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1
Animal Production Research Centre Nitra, Slovak Republic;
2
Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Slovak Republic
ABSTRACT
Transgenic farm animals are important in human medicine as a source of biologically active proteins, as donors in xenotransplanta-
tion and for a research in cell and gene therapy. Typical agricultural application include improved carcass composition, lactation
performance and wool production, as well as enhanced disease resistance and reduced environmental impact. This minireview
summarizes recent research based on the transgenic farm animal production and their potential applications.
continuing to accelerate at an incredible pace and more high efficiency, low cost and ease of use compared with
significantly the reach of the technology also extended to other methods. Furthermore, SMGT does not require
poultry and aquatic organisms such as Atlantic salmon embryo handling or expensive equipment. Sperm-
and zebra fish (Houdebine, 1995). mediated gene transfer could also be used to generate
Today, transgenic animals embody one of the multigene transgenic pigs that would be of benefit as
most potent and exciting research tools in the biological large animal models for medical research, for agricultural
sciences. Transgenic animals represent unique models and pharmaceutical applications and, in particular, for
that are custom tailored to address specific biological xenotransplantation, which requires extensive genetic
questions. Hence, the ability to introduce functional manipulation of donor pigs to make them suitable for
genes into animals provides a very powerful tool for grafting to humans. Three studies that combine sperm-
dissecting complex biological processes and systems. mediated gene transfer with the other methodology are
This has made it possible to explore the regulation of a case in point:
gene expression as well as the regulation of cellular - SMGT + REMI (restriction enzyme-
and physiological processes. Significant uses of live mediated integration);
transgenic mammals are in the arenas of agricultural, - SMGT + electroporation (electroporation of
biological, biotechnological and biomedical sciences DNA into sperm before performing SMGT);
including production of pharmaceuticals and in the field - SMGT + mAb (antibody to associate transgene
of organ transfer from transgenic animals to humans with sperm before surgical oviduct insemination).
(Wall and Seidel, 1992). These require the ability to
target gene expression and to control the timing and level c) Methods of transgenic animal creation through
of expression of specific genes. Experimental designs fertilized eggs or embryos
have taken advantage of the ability to direct specific For practical reasons, i.e., their small size and
expression (including cell types, tissue, organ type, and low cost of housing in comparison to that for larger
a multiplicity of internal targets) and ubiquitous, whole- vertebrates, their short generation time, and their fairly
body expression in vivo. well defined genetics, mice have become the main
species used in the field of transgenics. There are several
Gene transfer can be realized through: principal methods used for the creation of transgenic
animals.
a) Methods of transgenic animal creation through
the gonads 1) DNA single microinjection
The possibility of transfecting spermatogonia in This method involves the direct microinjection of
situ via infusion of transgenes into seminiferous tubules a chosen gene construct (a single gene or a combination
or transfection of germ cell precursors in vitro followed of genes) from another member of the same species or
by transplantation into host testis was tested. It was from a different species, into the pronucleus of a fertilized
demonstrated that testis-derived cells transplanted into ovum. It is one of the first methods that proved to be
the testis of infertile males could populate the host testis, effective in mammals. Microinjection in mice and rabbit
generate sperm, and produce offspring. Presumably the eggs is relatively simple, thanks to better visualization
next step would be to transfect the testis-derived cells of pronucleus. However, this does not hold good for
before transplantation. embryos of rats and other higher species of animals, where
it is much more complex. Total amount of microinjected
b) Methods of transgenic animal creation through DNA is about 1-2 pl, which at concentration of 1-2 ng/μl
the germ cells represents around 200-400 copies of DNA, depending on
In germline gene transfer, the parents‘ egg and the type of gene construct though. Eggs are fixed on one
sperm cells are changed with the goal of passing on the side with the help of holder pipette and are microinjected
changes to their offspring. Germline gene transfer is not from the other end with the help of microinjection syringe
being actively investigated, at least in larger animals of several micrometers in size automatically or using
and humans, although a great deal of discussion is being manual microinjector. Microinjection process causes a
conducted about its value and desirability. Since 1989, visible increase in the volume of the injected pronucleus.
a new method for the production of transgenic animals After microinjection followed by short time or long time
has been available, namely sperm-mediated gene transfer embryo culture under in vitro conditions, embryos are
(SMGT), based on the intrinsic ability of sperm cells to transferred to the oviduct or uterus of the hormonally
bind and internalise exogenous DNA molecules and to treated female or using vasectomized males. Most of the
transfer them into the oocyte at fertilisation. The major gene constructs were prepared using cDNA for the studied
benefits of the SMGT technique were found to be its gene. Under ideal circumstances and thanks to promoter,
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Slovak J. Anim. Sci., 43, 2010 (2): 45-49 Minireview
targeted expression of the gene in the desired tissue at 4) Embryonic stem cell-mediated gene transfer
sufficient level in proper time was achieved and thereby
This method involves prior insertion of the
the ability of transgenic individual to carry the integrated
desired DNA sequence by homologous recombination
gene to offspring confirmed. Animal accounts for a model
organism for the purpose of transgenesis into which it into an in vitro culture of embryonic stem (ES) cells
is possible to introduce and integrate gene constructs of using electroporation or liposomes. ES cells are isolated
different sizes ranging from 10-20 kb using plasmids to in culture from blastocyst-stage embryos, and embryonic
about 250-300 kb using YAC, BAC and MAC vectors. germline (EG) cells are isolated from cultured primordial
The insertion of DNA is, however, a random process, germ cell (PGC). Development of a stem cell line for a
and there is a high probability that the introduced gene species that could be used as a recipient of the desired
will not insert itself into a site on the host DNA that will DNA and subsequent nuclear transfer of the stem cell
permit its expression. A major advantage of this method nuclei or the incorporation of the stem cells into an
is its applicability to a wide variety of species. embryo with the resulting birth of a chimeric animal
are potential solutions to the inefficient incorporation
2) DNA double microinjection of the injected DNA. ES cell-mediated gene transfer is
On the same principle as the microinjection the method of choice for gene inactivation, the so-called
of a foreign DNA into the pronucleus lies the method knock-out method. ES cells first were isolated from
which facilitates the transfer of a foreign gene into both mouse embryos and since have been used as a model for
pronuclei of fertilized egg, which was successfully mammalian embryogenesis and more recently for genetic
used for production of transgenic mice (Kupriyanov et manipulations. Due to their ability to integrate foreign
al., 1998). This approach was extrapolated by Chrenek DNA and thereafter differentiate into any and all tissues
and his co-workers (2005, 2007) in a larger species of a normal individual, ES cells are effective vehicles for
thereby increasing the transgene integration efficiency genetic engineering and for creating laboratory animal
upon microinjection of DNA into both pronuclei of models of human diseases. Despite considerable efforts,
rabbit embryos. In the case of double microinjection, progress towards isolation of ES cells from agricultural
degradation of embryos (lysis, fragmentation, irregular species has been slow. Some of the more promising
division) takes place based on the information as above.
results have been achieved with pigs. To date, production
Obtained results also showed that double microinjection
of embryonic stem cell lines has been much more difficult
doesn’t cause significantly higher percentage of embryo
in livestock species than in mice.
degeneration. Success of the integration of a foreign gene
through this method was at least 30% more than that
obtained by the single microinjection method. 5) Retrovirus (Adenovirus)-mediated gene transfer
To increase the probability of an expression, the
3) Cytoplasmic injection gene transfer is mediated by means of a carrier or vector,
However, using the established method of DNA- generally a virus or a plasmid. Retroviruses are commonly
ligand-polylysine conjugate to transfect mammalian used as vectors to transfer genetic material into the cell,
cells/DNA-transferrin-polylysine transfecting avain taking advantage of their ability to infect host cells in this
cells it was suggested that this might provide a mean way. Offspring derived from this method are chimeric,
for cytoplasmic injection to be successful. The reported i.e., not all cells carry the retrovirus. Transmission of the
success of cytoplasmic injection of DNA/polylysine transgene is possible only if the retrovirus integrates into
mixtures in producing transgenic animals also examined some of the germ cells. For any of these techniques the
the effects of a number of DNA concentrations and success rate in terms of live birth of animals containing
lysine-to-phosphate ratios on transgenic efficiency. the transgene is extremely low. Providing that the genetic
Thus, cytoplasmic injection of DNA is possible manipulation does not lead to abortion, the result is a first
by this method, although there is a loss of efficiency over
generation (F1) of animals that need to be tested for the
the standard pronuclear injection procedure. This method
expression of the transgene. Depending on the technique
allows the injection of the gene into the zygote even if
used, the F1 generation may result in chimeras. When
the pronuclei are not visible (sheep, pigs, cattle). There
is also the unexplored avenue that injection of DNA/ the transgene has integrated into the germ cells, the so-
polylysine mixtures anywhere in the zygote (including called germ line chimeras are then inbred for 10 to 20
the pronucleus) may yield transgenic animals, thereby generations until homozygous transgenic animals are
allowing trainee injectors a chance to be productive while obtained and the transgene is present in every cell. At
acquiring the skills necessary to complete pronuclear this stage embryos carrying the transgene can be frozen
injection proper. and stored for subsequent implantation.
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Slovak J. Anim. Sci., 43, 2010 (2): 45-49 Minireview
5) Egg white: Egg white, as milk, is an abundant fluid efficiency upon microinjection of DNA into both pronuclei
containing huge amount of proteins and is being of rabbit embryos. Transgenic Res., vol. 14, 2005, p. 417-
secreted out of the body. It is thus expected to be an 428.
excellent system to produce recombinant proteins. Chrenek, P. – Ryban, L. – Vetr, H. – Makarevich,
A. V. – Uhrin, P. – Paleyanda, R. K. – Binder, B. R.
Yet, it has not been implemented so far, essentially for
2007. Expression of recombinant human factor VIII in milk
technical reasons. of several generations of transgenic rabbits. Transgenic
6) Silk worm cocoon: The cocoon of insects contains Res., vol. 16, 2007, p.353-361.
large amount of a few proteins which form silk. Chrenek, P. – Makarevich, A. V. 2008. Transgenic
From this point of view, this system shares a certain rabbits – production and application. Slovak J. Anim. Sci.,
number of properties with milk and egg white. Silk vol. 41, 2008, no. 3, p. 113-120.
worm can be easily reproduced into large number of Houdebine, L. M. 1995. Transgenic animals. Generation and
individuals. It is therefore, a good candidate to be a use. Published in The Netherlands by Harwood Academic
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Houdebine, L. M. 2000. Transgenic animal bioreactors.
Transgenic Res., vol. 9, 2000, p. 305-320.
The mammary gland is probably the most Kupriyanov, S. – Zeh, K. – Baribault, H. 1998. Double
promising target tissue because it produces large amounts pronuclei injection of DNA into zygotes increase yields of
of protein in a temperature-regulated fluid that may be transgenic mouse lines. Transgenic Res., vol. 7, 1998, p.
collected daily in a non-invasive fashion. Transgenic 223-226.
animals are not only cost-effective bioreactors but, Matsumoto, T. – Komori, K. - Shoji, T. – Kuma, S. –
with the complex secretory cell types and organs of Kume, M. – Yamaoka, T. – Mori, E. – Furuyama,
the mammalian organism, can perform much more T. –Yonemitsu, Y. - Sugimachi K. 2001. Successful
complicated protein modifications than simply cultured and optimized in vivo gene transfer to rabbit carotid artery
mediated by electronic pulse. Gene Ther., 2001 Aug;8(15),
cells (Houdebine, 2000).
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Palmiter, R. D. – Brinster, R. L. 1986. Germ-line
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