely new substances.
9 Also called che mical re actions.
2 Fe + Al2O3 9 The new substances have different molecules than the
original substances.
9 You will observe different physical properties because
the new substances have their own physical properties.
77 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 78
Chapter 3
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Phase Changes Are

Physical Changes Practice²Classify Each Change as Physical
or Chemical
‡ Boiling = liquid to gas.
‡ Melting = solid to liquid.
‡ Evaporation of rubbing alcohol.
‡ Subliming = solid to gas. ‡ Sugar turning black when heated.
‡ Freezing = liquid to solid. ‡ An egg splitting open and spilling out.
‡ Condensing = gas to liquid. ‡ Sugar fermenting.
‡ Deposition = gas to solid. ‡ Bubbles escaping from soda.
‡ State changes require heating or cooling the substance. ‡ Bubbles that form when hydrogen peroxide is
9 Evaporation is not a simple phase change, it is a solution
process.
mixed with blood.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 79 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 80
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Practice²Classify Each Change as Physical Law of Conservation of Mass

or Chemical, Continued
‡ Antoine Lavoisier
‡ Evaporation of rubbing alcohol = physical.
‡ ³0DWWHULVQHLWKHUFUHDWHGQRUGHVWUR\HGLQD
‡ Sugar turning black when heated = chemical. FKHPLFDOUHDFWLRQ´
‡ An egg splitting open and spilling out =
physical. ‡ The total amount of matter present before a
chemical reaction is always the same as the
‡ Sugar fermenting = chemical.
total amount after.
‡ Bubbles escaping from soda = physical.
‡ Bubbles that form when hydrogen peroxide is ‡ The total mass of all the reactants is equal to
mixed with blood = chemical. the total mass of all the products.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 81 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 82
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Conservation of Mass Energy

‡ Total amount of matter remains constant in a
chemical reaction. ‡ There are things that do not have mass and
‡ 58 grams of butane burns in 208 grams of oxygen to volume.
form 176 grams of carbon dioxide and 90 grams of ‡ These things fall into a category we call energy.
water.
butane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water ‡ Energy is anything that has the capacity to do
58 grams + 208 grams 176 grams + 90 grams
work.
266 grams = 266 grams ‡ Although chemistry is the study of matter, matter
is effected by energy.
9It can cause physical and/or chemical changes in
matter.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 83 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 84
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

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Law of Conservation of Energy Matter Possesses Energy

‡ When a piece of matter
‡ ³(QHUJ\FDQQHLWKHUEHFUHDWHGQRUGHVWUR\HG´ possesses energy, it can
‡ The total amount of energy in the universe is give some or all of it to
constant. There is no process that can increase another object.
or decrease that amount. 9It can do wor k on the other
object.
‡ However, we can transfer energy from one
place in the universe to another, and we can ‡ All chemical and physical
change its form. changes result in the matter
changing energy.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 85 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 86
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Kinds of Energy Some Forms of Energy

Kinetic and Potential ‡ Electrical
9 Kinetic energy associated with the flow of electrical
‡ Pote ntial e ne rgy is energy that is charge.
stored.
9 Water flows because gravity pulls it ‡ H eat or The rmal Ene rgy
downstream. 9 Kinetic energy associated with molecular motion.
9 +RZHYHU WKH GDP ZRQ¶W DOORZ LW WR
move, so it has to store that energy. ‡ Light or Radiant Ene rgy
‡ Kine tic e ne rgy is energy of motion, 9 Kinetic energy associated with energy transitions in an
or energy that is being transferred atom.
from one object to another.
9 When the water flows over the dam,
‡ Nuclea r
some of its potential energy is converted 9 Potential energy in the nucleus of atoms.
to kinetic energy of motion.
‡ C hemical
9 Potential energy in the attachment of atoms or because of
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry",
Chapter 3
87
their position. T ro's "Introductory Chemistry",
Chapter 3
88

Converting Forms of Energy Using Energy

‡ When water flows over the dam, some of its
potential energy is converted to kinetic energy.
9 Some of the energy is stored in the water because it is
at a higher elevation than the surroundings.
‡ The movement of the water is kinetic energy.
‡ Along the way, some of that energy can be used to
push a turbine to generate electricity.
9 Electricity is one form of kinetic energy.
‡ The electricity can then be used in your home.
For example, you can use it to heat cake batter you
mixed, causing it to change chemically and storing
some of the energy in the new molecules that are
made.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry",
Chapter 3
‡ We use energy to accomplish all kinds of
processes, but according to the Law of
&RQVHUYDWLRQRI(QHUJ\ZHGRQ¶WUHDOO\XVH
it up!
‡ When we use energy we are changing it
from one form to another.
9For example, converting the chemical energy
in gasoline into mechanical energy to make
your car move.
89 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 90
Chapter 3

15
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³/RVLQJ´(QHUJ\ 7KHUH¶V1R6XFK7KLQJDVD)UHH
Ride
‡ If a process was 100% efficient, we could ‡ When you drive your car, some of the
theoretically get all the energy transformed
chemical potential energy stored in the
into a useful form.
gasoline is released.
‡ Unfortunately we cannot get a 100% ‡ Most of the energy released in the
efficient process.
combustion of gasoline is transformed into
‡ 7KHHQHUJ\³ORVW´LQWKHSURFHVVLVHQHUJ\ sound or heat energy that adds energy to the
transformed into a form we cannot use. air rather than move your car down the
road.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 91 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 92
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Units of Energy Energy Use

Ene rgy Ene rgy
‡ C alor ie (cal) is the amount of energy needed to Ene rgy Re quire d Re quire d to Use d by
raise one gram of water by 1 °C. to Raise Light 100- W Ave rage
9kcal = energy needed to raise 1000 g of water 1 °C. Te mpe rature of 1 g Bulb for 1 U.S. Citiz e n
Unit of Wate r by 1°C Hour in 1 Day
9food calories = kcals.
joule (J) 4.18 3.6 x 105 9.0 x 108
Ene rgy Conve rsion Factors
calorie (cal) 1.00 8.60 x 104 2.2 x 108
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)
1 food Calorie (food Cal) = 1000 calories (cal) Calorie (Cal) 1.00 x 10-3 86.0 2.2 x 105
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) = 3.60 x 106 joules (J)
kWh 1.1 x 10-6 0.100 2.50 x 102
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 93 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 94
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Chemical Potential Energy Energy Changes and

‡ The amount of energy stored in a material is its Chemical Reactions
chemical potential ene rgy.
‡ The stored energy arises mainly from the ‡ Chemical reactions happen most readily
attachments between atoms in the molecules and when energy is released during the reaction.
the attractive forces between molecules. ‡ Molecules with lots of chemical potential
‡ When materials undergo a physical change, the energy are less stable than ones with less
attractions between molecules change as their
chemical potential energy.
position changes, resulting in a change in the
amount of chemical potential energy. ‡ Energy will be released when the reactants
‡ When materials undergo a chemical change, the have more chemical potential energy than
structures of the molecules change, resulting in a the products.
change in the amount of chemical potential
energy. T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 95 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 96
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

16
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An Exothermic Reaction
Exothermic Processes Surroundings

‡ When a change results in the release of energy it is

reaction
called an exothe rmic process.
‡ An exothermic chemical reaction occurs when the
reactants have more chemical potential energy Reactants
than the products.

Potential energy
Amount
‡ The excess energy is released into the surrounding of energy
materials, adding energy to them. released
9 Often the surrounding materials get hotter from the Products
energy released by the reaction.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 97 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 98
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

An Endothermic Reaction
Endothermic Processes Surroundings

‡ When a change requires the absorption of energy

reaction
it is called an endothe rmic process.
‡ An endothermic chemical reaction occurs when
the products have more chemical potential energy Products
than the reactants.

Potential energy
Amount
‡ The required energy is absorbed from the of energy
surrounding materials, taking energy from them. absorbed
9 Often the surrounding materials get colder due to the Reactants
energy being removed by the reaction.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 99 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 100
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

Temperature Scales
Fahrenheit vs. Celsius
‡ Fahrenheit scale, °F.
9Used in the U.S. ‡ A Celsius degree is 1.8 times larger than a
‡ Celsius scale, °C. Fahrenheit degree.
9Used in all other countries. ‡ The standard used for 0° on the Fahrenheit
9A Celsius degree is 1.8 scale is a lower temperature than the
times larger than a standard used for 0° on the Celsius scale.
Fahrenheit degree.
‡ Kelvin scale, K.
F - 32
C
9Absolute scale. 1.8
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 101 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 102
Chapter 3 Chapter 3

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Kelvin vs. Celsius

The Kelvin Temperature Scale
‡ Both the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales have
negative numbers.
9 Yet, real physical things are always positive amounts!
‡ The Kelvin scale is an absolute scale, meaning it
measures the actual temperature of an object.
‡ 0 K is called absolute ze ro. It is too cold for
matter to exist because all molecular motion
would stop.
9 0 K = -273 °C = -459 °F.
9 Absolute zero is a theoretical value obtained by
following patterns mathematically.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 103
Chapter 3
‡ 7KHVL]HRID³GHJUHH´RQWKH.HOYLQVFDOHLVWKH
same as on the Celsius scale.
9 $OWKRXJKWHFKQLFDOO\ZHGRQ¶WFDOOWKHGLYLVLRQVRQWKH
Kelvin scale degrees; we call them kelvins!
9 That makes 1 K 1.8 times larger than 1 °F.
‡ The 0 standard on the Kelvin scale is a much lower
temperature than on the Celsius scale.
‡ When converting between kelvins and °C, remember
that the kelvin temperature is always the larger
number and always positive!
K C 273
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 104
Chapter 3

Energy and the Temperature of Matter

Heat Capacity
‡ Heat capacity is the amount of heat a substance
‡ The amount the temperature of an object must absorb to raise its temperature by 1 °C.
increases depends on the amount of heat 9cal/°C or J/°C.
energy added (q). 9Metals have low heat capacities; insulators have
9If you double the added heat energy the high heat capacities.
temperature will increase twice as much.
‡ Specific heat = heat capacity of 1 gram of the
‡ The amount the temperature of an object substance.
increases depending on its mass. 9cal/g°C or J/g°C.
9If you double the mass, it will take twice as
9:DWHU¶VVSHFLILFKHDW -J°C for liquid.
much heat energy to raise the temperature the
same amount. ¾Or 1.000 cal/g°C.
T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 105 ¾It is less for ice and steam. 106
Chapter 3

Specific Heat Capacities

Specific Heat Capacity Substance Specific H eat
J/g°C
‡ Specific heat is the amount of energy required to raise Aluminum 0.903
the temperature of one gram of a substance by 1 °C. Carbon (dia) 0.508
‡ 7KHODUJHUDPDWHULDO¶VVSHFLILFKHDWLVWKHPRUH Carbon (gra) 0.708
energy it takes to raise its temperature a given amount. Copper 0.385
‡ Like density, specific heat is a property of the type of Gold 0.128
matter. Iron 0.449
Lead 0.128
9 ,WGRHVQ¶WPDWWHUKRZPXFKPDWHULDO\RXKDYH
Silver 0.235
9 It can be used to identify the type of matter.
Ethanol 2.42
‡ :DWHU¶VKLJKVSHFLILFKHDWLVWKHUHDVRQLWLVVXFKD Water (l) 4.184
good cooling agent. Water (s) 2.03
9 It absorbs a lot of heat for a relatively small mass. Water (g) 2.02

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 107 T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 108

Chapter 3 Chapter 3

18
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Heat Gain or Loss by an Object

‡ The amount of heat energy gained or lost by an
object depends on 3 factors: how much material
there is, what the material is, and how much the
temperature changed.

Amount of He at = Mass x He at Capacity x Te mpe rature Change

q=mx C x T

T ro's "Introductory Chemistry", 109

Chapter 3

19