Study of SQL Queries: ATA Efinition Anguage

STUDY OF SQL QUERIES
DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE
The DDL commands are:
 Create Table
 Alter Table
 Drop Table
 Create View
 Drop View
EMPLOYEE DETAILS:
TABLE STRUCTURE
FIELD NAME DATA TYPE SIZE
EMP_ID NUMBER 4
EMP_NAME ALPHANUMERIC 14
CITY ALPHANUMERIC 14
DESIGNATION ALPHANUMERIC 14
SALARY NUMBER 12
1. Create Command: -
Syntax:
create table < table name> (column-name data type (size) constraints);
Description:
The create command when applied with above specification creates the fields of
different data type.
2. Alter Command:-
Syntax:
a) alter table <table name> add(column-name data type (size));
Description:
The alter command when used with add allows us to add an additional column to an
already existing table.
Syntax:
b) alter table <table name> modify(column-name data type (size));
Description:
The alter command when used with modify redefines the column with the given values but cannot change the
column names.
Syntax:
a) alter table <table name> drop(column-name);
Description:
The alter command when used with drop deletes the specified column in the table.
3. Drop Command:-
Syntax:
Drop Table <Table_Name> ;
Description:
A table can be dropped (deleted) by using a drop table command.
4. Create View Command:-

Syntax:
Create view <view-name > as select <column-name / * > from
<table-name>where <condition>
Description:
A view is named, derived, virtual table. A view takes the output of a query and treats it
as a table; therefore, a view can be thought of as a “stored query “ or a “virtual table”. The
tables upon which a view is based are called base tables.
5. Drop View Command:-

Syntax:
Drop view <view-name>
Description:
A View can be dropped (deleted) by using a drop view command.
6. Truncate Command:
Syntax:
Truncate table <table-name>;
Description:
The details in the table is deleted but the table structure remains.
7. Rename Command :
Syntax:
Rename <oldtable-name> to <newtable-name>;
Description:
The old table name is replaced with the new table name.
PROGRAM TO LEARN DDL COMMANDS
CREATE TABLE:
SQL> create table empp(emp_id number(4),emp_name varchar(14),city varchar(14),designation varchar(14),salary
number(14));
Table created.
SQL> desc empp;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- -----------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
EMP_NAME VARCHAR2(14)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
DESIGNATION VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(14)
ALTER TABLE:
SQL> alter table empp add(doj date,basic number(10,2));
Table altered.
SQL> desc empp;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(14)
DOJ DATE
BASIC NUMBER(10,2)
SQL> alter table empp modify(salary number(8));
Table altered.
SQL> desc empp;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(8)
DOJ DATE
BASIC NUMBER(10,2)
SQL> alter table empp drop(doj,basic);

Table altered.
SQL> desc empp;
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(8)
CREATE VIEW:
SQL> create view emppview as select * from empp;
View created.
SQL> desc empp view;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(8)
DROP VIEW:
SQL> drop view emppview;
View dropped.
SQL> desc emppview;

ERROR:
ORA-04043: object emppview does not exist
DROP TABLE:
SQL> drop table empp;
Table dropped.
TRUNCATE COMMAND:
SQL> truncate table empp;
Table truncated.
SQL>desc empp;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(14)
SQL>rename empp to employ;
Table renamed.
SQL> desc empp;

ERROR:
ORA-04043: object empp does not exist
SQL>desc employ;
Name Null? Type

----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
EMP_ID NUMBER(4)
CITY VARCHAR2(14)
SALARY NUMBER(14)
RESULT:
Thus the DDL command are executed and verified.
DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE
The DML commands are:

 Insert
 Delete
 Update
1. Insert:
Syntax:
Insert into <table-name> values (val1, val2, val3,….,valn);
Description:
The ‘insert into’ command insert the values in the specified table .In the insert into SQL sentence the columns and
values have a one to one relationship (i.e) the first value described into the first column, the second value described being
inserted into the second column and so on.
2. Delete:
Syntax:
Delete from <table-name> [where <condition>];
Description:
The delete in SQL is used to remove rows from table. To remove

1. All the rows from a table.
(Or)
2. A select set of rows from a table.
3. Update:
Syntax:
Update <table-name> set fieldname=<expression> [where condition];
Description:
The update command is used to change or modify data values in a table. To update
1. All the rows from a table.
(Or)
2. A select set of rows from a table.
PROGRAM TO LEARN DML COMMANDS
INSERT COMMAND:
SQL> insert into empp values (&emp_id,'&emp_name','&city','&designation','&salary');
Enter value for emp_id: 100
Enter value for emp_name: james
Enter value for city: bangalore
Enter value for designation: modleader
Enter value for salary: 20000
old 1: insert into empp values (&emp_id,'&emp_name','&city','&designation','&salary')
new 1: insert into empp values(100,'james','bangalore','modleader','20000')
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for emp_name: ganesh
Enter value for city: chennai
Enter value for designation: softengi
old 1: insert into empp values(&emp_id,'&emp_name','&city','&designation','&salary')
new 1: insert into empp values(101,'ganesh','chennai','softengi','21000')
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for emp_name: priya
Enter value for city: calcutta
Enter value for designation: manager
old 1: insert into empp values (&emp_id,'&emp_name','&city','&designation','&salary')
new 1: insert into empp values(103,'priya','calcutta','manager','50000')
1 row created.
SQL> select * from empp;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------
100 james bangalore modleader 20000
101 ganesh chennai softengi 21000
103 priya calcutta manager 50000
UPDATE COMMAND:
SQL> update empp set designation='engineer'where emp_id=101;
1 row updated.

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -----------------
101 ganesh chennai engineer 21000
DELETE COMMAND:
SQL> delete from empp where emp_id=100;
1 row deleted.

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------
RESULT:
Thus the DML commands are executed and verified.
DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

The DQL commands are:
 Select
 Group by
 Having
 Order by
 Null
1. Select Statement:
Syntax:
Select <attribute list> from <table list>[where clause];
Description:
Select command is used to retrieve data from one or more tables or columns. The attribute list is a list of
attributes name whose values are displayed by query. A missing where clause indicate no condition on tuple selection. The
condition is a Boolean expression that identifies the tuples to be retrieved by the query.
Distinct Clause:
Syntax:
Select distinct <column name> from <table name>;
Description:
Displays the distinct values from a table by eliminating the duplicate values. It performs
Grouping of the specified fields when queried with distinct statement.
2. Order By Clause:
Syntax:
Select <column name> from <table name> order by <column name>;
Description:
Order By sorts the output of any specified column or expression. The Order By clause must always have task
in any select statement. The default order is ascending order. we should specify the keyword ‘desc’ if we want it in
descending order.
3. Group By Clause:
Syntax:
Select <column name> from <table name > group by <column name>;
Description:
. The Group By clause specifies the grouping of function to appear in the select clause. So that the value
resulting from group of tuples appear along with the values of grouping attributes are SUM ,AVERAGE , MAX, MIN,
COUNT,STDDEV
4. Having Clause:
Syntax:
Select <column name> from <table name> where <condition>
Group by <condition> having<condition>;
Description:
The ‘having’ clause is used to specify certain conditions on rows, retrieved by using group by clause. This
clause should be preceded by a ‘group by’ clause.
5. Null Command:
Syntax:
Select <column-name> NVL(substitution column,substituted value) from <table name> where <condition>;
Description:
The NVL function helps in substituting the value in the null fields.but this function only displays the change
and does not update the columns.
PROGRAM TO LEARN DQL COMMANDS
SELECT COMMAND:

----------- ------------- ---- -------------- -------------- ---------- ------------
103 kamal coimbatore projlead 40000
104 vishnu bombay ceo 15000
105 kirthika chennai accountant 15000
6 rows selected.
SELECT AND WHERE CLAUSE:
1. List down employee records whose salary is >15000.
SQL> select * from empp where salary>15000;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITYDESIGNATION SALARY

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------
2. List down the emp_id,employee name and salary fields.
SQL> select emp_id,emp_name,salary from empp;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY

---------- -------------- ---------------------------
100 james 20000
101 ganesh 21000
102 priya 50000
103 kamal 40000
104 vishnu 15000
105 kirthika 15000
6 rows selected.
SELECT-ORDER BY:
3. List down the employee salary in ascending order.
SQL> select * from empp order by salary;

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------
6 rows selected.
4. List down the employee salary in descending order.

SQL> select * from empp order by salary desc;

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------
6 rows selected.
SELECT DISTINCT:

----------- ----------------- -------------- -------------- ---------- -------------
106 subu bombay engineer 25000
107 priya bangalore ceo 20000
8 rows selected.
SQL> select distinct city from empp;

CITY
--------------
bangalore
bombay
calcutta
chennai
coimbatore
SELECT – GROUP BY:
SQL> select designation, max(salary) from empp group by designation;
DESIGNATION MAX(SALARY)
-------------- ------------------------------
accountant 15000
ceo 20000
engineer 25000
manager 50000
modleader 20000
projlead 40000
6 rows selected.
SELECT – HAVING CLAUSE:
SQL> select max(salary),min(salary),sum(salary) from empp group by designation having designation='ceo ';
MAX(SALARY) MIN(SALARY) SUM(SALARY)

--------------------------------------- ----------- --------------
20000 15000 35000
NULL COMMAND:

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
107 vijay bangalore ceo 20000
8 rows selected.
SQL> select emp_id,NVL(emp_name,'priya')from empp whereemp_id =107
EMP_ID NVL(EMP_NAME, 'priya')

---------- -------------------------------------
107 priya
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITYDESIGNATION SALARY

---------- -------------- -------------- ------------------------- -------------
107 vijay bangalore ceo 20000
8 rows selected.
BETWEEN CLAUSE:

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
6 rows selected.
SQL> select * from empp where salary between 20000 and 55000;

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ---------------------------
SQL> select * from empp where salary not between 20000 and 55000;

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
IN AND NOT IN PREDICATE:
SQL> select * from empp where city in ('chennai','bombay');

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
SQL> select * from empp where city not in ('chennai','bombay');

---------- ------------- - -------------- -------------- ---------------------------
RESULT:
Thus the DQL commands are executed and verified.
TCL COMMANDS
TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE
The DCL commands are:
 Commit
 Rollback
 Save point
1. COMMIT:
Syntax:
SQL> set auto commit on ;
SQL> set auto commit off ;
SQL>commit ;
Description:
Commit command tells the DBMS to make permanent changes made to temporary copies of the data updating the
permanent database tables to match the updated temporary copies.
2. ROLL BACK:
Syntax:
SQL> rollback ;
Description:
Rollback tells the DBMS to undo any changes made to the DBMS after the most recent commit.
3. SAVE POINT:
Syntax:
SQL>Savepoint<name>;
Description:
Save point are like markers to divide a very lengthy transaction to smaller ones. They are used to identify a point in
transaction to which we can later rollback. Thus savepoint is used in conjunction with rollback to rollback portions of the
current transaction.
PROGRAM TO LEARN TCL COMMANDS

ROLLBACK:
SQL> select * from itemfile;
ITEMCODE ITEMCLOSE PDT_CTGYQTY_HAND RELEVEL MAXLEVEL ITEMRATE

---------------------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 eraser stationary 100 50 200 3
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
3 tomato vegetable 460 54 157 5
4 pen stationary 85 50 80 6
4 rows selected.
SQL> delete from itemfile where itemcode=4;
1 row deleted.
ITEMCODE ITEMCLOSE PDT_CTGY QTY_HAND RELEVEL MAXLEVEL ITEMRATE

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
3 rows delected.
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
COMMIT:
SQL> delete from itemfile where itemcode=4;

1 row deleted.
SQL> commit;
Commit complete.

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
SQL> rollback;
Rollback complete.

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
SAVEPOINT:
SQL> savepoint s1;

Savepoint created.
SQL> update itemfile set itemrate=20 where itemcode=3;

1 row updated.
SQL> savepoint s2;

Savepoint created.
SQL> update itemfile set itemrate=16 where itemcode=1;

1 row updated.

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
SQL> rollback to s2;
Rollback complete.

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
SQL> rollback to s1;
Rollback complete.

---------- -------------- -------------- -------------- ----------------------------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
RESULT:
Thus the DCL commands are executed and verified.
DCL COMMANDS
DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE
The DCL commands are:
 Grant
 Revoke
1. GRANT:
Syntax:
SQL>grant <privileges> on <table name> to user ;
Description:
Grant gives specific SQL statement access or individual data objects to a user or a group of users.
2. REVOKE:
Syntax:
SQL> Revoke <privileges> on <tablename> from user ;
Description:
Revoke removes specific SQL statement access previously granted on individual database objects from a user or
group of users.
PREDICATES:
SQL>select*from itemlist;
CODE ITEM PRICE

-------- -------- ---------
1 Pen 20.5
2 notebook 70.75
3 Bat 99.99
1. ALL
Syntax:
Select*from table_name where column_name >all(column_value)
Example:
Sql>select *from itemlist where code>ALL(I);
CODE ITEM PRICE

-------- -------- ----------
2 Notebook 70.75
3 Bat 99.99
2. SOME:
Syntax
Select column_name from table_name where col_name2>some(selectcolumn_name from table_name where collum
_name3=’value’);
Example:
SQL>select item from itemlist where code>some(select code from itemlist where price=20.5);
ITEM
--------
Notebook
Bat
3. ANY
Syntax:
Select column_name from table name where column_name>any (select column_name from table_name where
column_name=’value’);
Example:
SQL>select item from itemlist where price>any(select price from itemlist where code=2);
ITEM
----------
Bat
4. LIKE
SYNTAX:
Select*from table_name ehere column_name like(‘value’)
Example:
SQL>select *from itemlist where item like(‘P%’);
CODE ITEM PRICE

----------- ------------ -------------
1 PEN 20.5
***************************************************************************
2. ENTITY INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS:
PRIMARY KEY:
Syntax:
Create table table _name (field datatype) constraints <label> primary key(column_name);
SQL> Create table note (id number(6)constraint flo not null, num number(6)primary key);
Table created
SQL> desc note;

NAME NULL? TYPE
-------------- -------------- -------------
ID NOTNULL NUMBER (6)
NUM NOTNULL NUMBER (6)
SQL> create table micky (id number (5),name varchar(6) constraints mouse primary key(id,name));
Table created
NAME NULL? TYPE

---------------- ---------------- ---------------
ID NUMBER (5)
NAME VARCHAR (6)
UNIQUE:
Syntax:
Create table table _name (field datatype) constraints <label> unique (column_name);
SQL> create table jeep (id number(5) constraints van unique);

Table created
SQL> desc jeep;

NAMES NULL? TYPE
---------------- ------------------ -----------------
ID NUMBER (5)
SQL>insert into jeep(&id);
Enter the value for id:4

1 row created
SQL> insert into jeep(&id);
Error at line1:]
REFERENCE INTEGRITY MODEL:
Syntax:
Create table table _name ( datatypes ……..) constraints from references table_name (column_name);
SQL> create table jeep(id number(5)constraint from references jeep(id));

Table created
SQL>desc jeep;
NAME NULL? TYPE
------------ -------------- -------------
ID NUMBER (5)
BUILT-IN FUNCTION
1. Group function or Aggregate function:
Sl.No Function Description

1 AVG Determines the Average of the specified values of column, Ignoring null values.
2 COUNT Determines the total number of values of a specified column.
3 MAX Determines the maximum value of a specified column, ignoring null values.
4 MIN Determines the minimum values of a specified column, ignoring null values.
5 SUM Determines the sum of a specified column, ignoring null values.
6 ATDDEV Determines the standard derivation of a specified column , ignoring null values.
7 VARIANCE Determines the variance of expression , ignoring null values.
2. Character Function:

1 LLOR CONCAT Concatenates two string together changes the first letter of a word or series of words
into upper case.
2 INIT CAP Find the location of character in a string otherwise return 0.
3 INSTR Find the Location of character in a string otherwise return 0.
4 LENGTH Returns the length of a string.
5 LOWER Converts every letter in a string to lower case.
6 UPPER Converts every letter in a string to upper case.
7 LPAD Makes a string a certain length by a adding a certain set of character to the left.
8 RPAD Makes a string a certain length by a adding a certain set of character to the Right.
9 LTRIM Trim all the occurrence of any one of a set of character of the Left side of string.
10 RTRIM Trim all the occurrence of any one of a set of character of the Right side of string.
11 SOUNDEX Finds words that sound like examples.
12 SUBSTR Clip out a piece of a string.
13 CHR Return the character of the specified ASCII values.
14 ASCII Return the ASCII values of the specified character.
15 TRANSLATE Replace the character by character.
16 REPLACE Replace the specified string or character by the existing string or character if that
string in found case sensitive.
3. Number Function:

1 ABS Return absolute values.
2 CELL Smallest integer large than or equal to value.
3 FLOOR Largest integer smaller than or equal to value.
4 SART Returns squares not of the specified by the number.
5 POWER Return power specified by number.
6 SIGN Return-1 of the number is negative;
Return 1 if the number is positive and return 0 if the number is 0.
7 TRUNC Truncates the number after the decimal depending on the specified integer.
8 ROUND Round the expression to the specified number of decimals.
9 EXP Returns e raised to n power.
10 MOD Return module value.
11 LN Nateual Logarithm values.
12 LOL Base 10 Loguith value.
13 VSIZE Storade size of a value.
14 GREATEST Greatest value of a list.
15 LEAST Least value of a llist.
4. Date Function:

1 SYS DATE Returns system date
2 ADD_MONTHS Add or substracts months to or from a date, return date as result.
3 NEXT_DAY Returns the date of next specified day of the week after the date.
4 CASE_DAY Returns the date of the last day of the months specified.
5 MONTHS_BETWEEN Returns number of months between dates.
6 ROUND Round the date d by the specified format, if format is not specified it defaults to ‘DD’.
Which date to the neatest day.
7 TRUNC Rounds the date d truncates to the unit specified by omitted is defaults to ‘DP’ which
truncates to the nearest day.
5. Convertion Function:

1 TO_CHAR Convert the date‘d’ to character format ‘f’.
2 TO_DATE Convert the date‘d’ to date format ‘f’.
3 DECODE Records the specified date to another representation.
4 TO_NUMBER Convert the character to number.
CHARACTER FUNCTION:
SQL> select * from stud;
ROLLNO NAME DEPT MARKS

---------- --------------------------- -------------- ----------
3 mohan cse 50
4 parandha bme 78
5 rajan cse 78
1 kumaran cse 90
2 midhun ece 80
SQL> select upper(name) from stud;
UPPER(NAME)
---------------
MOHAN
PARANDHA
RAJAN
KUMARAN
MIDHUN
SQL> select lower(name) from stud;
LOWER(NAME)
---------------
mohan
parandha
rajan
kumaran
midhun
SQL> select initcap(name) from stud;
INITCAP(NAME)
---------------
Mohan
Parandha
Rajan
Kumaran
Midhun
SQL> select substr('girija',1,4) from dual;
SUBS
----
giri
SQL> select ltrim('welcome','wel') from dual;
LTRI
----
come
SQL> select rtrim('welcome','come') from dual;
RTR
---
wel
SQL> select lpad('welcome',13,'$') from dual;
LPAD('WELCOME
-------------
$$$$$$welcome
SQL> select rpad('welcome',13,'$') from dual;
RPAD('WELCOME
-------------
welcome$$$$$$
SQL> select name from stud where name like 'm%';
NAME
---------------
mohan
midhun
SQL> select replace('jack jill joy','j','b') from dual;
REPLACE('JACK
-------------
back bill boy
SQL> select translate('jack jall joy','ja','b') from dual;
TRANSLATE('
-----------
bck bll boy
DATE FUNCTION:
SQL> select add_months('25-dec-07',4) from dual;
ADD_MONTH
---------
25-APR-08
SQL> select last_day('25-dec-07') from dual;
LAST_DAY(
---------
31-DEC-07
SQL> select months_between('15-dec-07','13-aug-07') from dual;
MONTHS_BETWEEN('15-DEC-07','13-AUG-07')
---------------------------------------
4.06451613
SQL> select next_day('1-jul-07','friday') from dual;
NEXT_DAY(
---------
06-JUL-07
SQL> select greatest('22-may-07','22-dec-07') from dual;
GREATEST(
---------
22-may-07
AGGREGATE FUNCTION:
SQL> select avg(marks) from stud;
AVG(MARKS)
----------
75.2
SQL> select min(marks) from stud;
MIN(MARKS)
----------
50
SQL> select max(marks) from stud;
MAX(MARKS)
----------
90
SQL> select count(marks) from stud;

COUNT(MARKS)
------------
5
SQL> select sum(marks) from stud;

SUM(MARKS)
----------
376
SQL> select stddev(1755) from dual;

STDDEV(1755)
------------
0
SQL> select variance(1755) from dual;

VARIANCE(1755)
--------------
0
NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:
SQL> SELECT ABS(-15) FROM DUAL;
ABS(-15)
----------
15
SQL> select abs(-15) from dual;

ABS(-15)
----------
15
SQL> select power(2,3) from dual;

POWER(2,3)
----------
8
SQL> select round(189.9999,2) from dual;
ROUND(189.9999,2)
-----------------
190
SQL> select trunc(189.9999,2) from dual;
TRUNC(189.9999,2)
-----------------
189.99
SQL> select mod(10,3) from dual;

MOD(10,3)
----------
1
SQL> select sign(16) from dual;
SIGN(16)
----------
1
SQL> select sign(-16) from dual;

SIGN(-16)
----------
-1
SQL> select sin(45) from dual;
SIN(45)
----------
.850903525
SQL> select cos(45) from dual;

COS(45)
----------
.525321989
SQL> select sinh(60) from dual;

SINH(60)
----------
5.7100E+25
SQL> select cosh(60) from dual;

COSH(60)
----------
5.7100E+25
SQL> select ceil(134.78) from dual;

CEIL(134.78)
------------
135
SQL> select floor(134.78) from dual;
FLOOR(134.78)
-------------
134
SQL> select ln(35) from dual;
LN(35)
----------
3.55534806
SQL> select log(10,1000) from dual;
LOG(10,1000)
------------
3
SQL> select sqrt(25) from dual;
SQRT(25)
----------
5
Operators
RELATIONAL/COMPERISON LOGICAL SPECIAL ARITHMETIC SET

OPERATIONS OPERATORS OPERATORS OPERATORS OPERATORS
= AND In + Union
> OR Between - Union all
< NOT Like * Intersect
>= Is / Minus
<= Any
<> All
!= The
Set Operators
1. Union
Description:
Multiple queries can be put together and their output combined using union clause with duplication, the
union clause merges the output of 2 or more queries into single set of rows and columns.
SQL> select c_name from borrower union select c_name from depositor;
C_NAME
----------
adams
curry
hayes
jackson
johnson
jones
lindsay
smith
2. Union All
Description:
Multiple queries can be put together and their output combined using union all clause with duplicate.
SQL> select c_name from borrower union all select c_name from depositor;
C_NAME
----------
adams
curry
hayes
jackson
jones
smith
smith
willams
hayes
johnson
johnson
jones
lindsay
smith
turner
15 rows selected.
3. Intersection
Description:
Multiple queries can be put together and their output combine using union clause intersect clause output
Only rows produced by both the queries intersected.
SQL> select c_name from borrower intersect select c_name from depositor;
C_NAME
----------
hayes
jones
smith
4. Minus
Description:
Multiple queries can be put together and their output can be combines using minus clauses. The minus
Clause output the rows produced by both the first query, after filtering the rows retrieved by second query.
SQL> select c_name from borrower minus select c_name from depositor;
C_NAME
----------
adams
curry
jackson
willams
JOINS AND NESTED QUERIES

AIM:
To study about various joins and nested queries.
JOINS:
Joins queries are used to retrieve data from multiple tables.
TYPES OF JOINS:
1. EQUI JOIN
2. CARTESIAN JOIN
3. OUTER JOIN
 RIGHT OUTER JOIN
 LEFT OUTER JOIN
TABLE STRUCUUTRE:
SQL> select * from empl;
EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY SALARY

------------ ------------------ ---------- ------------
10 Allwin Pdy 50000
20 Evelin Chennai 65000
30 Jesus World 500000
40 Computer Chennai 44000
50 Poornima Pdy 50000
60 Dravid Pdy 50000
6 rows selected.
SQL> select * from dept1;
DEPT_NO EMP_NAME LOCATION

-------------- ----------------- ----------------
30 Jesus World
60 Dravid Chennai
50 Poornima Delhi
20 CPU Compaq
SQL> select * from grade;
GRADE LOWEST_SALARY HIGHEST_SALARY

----------- --------------------------- ---------------------------
1 700 1200
2 1201 1400
3 1401 2000
4 2001 5000
5 10000 50000
6 50000 50001
6 rows selected.
Equi Join:-
Description:-
Equi joins are done by equating tables based on a criteria.It uses ‘=’ symbol.
1)List the employee details with their department name and location.
SQL> select location,salary,dept1.dept_no from empl,dept1 where

empl.emp_name=dept1.emp_name;
LOCATION SALARY DEPT_NO
---------------- ------------ -------------
Chennai 50000 60
World 500000 30
Delhi 50000 50
Cartesian Join:-
Cartesian join is all combination of rows from different tables.
2)List all the different possible rows from emp & dept tables.
SQL> select e.emp_name,e.salary,d.emp_name,d.location from empl e,dept1 d;
EMP_NAME SALARY EMP_NAME LOCATION

--------------- ------------ ----------------- ---------------
Allwin 50000 Jesus World
Evelin 65000 Jesus World
Jesus 500000 Jesus World
Computer 44000 Jesus World
Poornima 50000 Jesus World
Dravid 50000 Jesus World
Allwin 50000 Dravid Chennai
Evelin 65000 Dravid Chennai
Jesus 500000 Dravid Chennai
Computer 44000 Dravid Chennai
Poornima 50000 Dravid Chennai

--------------- ------------ ------------------ ---------------
Dravid 50000 Dravid Chennai
Allwin 50000 Poornima Delhi
Evelin 65000 Poornima Delhi
Jesus 500000 Poornima Delhi
Computer 44000 Poornima Delhi
Poornima 50000 Poornima Delhi
Dravid 50000 Poornima Delhi
Allwin 50000 CPU Compaq
Evelin 65000 CPU Compaq
Jesus 500000 CPU Compaq
Computer 44000 CPU Compaq

--------------- ------------ ----------------- ---------------
Poornima 50000 CPU Compaq
Dravid 50000 CPU Compaq
24 rows selected.
Non Equi Join:-
Non equi joins are other than ‘=’ operator if join is formed using any one of the
relational operators(<,>,!=,<>,>=,<=).
3) List the ename & grade of the employees deprnding on their salary.
SQL> select e.emp_name,g.grade from empl e,grade g where e.salary>=g.lowest_salary

and e.salary<=g.highest_salary;
EMP_NAME GRADE
----------------- ----------
Allwin 5
Computer 5
Poornima 5
Dravid 5
Allwin 6
Poornima 6
Dravid 6
7 rows selected.
Outer Join:-
Description:-
Outer joins retrieves the row returned by equi join as well as the row that do not
match any row from other tables.
Right Outer Join:-
4)a.List the name,department & deptno from emp,dept tables even if the department
contain no employees.
SQL> select e.emp_name,d.emp_name,d.dept_no from empl e,dept1 d where
e.emp_name=d.emp_name(+);
EMP_NAME EMP_NAME DEPT_NO

----------------- ------------------ --------------
Allwin
Computer
Dravid Dravid 60
Evelin
Jesus Jesus 30
Poornima Poornima 50
6 rows selected.
4)b.List the all the field from emp,dept tables even if the department contain no
employees.
SQL> select * from empl natural right outer join dept1;
EMP_NAME EMP_ID CITY SALARY DEPT_NO LOCATION

----------------- ------------ ---------- ------------ --------------- ----------------
Jesus 30 World 500000 30 World
Poornima 50 Pdy 50000 50 Delhi
Dravid 60 Pdy 50000 60 Chennai
CPU 20 Compaq
Left Outer Join:-
SQL> select e.emp_name,d.emp_name,d.dept_no from empl e,dept1 d where

e.emp_name(+)=d.emp_name;
EMP_NAME EMP_NAME DEPT_NO

----------------- ----------------- --------------
CPU 20
Dravid Dravid 60
Jesus Jesus 30
Poornima Poornima 50
SQL> select * from empl natural left outer join dept1;

EMP_NAME EMP_ID CITY SALARY DEPT_NO LOCATION
----------------- ------------ ---------- ------------ --------------- ----------------
Jesus 30 World 500000 30 World
Dravid 60 Pdy 50000 60 Chennai
Poornima 50 Pdy 50000 50 Delhi
Computer 40 Chennai 44000
Allwin 10 Pdy 50000
Evelin 20 Chennai 65000
6 rows selected.
PL/SQL PROGRAMS
1. ADDITION OF TWO NUMBERS

AIM:
To write the PL\SQL program to find the addition of two numbers.
PROGRAM
declare
x integer;
y integer;
z integer;
begin
x:=&x;
y:=&y;
z:=x+y;
dbms_output.put_line('The Sum of two number is ='||z);
end;
OUTPUT :
SQL>/
SQL> set serveroutput on;
Enter value for x: 10

old 6: x:=&x;
new 6: x:=10;
Enter value for y: 20

old 7: y:=&y;
new 7: y:=20;
The Sum of two number is =30
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

RESULT:
Thus the PL\SQL program to find the addition of two numbers are executed and verified.
FACTORIAL OF A NUMBER
AIM:
To write the PL/SQL program to find the factorial of a number.
PROGRAM:
declare
f number:=1;
i number;
n number:=&n;
begin
for i in 1..n
loop
f:=f*i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('The factorial of a given no is:'||f);
end;
SAMPLE INPUT OUTPUT :

SQL>/
Enter value for n: 6
old 4: n number:=&n;
new 4: n number:=6;
The factorial of a given no is:720
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL program to find the factorial of a number is executed and
verified.
PALINDROME
AIM:
To write the PL/SQL program to check whether the given string is a Palindrome.
PROGRAM:
declare
len number;
a integer;
str1 varchar(10):='&str1';
str2 varchar(10);
begin
len:=length(str1);
a:=len;
for i in 1..a
loop
str2:=str2||substr(str1,len,1);
len:=len-1;
end loop;
if (str1=str2) then
dbms_output.put_line(str1 || ' is a palindrome');
else
dbms_output.put_line(str1 || ' not a palindrome');
end if;
end;

SQL>/
Enter value for str1: liril
old 4: str1 varchar(10):='&str1';
new 4: str1 varchar(10):='liril';
liril is a palindrome
SQL> /
Enter value for str1: faith
old 4: str1 varchar(10):='&str1';
new 4: str1 varchar(10):='faith';
faith not a palindrome
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL program to check the given string is a Palindrome or not is
executed and verified.
FIBONACCI
AIM:
To write the PL/SQL program to find the Fibonacci of a given number.
PROGRAM:
declare
i number;
c number;
n number:=&n;
a number:=-1;
b number:=1;
begin
for i in 1..n
loop
c:=a+b;
dbms_output.put_line(c);
a:=b;
b:=c;
end loop;
end;

SQL>/
new 4: n number:=5;
0
1
1
2
3
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL program to find the Fibonacci of a given number is executed and
verified.
SUM OF SERIES
AIM:
To write the PL/SQL program to find the Sum of series.
PROGRAM:
declare
n number:=&n;
i number;
begin
i:=n*(n+1);
n:=i/2;
dbms_output.put_line('The sum of series is:'||n);
end;
(or)
declare
n number;
s number;
i number;
begin
n:=&n;
s:=0;
for i in 1..n
loop
s:=s+i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('sum='||s);
end;

SQL>/
new 2: n number:=5;
The sum of series is:15
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL program to find the Sum of series is executed and verified.
TRIGGERS
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL program using triggers to replicate the record.
TABLE STRUCTURE 1:
Table name: trig11

ROLL NO NUMERIC 3
NAME ALPHANUMERIC 10
MARK1 NUMERIC 3
MARK2 NUMERIC 3
MARK3 NUMERIC 3
SQL> create table trig11(rlno number(3),name varchar(10),mark1 number(3),mark2

number(3),mark3 number(3));
Table created.
TABLE STRUCTURE 1:
Table name: trig12

ROLL NO NUMERIC 3
NAME ALPHANUMERIC 10
MARK1 NUMERIC 3
MARK2 NUMERIC 3
MARK3 NUMERIC 3
SQL> create table trig12(rlno number(3),name varchar(10),mark1 number(3),mark2

number(3),mark3 number(3));
Table created.
PROGRAM:
create or replace trigger cc after insert or delete or update on trig11

for each row
begin
if inserting then
insert into trig12 values(:new.rlno,:new.name,:new.mark1,:new.mark2,:new.mark3);
elsif deleting then
delete from trig12 where rlno=:old.rlno;
else
update trig12 set mark1=:new.mark1,mark2=:new.mark2,mark3=:new.mark3 where
rlno=:old.rlno;
end if;
end;
SAMPLE INPUT OUTPUT:
SQL> /
Trigger created.
SQL> select * from trig11;
RLNO NAME MARK1 MARK2 MARK3

---------- ---------- ---------- -------------------------- ----------
2 ss 78 76 58
3 tt 98 76 54
4 uu 76 56 35
SQL> select * from trig12;

---------- ------ ---- ------------------------- ---------- ----------
2 ss 78 76 58
3 tt 98 76 54
4 uu 76 56 35
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using triggers is executed and verified.
TRIGGERS
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL program to display the old and new values of a record after
updating using triggers.
PROGRAM:
create or replace trigger xxx after update on siva

for each row
begin
dbms_output.put_line('mark1 old value:'||:old.mark1);
dbms_output.put_line('mark2 new value:'||:new.mark1);
end;
SQL>/
Trigger created.
SQL> update siva set mark1=90,mark2=89,mark3=99 where rlno=2;

mark1 old value:99
mark2 new value:90
mark2 old value:78
mark2 new value:89
mark3 old value:67
mark3 new value:99
1 row updated.
SQL> select * from siva;
-------------------------- ----- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 ramya 100 98 87
2 siva 99 78 67
3 sang 75 87 65

---------- --------------------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 ramya 100 98 87
2 siva 90 89 99
3 sang 75 87 65
RESULT:
TRIGGERS
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL program to restrict the entries into the table using triggers.
PROGRAM:
create or replace trigger triggn after insert or delete or update on siva

for each row
begin
if inserting then
raise_application_error(-2006,'insertion not possible');
elsif deleting then
raise_application_error(-2007,'deletion is not possible');
else
raise_application_error(-2008,'updation is not possible');
end if;
end;

---------- ----- ---------- ---------- -------------------------
1 ramya 100 98 87
2 siva 90 89 99
3 sang 90 89 99
SQL> insert into siva values(4,'priya',56,65,67);

1 row created.

--------------------- ------ ----- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 ramya 100 98 87
2 siva 90 89 99
3 sang 90 89 99
4 priya 56 65 67
SQL> /
Trigger created.
SQL> insert into siva values(5,'kavi',78,87,65);

insert into siva values(5,'kavi',78,87,65)
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-21000: error number argument to raise_application_error of -2006 is out of
range
ORA-06512: at "SCOTT.TRIGGN", line 3
ORA-04088: error during execution of trigger 'SCOTT.TRIGGN'
SQL> delete from siva where rlno=4;

delete from siva where rlno=4
*
ERROR at line 1:
range
SQL> update siva set mark1=99 where rlno=4;

update siva set mark1=99 where rlno=4
*
ERROR at line 1:
range
RESULT:
EXCEPTION HANDLING
Error condition in PL/SQL is termed as an exception. There are two types of

Exception. They are
 Predefined Exception
 User-defined Exception
An Exception is raised when an error occurs. In case of an error, normal execution stops
and the control is immediately transferred to the exception handling part of the PL\SQL
block. Predefined Exception is raised automatically by the system during run time,
whereas user-defined exceptions are raised explicitly using RAISE statements.
PREDEFINED EXCEPTION:
Syntax:
Begin
Sequence_of_statements;
Exception
When <exception_name> then
When others then /* the last exception in the exception handler*/
End;
USER-DEFINED EXCEPTION:
User-defined exception should be declared only in the declarative part of the PL/SQL
block.
Syntax:
<exception_name> exception;
The Syntax for a raise statement is as follows.
raise <exception_name>;
USER-DEFINED EXCEPTION
AIM:
To write a userdefined exception handling program using PL/SQL.
PROGRAM:
declare
co number;
exceeds_value exception;
begin
select count(*) into co from employe;
if co <5 then
insert into employe values (&empno,'&empname','&empst',&empsal);
else
raise exceeds_value;
end if;
exception
when exceeds_value then
dbms_output.put_line('rows will not be inserted');
end;
SQL> select * from employe;
EMPNO EMPNAME EMPST SALERY

---------- ------------------------- ---------- ----------
1 radha leader 20000
2 kavi manager 40000
3 malini analyst 14000
4 arthi admin 21000
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 5
Enter value for empname: rajeswari
Enter value for empst: software
Enter value for empsal: 25000
old 7: insert into employe values (&empno,'&empname','&empst',&empsal);
new 7: insert into employe values (5,'rajeswari','software',25000);
SQL> /
Enter value for empno: 6
Enter value for empname: madhavan
Enter value for empst: leader
Enter value for empsal: 24000
old 7: insert into employe values (&empno,'&empname','&empst',&empsal);
new 7: insert into employe values (6,'madhavan','leader',24000);
rows will not be inserted
SQL> select * from employe;
EMPNO EMPNAME EMPST SALERY

---------- ------------------------- ---------- ----------------------
1 radha leader 20000
2 kavi manager 40000
3 malini analyst 14000
4 arthi admin 21000
5 rajeswari software 25000
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using user-defined exception handler is executed
and verified.
PREDEFINED EXCEPTION
AIM:
To write a predefined exception handling program using PL/SQL .
PROGRAM:
declare
empid number(5);
emname varchar(50);
begin
empid:=&empid;
select empname into emname from employe where empno=empid;
dbms_output.put_line('The employe name is:'||emname);
exception
when no_data_found then
dbms_output.put_line('data not found');
end;
Enter value for empid: 1

old 5: empid:=&empid;
new 5: empid:=1;
The employe name is:radha
SQL> /
Enter value for empid: 5
old 5: empid:=&empid;
new 5: empid:=5;
data not found
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using pre-defined exception handler is executed
and verified.
CURSORS
AIM:
Create a PL/SQL block that deletes student’s records whose department is CSE
and display the number of records deleted and the remaining number of records.
PROGRAM:
declare
cursor c is select * from studdd cse;
a c% rowtype;
n number:=0;
begin
open c;
loop
fetch c into a;
exit when c% notfound;
if a.dept='cse' then
delete from studdd where dept='cse';
n:=n+1;
end if;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('Deleted record '||n);
dbms_output.put_line('Remaining records '||(c% rowcount-n));
close c;
commit;
end;
SQL> /
Deleted record 2
Remaining records 3
SQL> select * from studdd;
RLNO NAME DEPT

---------- -------- ------
1 abhilash cse
2 kamala eee
3 mareesh bme
4 samson cse
5 saranya it
7 rows selected.
SQL> select * from studdd;
RLNO NAME DEPT

---------- -------- ------
2 kamala eee
3 mareesh bme
5 saranya it
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using cursor is executed and verified.
CURSORS
AIM:
Create a PL/SQL block to determine the top 5 scores from the student table and to
insert these records into a new table.
PROGRAM:
declare
cursor c is select * from studddd order by total desc;
a studddd % rowtype;
n number:=0;
begin
open c;
loop
fetch c into a;
exit when c% notfound or c% rowcount>5;
insert into detail1 values(a.rollno,a.name,a.dept,a.total);
end loop;
close c;
commit;
end;
SQL>/
SQL> select * from studddd;
ROLLNO NAME DEPT TOTAL

---------- -------- -----------------------------
1 sv cse 287
2 archu cse 289
3 rekka cse 290
4 aarthi cse 280
5 thamarai it 300
6 tharani bme 150
7 ranjani cse 200
7 rows selected.
SQL> select * from detail1;
ROLLNO NAME DEPT TOTAL

---------- -------- ------ ----------
5 thamarai it 300
3 rekka cse 290
2 archu cse 289
1 sv cse 287
4 aarthi cse 280
RESULT:
CURSORS
AIM:
Create a PL/SQL block to update the total and grade of the student table by
comparing marks in the individual subject.
PROGRAM:
declare
cursor c is select * from studdd1;
a c% rowtype;
tot number;
g char;
begin
open c;
loop
fetch c into a;
exit when c% notfound;
tot:=a.m1+a.m2+a.m3;
if a.m1>50 and a.m2>50 and a.m3>50 then
g:='H';
else
g:='F';
end if;
update studdd2 set total=tot,grade=g where rollno=a.rollno;
end loop;
commit;
close c;
end;
SQL> /
SQL> select * from studdd1;
ROLLNO NAME M1 M2 M3
--------------------------- -------- ---------- ---------- ----------
1 svs 60 67 67
2 rekka 56 67 78
3 archu 78 45 30
SQL> alter table studdd1 add(total number,grade varchar(6));

Table altered.
SQL> desc studdd1;

Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------- -------- ----------------------------
ROLLNO NUMBER(7)
NAME VARCHAR2(8)
M1 NUMBER(8)
M2 NUMBER(8)
M3 NUMBER(8)
TOTAL NUMBER
GRADE VARCHAR2(6)
SQL> select * from studdd1;
ROLLNO NAME M1 M2 M3 TOTAL GRADE

---------- -------- ---------- ----------------------- ---------- ---------- ------
1 svs 60 67 67 194 H
2 rekka 56 67 78 201 H
3 archu 78 45 30 153 F
RESULT:
A Function is a subprogram that computes a value. The syntax for

creating a function is given below.
Create or replace function < function_name > [ argument ]

return datatype is
(local declaration)
Begin
(executable statements)
[Exception]
(exception handlers)
end;
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL block using function to check whether the quantity on hand and
reorder level exceeded the maximum level.
PROGRAM:
create or replace function items(it varchar2)

return number is
args number;
qtyhand number;
relevel number;
maxlevel number;
begin
select q_hand,re_level,max_level into qtyhand,relevel,maxlevel from itemfile
where icode=it;
if(qtyhand+relevel)>maxlevel then
args:=maxlevel;
return args;
else
args:=(qtyhand+relevel);
return args;
end if;
end;
SQL>/
Function created.
SQL> declare
a varchar2(5);
b number;
begin
a:='&a';
b:=items(a);
dbms_output.put_line('the values returned is ' || b);
end;

SQL>/
Enter value for a: i201
old 5: a:='&a';
new 5: a:='i201';
the values returned is 90
ICODE IDESC P_CATGORY Q_HAND RE_LEVEL MAX_LEVEL I_RATE

---------- ---------- --------------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ------------ ------- -----------
i201 nuts spares 40 50 300 12
i202 bolts spares 246 125 300 16.5
i204 holders spares 120 30 75 112
i205 covers accessories 246 15 50 400
i203 panels accessories 246 30 150 4000
i206 brackets spares 246 73 200 132

6 rows selected.
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using function is executed and verified
FUNCTION
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL block using function to find the grade of the student using
cursors.
PROGRAM:
SQL> create or replace function grade(m1 number,m2 number,m3 number)
return char is
begin
if m1>50 and m2>50 and m3>50 then
return 'PASS';
else
return 'FAIL';
end if;
end;
SQL> /
Function created.
SQL> declare
cursor c is select id,m1,m2,m3 from student;
a c%rowtype;
begin
open c;
loop
fetch c into a;
exit when c%notfound;
update student set grade=grade(a.m1,a.m2,a.m3) where id=a.id;
end loop;
commit;
close c;
end;
SQL>/
SQL> select * from student;
ID M1 M2 M3 TOTAL GRADE
-----------------------------------------------------------------
cs01 45 90 50 185
cs02 90 70 60 220
cs03 60 50 45 155
cs04 70 80 70 220
cs05 50 40 40 130
SQL> select * from student;
ID M1 M2 M3 TOTAL GRADE
----------------------------------------------------------------
cs01 45 90 50 185 FAIL
cs02 90 70 60 220 PASS
cs03 60 50 45 55 FAIL
cs04 70 80 70 220 PASS
cs05 50 40 40 130 FAIL
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using function is executed and verified
PROCEDURE
A procedure is a subprogram that performs a specific action.
SYNTAX:
Create or replace procedure <proc_name>[parameter list]is

<local declaration>
Begin
[exception] (exception handlers)
End;
NOTE:
While declaring variables in the declarative part of the procedure body,we should
not specify the width of the datatype.
Eg.
Procedure pro(name char(40)) is
Begin
(set of statements);
End;
In the above example,char(40) should be replaced by char.
SYNTAX TO EXECUTE:
Sql>exec <proc_name>(parameters);
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL block to check whether the quantity on hand is less than the
reorder level then order more quantity of the item and update the table so that the changes
are reflected using procedure(in mode).
PROGRAM:
create or replace procedure itemfiles(orders in number) is

qtyhand number;
re_level number;
max_level number;
begin
select qty_hand,relevel,maxlevel into qtyhand,re_level,max_level from itemfile where
itemcode=orders;
if qtyhand<re_level then
update itemfile set qty_hand=re_level+qtyhand where itemcode=orders;
else
dbms_output.put_line('itemlevel ok');
end if;
exception
dbms_output.put_line('no data returned');
end ;
SQL> /
Procedure created.
SQL> exec itemfiles(2);

itemlevel ok
ITEMCODE ITEMCLOSE PDT_CTGY QTY_HAND RELEVEL MAXLEVEL

ITEMRATE
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
2 chain fancy 150 98 200 25
SQL> exec itemfiles(4);


ITEMRATE
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ----------
2 chain fancy 150 98 200 25
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using procedure is executed and verified.
PROCEDURE
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL block to check whether the quantity on hand is less than the
reorder level then order more quantity of the item and update the table so that the changes
are reflected using procedure(in & out mode).
PROGRAM:
create or replace procedure itemfiles(orders number,b out number) is

qtyhand number;
re_level number;
max_level number;
begin
select qty_hand,relevel,maxlevel into qtyhand,re_level,max_level from itemfile where
itemcode=orders;
if qtyhand<re_level then
b:=re_level+qtyhand ;
else
dbms_output.put_line('itemlevel ok');
end if;
exception
dbms_output.put_line('no data returned');
end ;
SQL>/
Procedure created.

ITEMRATE
---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- -----------
2 chain fancy 40 98 200 25
declare
a number:=&a;
b number;
begin
itemfiles(a,b);
dbms_output.put_line('The value of b is :'||to_char(b));
end;
SQL>/
Enter value for a: 2
old 2: a number:=&a;
new 2: a number:=2;
The value of b is :138
RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using procedure is executed and verified.
PACKAGES
Package Specification:
Syntax:
Create package <package_name> is <declaration>
Begin
End [package_name]
Package Body
Syntax:
Create package body <package_name> is declaration>
Begin
End [body_name];
AIM:
To write a PL/SQL package that contains a procedure and functions to check

whether the given number is a prime or not; odd or even and positive or negative.
PROGRAM:
Package Specification:
create or replace package packs is
procedure display;
function prime(n number)return varchar;
function odd(n number)return varchar;
function positive(n number)return varchar;
end packs;
SQL>/
Package created.
Package Body
create or replace package body packs as
procedure display is
a varchar(15);
m number;
begin
m:=&m;
a:=prime(m);
if a='prime' then
dbms_output.put_line(m || 'is a prime');
else
dbms_output.put_line(m || 'is not prime');
end if;
a:=odd(m);
if a='odd' then
dbms_output.put_line(m || 'is odd');
else
dbms_output.put_line(m || 'is even');
end if;
a:=positive(m);
if a='positive' then
dbms_output.put_line(m || 'is a positive number');
else
dbms_output.put_line(m || 'is a negative number');
end if;
end display;
function prime(n number)return varchar is
i number;
flag number;
begin
flag:=0;
for i in 2..n/2
loop
if mod(n,i)=0 then
flag:=1;
return 'Not prime';
end if;
end loop;
if flag=0 then
return 'prime';
end if;
end prime;
function odd(n number)return varchar is
begin
if mod(n,2)=0 then
return 'even';
else
return 'odd';
end if;
end odd;
function positive(n number)return varchar is
begin
if n>0 then
return 'positive';
else
return 'negative';
end if;
end positive;
end packs;

SQL> /
Enter value for m: 7
old 6: m:=&m;
new 6: m:=7;
Package body created.
SQL> exec packs.display;

7is a prime
7is odd
7is a positive number

RESULT:
Thus the PL/SQL block program using package is executed and verified.

Study of SQL Queries: ATA Efinition Anguage

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STUDY OF SQL QUERIES

DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE

The DDL commands are:

FIELD NAME DATA TYPE SIZE

4. Create View Command:-

5. Drop View Command:-

SQL> desc empp;

Name Null? Type

SQL> desc empp;

Name Null? Type

SQL> alter table empp modify(salary number(8));

SQL> desc empp;

Name Null? Type

SQL> alter table empp drop(doj,basic);

SQL> desc empp view;

Name Null? Type

SQL> desc emppview;

Name Null? Type

SQL> desc empp;

Name Null? Type

The DML commands are:

Insert into <table-name> values (val1, val2, val3,….,valn);

Delete from <table-name> [where <condition>];

The delete in SQL is used to remove rows from table. To remove

Update <table-name> set fieldname=<expression> [where condition];

PROGRAM TO LEARN DML COMMANDS

SQL> select * from empp;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

SQL> select * from empp;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

SQL> select * from empp;

DATA QUERY LANGUAGE

PROGRAM TO LEARN DQL COMMANDS

SQL> select * from empp;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

101 ganesh chennai engineer 21000

102 priya calcutta manager 50000

103 kamal coimbatore projlead 40000

104 vishnu bombay ceo 15000

105 kirthika chennai accountant 15000

SELECT AND WHERE CLAUSE:

1. List down employee records whose salary is >15000.

SQL> select * from empp where salary>15000;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITYDESIGNATION SALARY

2. List down the emp_id,employee name and salary fields.

SQL> select emp_id,emp_name,salary from empp;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME SALARY

3. List down the employee salary in ascending order.

SQL> select * from empp order by salary;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

4. List down the employee salary in descending order.

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

SQL> select * from empp;

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

SQL> select distinct city from empp;

SELECT – GROUP BY:

SQL> select designation, max(salary) from empp group by designation;

SELECT – HAVING CLAUSE:

MAX(SALARY) MIN(SALARY) SUM(SALARY)

EMP_ID EMP_NAME CITY DESIGNATION SALARY

SQL> select emp_id,NVL(emp_name,'priya')from empp whereemp_id =107

EMP_ID NVL(EMP_NAME, 'priya')