-The problem with pump

All about specific speed How to read a pump curve?

standards
Why prime a centrifugal pump? The oversized pump Understanding the system curve
Calculating the total system
How efficient is your pump? Piping system for pumps
head
What do we mean by pump Prevent potential seal and Estimating the shutoff head for
efficiency? pump problems pumps
Calculate the water HP coming
Rules of thumb for pumps Rules of thumb for seals
out of pump
A new technique of The best pump and seal Operational practices to avoid
troubleshooting technology? problems
Pumps does not develop Pump does not give enough Pump selection practices leads
enough head? flow? to problems
OSHA 1910 regulation

The problem with pump standards:

A Quick check of existing pump standards will reveal that there are a variety of
them. The list includes:

• Hydraulic Institute Standards

• American National Institute Standards for Chemical Pumps :
o B73.1 for Horizontal type.
o B73.2 for Vertical Inline
• API 610 for centrifugal Pumps
• API 674 for Reciprocating Pumps
• API 675 for Controlled Volume Pumps
• API 676 for Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps
• ISO aimed at the medium duty single stage pumps ( Metric)
• DIN. West German standard
• VDMA West German standard for pump seals.

There are two problems with these standards:

• They were written for pumps equipped with jam packing. Most of the standards
were written in the nineteen fifties at a time mechanical seals were not popular. In
those days we had a lack of the modern materials that make mechanical seals
practical. As an example Viton® was not invented until 1958 and did not come
into general use until the sixties. Kalrez® did not come out until 1975 and in the
eighties the duplex metals came into their own.
• The customer believes that by purchasing a standard design he is getting a good
pump. Customers have the same problem with pump efficiency. They believe
there is a correlation between efficiency and the quality of the pump, needless to
say there is none! Problems caused by these standards are reflected in continual
poor seal performance. The fact of the matter is that these standards reflect only
an attempt to standardize envelope (outside) dimensions, nothing more!

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Unfortunately standardizing the length of pumps prevented manufacturers from
designing short shafts that were not prone to the bending problems associated
with low cost A.N.S.I. and I.S.O. design pumps, operating off of their best
efficiency point (B.E.P).

Here is a list of some of the modifications you should make to your standard
A.N.S.I. or I.S.O. pump if you want to get good mechanical seal and bearing life.
Unless you are prepared to upgrade the pump seal and bearing life will always
be less than desirable

WHAT TO MODIFY

• The stuffing box bore is too small for mechanical seals. In most cases there is not
enough material to bore out so you will have to make or purchase a replacement
part. Most of these standard stuffing boxes were designed for 3/8" or 10 mm.
packing. You need at least 1" (25 mm.) radial clearance to take advantage of
centrifugal force throwing solids away from the seal faces.
• When using mechanical seals install a recirculation line from the bottom of the
stuffing box back to the suction of the pump. Try to tap the box as close to the
face as possible to insure good circulation. Most quality seals come with this
connection already installed in the gland.
• Because packing needs lubrication, the pump came equipped with a line from the
discharge side to the stuffing box lantern ring connection. If you install a large
sealing chamber in place of the narrow packing stuffing box that came as original
equipment you should be able to eliminate almost all need for clean flushing
liquid in the seal area. The only exception to this is if you are pumping a fluid
close to its vaporization point. In that instance you do not want to lower stuffing
box pressure because of the possibility of vaporizing the fluid in the stuffing box
and possibly blowing open the seal faces
• Convert to Cartridge or Split Seals to insure correct seal installation and allow
proper impeller settings in "Back Pull Out" or other types of pump designs.
• If you are using single stage centrifugal pumps convert to solid shafts with a low
L3/D4 ratio to resist shaft bending. The back pull out design was made for easy
sleeve removal. If you are using good mechanical seals, corrosion resistant shaft
materials and labyrinth oil seals or positive bearing seals, there should be no need
to replace pump shafts.
• Pump manufacturers are not required to provide L3/D4 ratio numbers that would
predict shaft bending problems with their pump. The relationship between shaft
size and shaft diameter is expressed in the ratio L3/D4. Try to keep it below 60
(2.5 Metric)
o "L" is the distance from the center of the inboard bearing to the center of
the impeller (inches).
o "D" is the diameter of the shaft in the stuffing box area.(inches).
• Substitute labyrinth or positive face seals for the lip or grease seals that are
installed in the bearing case. They will not only do a better job of keeping
contaminants out of the bearing oil/grease, but they will not damage the

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 expensive shaft. These seals also make sense in the motors to eliminate moisture
from damaging the windings and contaminating the lubricating grease.
• Use only non- fretting mechanical seals. Shafts are too costly not to pay attention
to this.
• The easiest way to get pump/motor alignment is with a "C" (inch) or "D" (metric)
frame adapter. If you elect not to use the adapter you are in for a long process
aligning the pump and driver correctly, and unless you are using split mechanical
seals you are going to have to go through the procedure each time you change
seals. You should be able to get the C or D frame adapter as part of your next
power frame change or upgrade.
• Convert to a "Center Line" wet end if you are pumping liquids in excess of 200
degrees Fahrenheit (100 Centigrade) It will allow the suction flange to expand
without causing pipe strain and wear ring damage.
• Do not use a vent on the bearing cavity of the pump. Each time the pump stops
the vent will allow moisture to enter the bearing cavity as the oil cools down (this
is called aspiration). You are much better off positively sealing the casing and
installing an expansion chamber on the top of the casing to allow for air
expansion.
• If you intend to use a closed impeller, end suction, centrifugal pump try to convert
to a design that has adjustable wear rings
• Install a sight glass to be sure that the oil level is at the correct height. Too much
oil is as bad as not enough. If you have a positive pressure oil mist system be sure
that it does not vent to atmosphere. Oil mist systems require mechanical seals
outboard of the bearings to prevent atmosphere contamination. If you have
installed labyrinth seals, they will almost guarantee the correct oil level because
excess oil will spill out of the labyrinth.
• Coat the inside of the bearing case with a suitable protective covering to prevent
rusting and the leaching out of harmful substances from the bearing casting.
• Install magnetic plugs into the bottom of the bearing casing to attract loose metal
shavings that would damage the bearings.
• Specify double volute designs any time the impeller diameter is 14" (356 mm.) or
greater to prevent shaft deflection. Smaller size pumps do not lend themselves to
this modification.
• Convert to a "Vortex" pump volute any time you are pumping liquid that contains
lots of solids. Although the pump efficiency will be lower than conventional
designs, the increased service life will more than compensate.
• At overhaul time substitute a medium or heavy weight power end for the light
weight version that came with the pump and get most of the features we have
discussed. Medium and heavy weight power ends are available for most popular
pump brands.

In addition to these modifications mentioned here are some recommendations to

help insure good seal and bearing life.

• Since a seal failure is the most common reason for shutting down a pump, Install
a back up seal and convection tank to prevent unexpected shut downs.

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 • Change the bearing oil on a regular basis. Contact your favorite oil supplier for
his recommendation and then follow his advice. If the inside of the bearing frame
has been coated with a protective material to prevent rusting, avoid synthetic oils
as their detergent action can damage these protective coatings.
• Maintain the proper oil level. Too much is just as bad as not enough.
• Trim the impeller to obtain operation at the B.E.P. Throttling the pump discharge
is not the same thing.
• If you are using open impellers, keep them adjusted to the correct clearance.
• Install bearings by expanding the bore with an induction coil. Heating the bearing
in a pan of warm oil is not a good idea because the oil can easily be contaminated.
• Install pressure gages on the suction and discharge of the pump. This is the only
way to tell if the pump is running near its B.E.P.
• Do not specify Canned or Magnetic Pumps if the pumping fluid contains solids or
if it is a poor lubricant.

Pumps equipped with a "repeller" and some sort of static seal can usually be
converted to a good mechanical seal. The problem with the repeller design is that
in most of the designs the seal faces are designed to open when the pump is
running and then close on any solids as the pump stops. The rule with
mechanical seals is a simple one. "Keep the seal faces together" . Do not open
them on purpose.

O.S.H.A. 1910 REGULATION

The regulation is predictably vague, and presently only applies to pressure vessels, storage tanks,
processing piping, relief and vent systems, fire protection system components, emergency shut
down systems, alarms, interlocks and the part that is important to you, pumps . For the first time
Washington is telling the pump user that he has to now document the training he provides to
those people (including contractors) that will be operating or repairing his pumps. Be sure to pick
up a copy of this regulation for your library.

Here are some of the ingredients you will find in the regulation:

• The chemicals in the O.S.H.A. # 1910 specification are different than those chemicals
identified by the E.P.A. for fugitive emission consideration. The O.S.H.A. list identifies
those chemicals that are considered "extremely hazardous" chemicals. O.S.H.A. feels
that the general industry standards are not sufficient for these chemicals
• Your employer is going to have to create a Process Safety Management audit team
(PSM) that will audit company training programs along with insuring that present and
future engineering practices conform to accepted standards and codes.
• The employer is going to have to identify the codes and standards he relied upon to
establish his engineering practices. If he departs from these codes and standards, he
must document that the design and construction are suitable for the intended purpose.
• The written training programs must be reviewed for adequacy of content, frequency of
training, and the effectiveness of the training in terms of goals and objectives. These
training programs must be revised if after the training the employee is not at the level of
skill or knowledge that was expected.

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 • Contract employees must also receive updated and current training.
• If an accident occurs, the plant is going to have to prove that their training program was
adequate.
• Any mechanical changes made by the maintenance department have to be evaluated to
determine whether operating procedures and practices also need to be changed. The
term "Change" includes all modifications to equipment.
• For existing processes that have been shut down for turnaround or modification, the
employer must ensure that any changes other than "replacement in kind" made to the
process during shutdown go through the management of change procedures.
• Equipment installation jobs need to be properly inspected in the field for use of proper
materials and procedures to insure that qualified workers do the job.
• The employer must ensure that the contractor has the appropriate job skills, knowledge,
and certification.
• The regulations require detailed records of every action taken in maintaining or rebuilding
a pump. The employer must identify which procedures were followed and why he elected
to use those procedures. He must also identify the training that maintenance personnel
had on repairing pumps in that service.
• Equipment used to process, store or handle hazardous chemicals has to be designed,
constructed, installed and maintained to minimize the risk of release of such chemicals.
• The employer must prepare three lines of defense to prevent hazardous chemical from
injuring personnel:
o Contain the chemical in the equipment. The use of two mechanical seals and a
convection tank is a good example of containing the chemical.
o Control the release of the chemicals through venting with a seal quench and vent
connection to a scrubber or flare, or to surge or overflow tanks designed to
receive such chemicals. Dikes or designed drainage systems would be another
alternative.
o A sensible evacuation system is the third line of defense.

If an accident happens and any of the listed chemicals are released to the environment, the
employer is going to have to prove he did every thing he could have to prevent the accident and
contain the spill. If O.S.H.A. does not agree with his assessment, the employer is likely to suffer
stiff penalties.

Since you have knowledge that 90% of mechanical seals are failing prematurely (the carbon
sacrificial face is not wearing out) I expect this new regulation should encourage your employer to
send more people to seal and pump schools and enroll his engineering, maintenance, and
supervisory people in an appropriate certification training program.

Why you must prime a centrifugal pump

Although the term "pressure" is not normally a part of a centrifugal pump man's
vocabulary, we are going to have to discuss it for a couple of minutes.

The earth's atmosphere extends approximately fifty miles (80 Km.) above the
earth, and rests on the earth with a weight equivalent to a layer of fresh water
thirty four feet (10 meters) deep at sea level. To remove air from the pump
cavities and the suction piping, the pump must develop enough head to equal the
equivalent of this 14.7 psi., or one bar pressure. In an earlier paper we learned

5
how to convert this height (head) to a pressure reading by use of the following
formulas:

34 Ft./2.31 = 14.7 Psi.

10 Meters/10 = 1 Bar

Unlike a positive displacement pump that can pump a liquid to any head as long
as the pump body is strong enough, and there is enough horsepower available,
the centrifugal pump can only pump a liquid to its rated head. You will recall that
this head was determined by, and limited to the diameter of the impeller and the
impeller speed (rpm.)

Since the weight of water is approximately 8000 times that of air (50 miles vs. 34
feet or 80 Km. vs. 10 meters) the centrifugal pump can produce only 1/8000 of its
rated liquid pressure. In other words, for every one foot water has to be raised to
prime the pump, the centrifugal pump must produce a discharge head of
approximately 8000 feet (each meter requires a head of 8000 meters) and that is
impossible with conventional impeller diameters and speeds.

All of this means that if you intend to use a centrifugal pump you are going to
have to come up with some sensible method of priming it. Your choices will
include :

• Install a foot valve in the suction piping to insure the liquid will not drain from the
pump casing and suction piping. Keep in mind that these valves have a nasty
habit of leaking.
• Evacuate the air in the system with a positive displacement priming pump
operating between the pump and a closed discharge valve.
• Fill the pump with liquid prior to starting it.
• Convert the application to a self priming pump that maintains a reservoir of liquid
at its suction.

How efficient is your pump?

A few years ago, efficiency became "the name of the game". Automotive
companies advertised "miles per gallon (liters per 100 kilometers) information in
their advertisements and appliance manufacturers published kilowatt
consumption numbers along with their pricing information.

Unfortunately high efficiency also means higher maintenance costs because you
are required to maintain tighter tolerances and keep the flow passages smooth
and free from obstructions. The demise of the double volute pump design in
smaller size pumps, is a perfect example of the increase in mechanical seal
problems as the efficiency of the volute pump was increased to satisfy consumer
demand.

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Maybe the "trade off" is acceptable as long as you are dealing with accurate
numbers, but are you really doing that? Is the efficiency shown on the pump
curve accurate? How was the data taken? What was included in the data, and
more important, what was left out? As an example:

• Was the data generated on a dynamometer with a constant speed motor?

• Are you going to run at the same speed as shown on the performance curve, or are
you running with an induction motor that slips 2% to 5% and you are not sure of
the actual speed? Horse power (K.W.) varies as the cube of the change in speed at
the best efficiency point, so a small variation in speed can make a big difference
in efficiency.
• Was the published efficiency data generated with a seal or packing in the stuffing
box? The type of packing or seal used can alter the load they consume.
• Was there an elbow at the suction of the pump?
• Was the inside of the volute polished or coated with a low friction material when
the test was made?
• How were the bearings lubricated, and were all of the losses considered in the
published numbers?
• The final numbers will vary with the motor efficiency, and that will vary with the
load on the motor.

If you would like to keep the pump salesman honest, take the data from his pump
curve and then make the following calculation:

In inch sizes : GPM x TDH / 3960 = WHP

• GPM = Gallon per minute at the best efficiency point

• TDH = Total discharge head (measured in feet), as shown on the pump
curve&emdash; at the best efficiency point)
• WHP = Water horse power, or the amount of horse power the pump is generating.

If we refer to the above pump curve, and insert the numbers into our formula, we
would get:

7
in inch size: GPM x TDH / 3960 = 250 X 300 / 3960 = 18.9

You then divide this number by the efficiency shown on the pump curve:

18.9 / .60 = 31.5 horsepower required to generate the WHP. If this number is
lower than the horsepower shown on the performance curves, the efficiency date
is questionable. As an example:

If the performance curve showed a requirement for 40 Horse power, the actual
efficiency would be 18.9 water horse power40 pump horsepower = .47 or 47%
actual efficiency.

Doing the same thing in the metric system we would get:

• M3/ HR = Cubic meters per hour of capacity as measured at the best efficiency
point on the pump curve.
• TDH = Total discharge head, in meters, at the best efficiency point.
• WKW = Water kilowatts of power being generated by the pump.

Referring to the above diagram, and putting in the numbers :

M3 / HR X TDH / 360 = 68 x 76 / 360 = 14.36 WKW. The curve shows a 60%

efficiency so:

14.36 water kilowatts / 0.60 efficiency = 23.93 Kilowatts required. If this number
is lower than shown on the pump performance curve, the efficiency of the plump
is questionable. As an example:

If the pump performance curve showed a requirement for a 30 Kilowatt input, the
actual efficiency would be:

14.36 water horse power / 30 Kilowatts required = 48 % actual efficiency.

The fact of the matter is that you seldom operate at the best efficiency point so
the numbers become even more depressing. The point is that efficiency should
only be one of the points taken into consideration when you purchase a
centrifugal pump of a given head, material and capacity. Equally if not more
important should be:

• The L3/D4 number of the shaft. Is the number below 60 in inch sizes or 2 in metric?
• What kind of mechanical seal is installed? Will it seal fugitive emissions?
• How are the bearings being lubricated?
• How are the bearings sealed? Will the seal damage the expensive shaft?

8
 • How is the thrust bearing being retained? In operation the impeller thrusts towards
the volute. Are you relying upon a simple snap ring?
• Is the pump a centerline design? It should be if the product you are pumping is
greater than 200°F (100 C.)
• Is the bearing case vented to atmosphere? If it is, it will allow moisture to
penetrate when the pump stops.
• Has a "C" or "D" frame adapter been installed to reduce alignment time?
• Can the wear rings or open impeller be easily adjusted to compensate for normal
wear so that you can keep the efficiency you paid for?
• Can the seal compensate for thermal growth, or impeller adjustment?

You can save money by lowering operating costs (efficiency) or increasing the
time between repairs (design). Be sure you consider both when you make your
pump buying decision.

What do we mean by pump efficiency?

When we talk about automobiles and discuss efficiency, we mean how many
miles per gallon, or liters per 100 kilometers. When we discuss centrifugal pumps
we are comparing the amount of work or power we get out of the pump to the
amount of power we are putting into the pump. As an example:

How do we measure the horsepower or kilowatts coming out of the pump? All we
have to do is multiply the pump head by the weight of the liquid being pumped,
and then use a simple conversion number. Let's take an example:

Flow = 300 gallons per minute of fresh water as measured coming from the pump
discharge.

Head = 160 feet. We measured it at the discharge side of the pump and
corrected it for the fact that the gage was two feet above the pump center line.
Look at the following diagram where we have calculated the discharge head from
the formula shown on the right hand side of the illustration. If there were any
positive head on the suction side of the pump that head would have to be
subtracted. A negative suction head would be added to the discharge head.

9
The centrifugal pump pumps the difference between the suction and the
discharge heads. There are three kinds of discharge head:

• Static head. The height we are pumping to, or the height to the discharge piping
outlet that is filling the tank from the top. Note: that if you are filling the tank
from the bottom, the static head will be constantly changing.
• Pressure head. If we are pumping to a pressurized vessel (like a boiler) we must
convert the pressure units (psi. or Kg.) to head units (feet or meters).
• System or dynamic head. Caused by friction in the pipes, fittings, and system
components. We get this number by making the calculations from published
charts ( non included in this paper, but available in the chart section of this web
site).

Suction head is measured the same way.

• If the liquid level is above the pump center line, that level is a positive suction
head. If the pump is lifting a liquid level from below its center line, it is a
negative suction head.
• If the pump is pumping liquid from a pressurized vessel, you must convert this
pressure to a positive suction head. A vacuum in the tank would be converted to a
negative suction head.
• Friction in the pipes, fittings, and associated hardware is a negative suction head.
• Negative suction heads are added to the pump discharge head, positive suctions
heads are subtracted from the pump discharge head.

Here is the formula for measuring the horsepower out of the pump:

10
Remember that we are using the actual horsepower or kilowatts going into the
pump and not the horsepower or kilowatts required by the electric motor. Most
motors run some where near 85% efficient.

An 85% efficient motor turning a 76% efficient pump, gives you a real efficiency
of 0 .85 x 0.76 = 0 .65 or 65% efficient.

A survey of popular pump brands demonstrates that pump efficiencies range

from 15% to over 90%. The question then arises, "Is this very wide range due to
poor selection, poor design, or some other variable which would interfere with
good performance?" The best available evidence suggests that pump efficiency
is directly related to " the specific speed number " with efficiencies dropping
dramatically below a number of 1000 . Testing also shows that smaller capacity
pumps exhibit lower efficiencies than higher capacity designs.

Now that we have learned that pump efficiency is closely related to the shape of
the impeller, and the impeller shape is usually dictated by the operating
conditions, you should be aware of various conditions that decrease the
efficiency of your pump. These would include:

11
 • Packing generates approximately six times as much heat as a balanced mechanical
seal.
• Wear rings and impeller clearances are critical. Anything that causes these
tolerances to open will cause internal recirculation that is wasting power as the
fluid is returned to the suction of the pump. If the wear ring is rubbing, the
generated heat is consuming power.
• A bypass line installed from the discharge side of the pump to the suction piping.
The heat generated from this recirculation can, in some cases, cause pump
cavitation as it heats the incoming liquid.
• A double volute design pump restricts the discharge passage lowering the overall
efficiency.
• Running the pump with a throttled discharge valve.
• Eroded or corroded internal pump passages will cause fluid turbulence.
• Any restrictions in the pump or piping passages such as product build up, a
foreign object, or a stuck check valve.
• Over lubricated or over loaded bearings.
• Rubbing is a major cause. It can be caused by:
o Misalignment between the pump and driver.
o Pipe strain.
o Impeller imbalance.
o A bent shaft.
o A close fitting bushing.
o Loose hardware.
o A protruding gasket rubbing against the mechanical seal.
o Cavitation. (5 kinds)
o Harmonic vibration.
o Improper assembly of the bearings, seal, wear rings, packing, lip seals etc..
o Thermal expansion of various components in high temperature
applications. The impeller can hit the volute, the wear rings can come into
physical contact etc.
o Solids rubbing against the rotating components, especially the seal.
o Operating too far off of the best efficiency point of the pump.
o Water hammer and pressure surges.
o Operating at a critical speed.
o Dynamic, non O-ring elastomers that cannot flex and roll, but must slide,
eventually fretting the shaft or sleeve.
o A build up of product on the inside of the stuffing box rubbing against the
mechanical seal.
o Grease or lip seals rubbing the shaft next to the bearings.
o Over tightening packing or improper seal installation.
• Vortex pumps can lower efficiency by as much as 50%.

All about specific speed

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Specific speed is a term used to describe the geometry (shape) of a pump
impeller. People responsible for the selection of the proper pump, for their
application, can use this Specific Speed information to :

• Select the shape of the pump curve.

• Determine the efficiency of the pump.
• Anticipate motor overloading problems.
• Predict N.P.S.H. requirements.
• Select the lowest cost pump for their application.

Specific speed is defined as "the speed of an ideal pump geometrically similar to

the actual pump, which when running at this speed will raise a unit of volume, in
a unit of time through a unit of head".

The performance of a centrifugal pump is expressed in terms of pump speed,

total head, and required flow. This information is available from the pump
manufacturer's published curves. Specific speed is calculated from the following
formula, using data from these curves at the pump's best efficiency point (B.E.P.):

N = The speed of the pump in revolutions per minute (rpm.)

Q = The flow rate in liters per minute ( for either single or double suction
impellers)

H = The total dynamic head in meters

Please refer to the following chart:

Pumps are traditionally divided into three types: radial flow, mixed flow, and axial
flow. When you look at the above chart you can see there is a gradual change

13
from the radial flow impeller, which develops pressure principally by the action of
centrifugal force, to the axial flow impeller, which develops most of its head by
the propelling or lifting action of the vanes on the liquid.

In the specific speed range of approximately 1000 to 6000 double suction

impeller are used as frequently as the single suction impellers.

If you substitute other units for flow and head the numerical value of Ns will vary.
The speed is always given in revolutions per minute (rpm.). Here is how to alter
the Specific Speed number (Ns) if you use other units for capacity and head :

• United States ....Q = G.P.M. and H = feet. Divide the Ns by 1.63

• British ............Q = Imp.G.P.M. and H = feet. Divide the Ns by 1.9
• Metric ............Q = M3/hour and H = meters. Divide the Ns by 1.5

As an example we will make a calculation of Ns in both metric and U.S. units :

• Q= 110 L/sec. or 396 M3/ hour or 1744 G.P.M.

• H = 95 meters or 312 feet
• Speed = 1450 rpm.

If the above results were describing an actual application, we would notice that it
was a low specific speed, radial flow pump, meaning It would be a large pump
with a low efficiency. Going to 2900 rpm. or higher would increase the Ns to 1000
or more, meaning a smaller pump with a much higher efficiency, but this higher
rpm. would have other possible consequences :

• The higher efficiency would allow you to use a less powerful driver that would
reduce your operating costs.
• A smaller pump makes associated hardware cheaper. For instance, a smaller
diameter shaft means a lower cost mechanical seal and lower cost bearings.
• Cavitation could become a problem as the increase in speed means an increase in
the N.P.S.H. required.
• If you are pumping an abrasive fluid, abrasive wear and erosion will increase with
increasing speed.
• Many single mechanical seals have problems passing fugitive emission standards
at the higher pump speeds.
• High heat is a major cause of bearing failure. The higher pump speeds contribute
to the problem.

14
The following diagram illustrates the relationship between specific speed and
pump efficiency. In general, the efficiency increases as Ns increases.

Specific speed also relates to the shape of the individual pump curve as it
describes head, capacity, power consumption and efficiency.

In the above diagram you will note that :

• The steepness of the head/ capacity curve increases as specific speed increases.
• At low specific speed, power consumption is lowest at shut off and rises as flow
increases. This means that the motor could be over loaded at the higher flow rates
unless this was considered at the time of purchase.
• At medium specific speed the power curve peaks at approximately the best
efficiency point. This is a non overloading feature meaning that the pump can
work safely over most of the fluid range with a motor speed to meet the B.E.P.
requirement.

15
 • High specific speed pumps have a falling power curve with maximum power
occurring at minimum flow. These pumps should never be started with the
discharge valve shut. If throttling is required a motor of greater power will be
necessary.

Keep in mind that efficiency and power consumption were calculated at the best
efficiency point (B.E.P.). In practice most pumps operate in a throttled condition
because the pump was oversized at the time it was purchased. Lower specific
speed pumps may have lower efficiency at the B.E.P., but at the same time will
have lower power consumption at reduced flow than many of the higher specific
speed designs.

The result is that it might prove to be more economical to select a lower specific
speed design if the pump had to operate over a broad range of capacity.

The oversized pump

Do a survey of any process plant and you will find that a high percentage of the
centrifugal pumps are oversized. There must be a reason why this is such a
common problem, so here are a few of them :

• Safety margins were added to the original calculations. Several people are
involved in the pump buying decision and each of them is afraid of
recommending a pump that proves to be to small for the job.
• It was anticipated that a larger pump would be needed in the future, so it was
purchased now to save buying the larger pump later on.
• It was the only pump the dealer had in stock and you needed one badly. He might
have offered you a "special deal" to take the larger size.
• You took the pump out of your spare parts inventory. Capital equipment money is
scarce so the larger pump appeared to be your only choice.
• You purchased the same size pump as the one that came out of the application and
that one was over sized also.

Obviously this larger pump and motor required a higher investment, but since we
are not using the full power are we really paying too much for the daily operation?
The easiest way to find the answer to this question is to look at a typical pump
curve and make our calculations from the numbers we get.

You can use any of the following formulas to make your calculations:

Here is as typical pump curve. It can be used for both inch and metric examples.

16
Let us assume that the application requires a pump that moves the liquid at :

300 gpm. to a 156 foot head with an efficiency rating of 60%

156 x 300 / 5308 = 8.8 Kilowatts being produced, and 8.8 / 0.60 efficiency = 14.7
Kilowatts required

As shown in the above drawing, we should be using impeller "E" to do this, but
we have an oversized pump so we are using the larger impeller "A" with the
pump discharge valve throttled back to 300 gpm. giving us an actual head of 250
feet and a 50% efficiency. Now our Kilowatts look like this:

250 x 300 / 5308 = 14.1 KW being produced, and 14.1 / 0.50 efficiency = 28.2
KW

required to do this. If 28.2 KW is being used and only 14.7 KW are required, it
means that we are paying for an extra 13.5 KW to pump against the throttled
discharge valve.

If this pump runs 24 hours per day that would be 8760 hours this year, and at a
power cost of $0.05 cents per Kilowatt hour it would cost your company an
additional:

8760 hours. x .05 cents per Kilowatt hour x 13.5 Kilowatts = $5913.00 per year,
extra operating cost.

17
Now we will work the same problem in the metric system:

Assume that we need to pump 68 m3/hr. to a 47 meter head with a pump that is
60% efficient at that point.

68 x 47360 = 8.9 Kilowatts being produce, and 8.9 / 0.60 efficient = 14.8
Kilowatts required to do this.

As shown in the drawing, we should be using impeller "E" to do this, but we have
an oversized pump so we are using the larger impeller "A" with the pump
discharge valve throttled back to 68 cubic meters per hour, giving us an actual
head of 76 meters. Now our Kilowatts look like this:

68 x 76360 = 14.3 Kilowatts being produced by the pump, and 14.3 / 0.50
efficient = 28.6 Kilowatts required to do this.

Subtracting the amount of kilowatts we should have been using gives us:

28.6 - 14.8 = 13.8 extra kilowatts being used to pump against the throttled
discharge valve. If the pump runs twenty four hours a day that would be 8760
hours per year, times 13.8 extra kilowatts equals 120,880 kw. Multiply this
number by how much you spend for a kilowatt hour of electricity and you will see
that the over sized pump is costing you a lot of money. In this example the extra
cost of the electricity could almost equal the cost of purchasing the pump.

How to read a pump curve

Please look at the above illustration. You will note that I have plotted the head of
the pump against its capacity. The head of a pump is read in feet or meters. The
capacity units will be either gallons per minute, liters per minute, or cubic meters
per hour.

18
According to the above illustration this pump will pump a 40 capacity to about a
110 head, or a 70 capacity to approximately a 85 head (you can substitute either
metric or imperial units as you see fit)

The maximum head of this pump is 115 units. This is called the maximum shutoff
head of the pump. Also note that the best efficiency point (BEP) of this impeller is
between 80% and 85% of the shutoff head. This 80% to 85% is typical of
centrifugal pumps, but if you want to know the exact best efficiency point you
must refer to the manufacturers pump curve.

Ideally a pump would run at its best efficiency point all of the time, but we seldom
hit ideal conditions. As you move away from the BEP the shaft will deflect and
the pump will experience some vibration. You will have to check with your pump
manufacturer to see how far you can safely deviate from the BEP (a maximum of
10% either side is typical)

Now look at the following illustration:

Note that I have added some additional curves to the original illustration. These
curves show what happens when you change the diameter of the impeller.

19
Impeller diameter is measured in either inches or millimeters. If we wanted to
pump at the best efficiency point with a 11.5 impeller we would have to pump a
capacity of 50 to a 75 head.

The bottom half of the illustration shows the power consumption at various
capacities and impeller diameters. I have labeled the power consumption
horsepower, but in the metric system it would be called kilowatts

Each of the lines represents an impeller diameter. The top line would be for the
13 impeller the second for the 12.5 etc. If we were pumping a capacity of 70 with
a 13 impeller it would take about 35 horsepower. A capacity of 60 with the 12
impeller would take about 20 horsepower.

Most pump curves would show you the percent of efficiency at the best efficiency
point . The number varies with impeller design and numbers from 60% to 80%
are normal.

When you will look at an actual pump curve you should have no trouble reading
the various heads and corresponding capacities for the different size impellers.
You will note however, that the curve will usually show an additional piece of
information and that is NPSHR which stands for net positive suction head
required to prevent the pump from cavitating.

Depending upon the pump curve you might find a 10 foot (3.0 meter) NPSH
required head at a capacity of 480 Gallons per minute (110 cubic meters per
hour) if you were using a 13 inch (330 mm.) diameter impeller.

You should keep in mind that the manufacture assumed you were pumping 20° C
( 68° F ) fresh water and the N.P.S.H. Required was tested using this assumption.
If you are pumping water at a different temperature or if you are pumping a
different fluid, you are going to have to add the vapor pressure of that product to
the N.P.S.H. Required. The rule is that Net Positive Suction Head Available
minus the Vapor Pressure of the product you are pumping (converted to head)
must be equal to or greater than Net Positive Suction Head Required by the
manufacturer.

Suppose we wanted to pump some liquid Butane at 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0

degrees Centigrade) with this pump. If we look at the curve for Butane on a vapor
pressure chart similar to the one shown in the charts and graphs section of this
web site you will note that Butane at 32°F needs at least 15 psi (1,0 Bar) to stay
in a liquid state. To convert this pressure to head we use the standard formula :

20
In other words Butane at this temperature would not vaporize as long as I had
the above absolute heads available at the suction side of the pump.

Understanding the system curve

Every pump manufacturer would like to recommend the perfect pump for your
application. To do this he would like you to provide him with an accurate system
curve that would describe the capacity and head needed for your various
operating conditions. Once he has your system curve, he can plot his pump
curves on top of the system curve and hopefully select something that will come
close to your needs. Without this system curve, neither one of you has much of a
chance of coming up with the right pump.

To create a system curve we plot the desired capacities against the required
head over the total anticipated operating range of the pump. The head will be
measured in feet or meters and the capacity will be measured in gallons per
minute or cubic meters per hour.

Some of the confusion begins when we realize that there are three different kinds
of head:

STATIC HEAD This is the vertical distance measured from the center line of the
pump to the height of the piping discharge inside the tank. Look at figure "A" and
note that the piping discharge is below the maximum elevation of the piping
system. We do not use the maximum elevation in our calculations because the
siphoning action will carry the fluid over this point once the piping is full of liquid.
This is the same action that lets you siphon gasoline out of an automobile to a
storage can.

The pump will have to develop enough head to fill the pipe and then the
siphoning action will take over. The pump operating point should move back
towards the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) if the pump was selected correctly.

FIGURE "A"

21
DYNAMIC OR SYSTEM HEAD As the liquid flows through the piping and fittings,
it is subject to the friction caused by the piping inside finish, restricted passages
in the fittings and hardware that has been installed in the system. The resulting
"pressure drop" is described as a "loss of head" in the system, and can be
calculated from graphs and charts provided by the pump and piping
manufacturers. These charts are not included with this paper, you can find them
in the Hydraulic Institute Manuals. This "head" loss is related to the condition of
the system and makes the calculations difficult when you realize that older
systems may have "product build up" on the piping walls, filters, strainers, valves,
elbows, heat exchangers, etc., making the published numbers some what
inaccurate.

A general "rule of thumb" says that the friction loss in clean piping will vary
approximately with 90% of the square of the change in flow in the piping, and
100% of the square with the change of flow in the fittings and accessories. You
calculate the change in flow by dividing the new flow by the old flow and then
square the number. As an example:

22
In the original application system, loss was a combination of the loss through the
piping and the loss through the fittings for a total of 100 feet at 200 gallons per
minute. When we increased the flow to 300 gallons per minute our system head
changed to a total of 208.13 feet. This change would have to be added to the
static and pressure heads to calculate the total head required for the new pump.

Please note that the pump is pumping the difference between the suction head
and the discharge head, so if you fail to consider that the suction head will be
either added to or subtracted from the discharge head, you will make an error in
your calculations. The suction head will be negative if you are lifting liquid from
below ground or if you are pumping from a vacuum. It will be positive if you are
pumping from a tank located above ground. If the suction head is pressurized,
this pressure must be converted to head and subtracted from the total head
required by the pump.

A centrifugal pump will create a head/capacity curve that will generally resemble
one of the curves described in figure "B" The shape of the curve is determined by
the Specific Speed number of the impeller.

Centrifugal pumps always pump somewhere on their curve, but should be

selected to pump as close to the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) as possible. The
B.E.P. will fall some where between 80% and 85% of the shut off head
(maximum head).

The manufacturer generated these curves at a specific R.P.M.. Unless you are
using synchronous motors (you probably are using induction motors on your
pumps) you will have to adjust the curves to match your actual pump speed. Put
a tachometer on the running motor and record the rpm. difference between your
pump and the speed shown on the pump manufacturer's published curve. You
can use the pump affinity laws to approximate the change.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS have a different shaped curve. They look

something like Figure "C".

23
In this system, the head remains a constant as the capacity varies. This is a
typical application for:

• A boiler feed pump that is supplying a constant pressure boiler with a varying
steam demand. This is a very common application in many process systems or
aboard a ship that is frequently changing speeds (answering bells).
• Filling a tank from the top and varying the amount of liquid being pumped, is the
normal routine in most process plants. The curve will look like this if the majority
of the head is either static or pressure head.

The second system is the ideal one, Figure "E" describes it:

24
In this system the entire head is system head so it will vary with the capacity.
Look for this type of curve in the following applications:

• A circulating hot or cold water heating/ cooling system.

• Pumping to a non pressurized tank, a long distance from the source with little to
no elevation involved. Filling tank cars is a typical application.

System curve "G" is a common one. It is a combination of static, pressure and

system heads.

25
Once the pump manufacturer has a clear idea as to the shape of your system
curve, and the head and capacity numbers needed he can then select the proper
centrifugal pump. The shape of his curve will be pretty much determined by the
specific speed number of the impeller.

In addition to specific speed he can select impeller diameter, impeller width,

pump rpm., and he also has the option of series or parallel operation along with
the possibility of using a multi-stage pump to satisfy your needs.

The sad fact is that most pumps are selected poorly because of the desire to
offer the customer the lowest possible price. A robust pump, with a low L3/D4, is
still your best protection against seal and bearing premature failure when the
pump is operating off of its best efficiency point. Keep the following in mind as
you select your pump:

• A centrifugal pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
This may bear no relationship to the best efficiency point (B.E.P.), or your desire
for the pump to perform a specific task.
• The further off the B.E.P. you go, the more robust the pump you will need. This is
especially true if you have replaced the packing with a mechanical seal and no
longer have the packing to act as a support bearing when the shaft deflects. Shaft
deflection is always a major problem at start up.

26
 • When you connect pumps in parallel, you add the capacities together. The
capacity of a pump is determined by the impeller width and r.p.m.. The head of a
centrifugal pump is determined by the impeller diameter and rpm. If the heads are
different, the stronger pump will throttle the weaker one, so the impeller
diameters and rpm's must be the same if you connect pumps in parallel. Check the
rpm's on these pumps if you are experiencing any difficulties.
• If you connect the pumps in series, the heads will add together, so the capacities
must be the same or one of them will probably cavitate. You could also have a
problem operating too far to the right of the best efficiency point with a possible
motor "burn out".
• When you vary the speed of a centrifugal pump, the best efficiency point comes
down at an angle. The affect is almost the same as changing the diameter of the
impeller. This means that the variable speed motor will work best on a system
curve that is exponential (Figure "F"). Unfortunately most process and boiler feed
pump system curves are not exponential.
• Pump curves are based on a speed of 1750, 3500, 1450, or 2900 r.p.m.. Electric
induction motors seldom run at these speeds because of "slip". You can estimate
that a 2% to a 5% slip is normal in these pumps with the "slip" directly related to
the price of the motor.
• You should also keep in mind that if the motor is running at its best efficiency
point that does not mean that the pump is running at its B.E.P..

Since you will be using pumps that were supplied at the lowest cost, you can do
the following to resist some of the shaft displacement:

• Use a solid shaft. Sleeves often raise the L3/D4 number to over 60 (2 in the metric
system), and this is too high a number for reliable seal performance.
• Try to keep the mechanical seal as close to the bearings as possible. It is the
mechanical seal that is the most sensitive to shaft deflection and vibration.
• Once the seal has been moved closer to the bearings, you can install a sleeve
bearing in the packing space to support the shaft when the pump is operated off of
its B.E.P. This is especially important at start up, or any time a pump discharge
valve is operated.
• Stop the cavitation if you are experiencing any.
• Balance the rotating assembly.
• Check that the shaft is not bent or the rotating assembly is not out of dynamic
balance.
• Use a "C" or "D" frame adapter to solve pump- motor alignment difficulties.
• A center line design wet end can be used if pipe strain, due to temperature
expansion, is causing an alignment problem.

Do not trust the system prints to make your calculations. The actual system
always differs from that shown on the print, because people tap into the lines,
using the pumped fluid for a variety of purposes and after having done so forget
to change or "mark up" the original system print. You are going to have to "walk
down" the system and note the pipe length, the number of fittings, etc., to make

27
an accurate system head calculation. Do not be surprised to find that the
discharge of your pump is hooked up to the discharge of another pump further
down the line. In other words, the pumps are connected in parallel and no body
knows it. Pressure recorders (not gauges) installed at the pump suction and
discharge is another technique you can use to get a better picture of the system
or dynamic head. They will show you how the head is varying with changes in
flow.

Pump selection is simple but not easy. Do not depend upon the knowledge of the
local pump salesman to select the correct pump for you. In many cases he is
prepared to sell his pump at cost&emdash;to get the spare parts business. If you
are purchasing pumps at too big a discount&emdash;something is wrong, there
is no free lunch. Keep in mind that if several people are involved in the selection
process each of them will commonly add a safety factor to the calculated pump
size. These factors added together can cause you to purchase a pump that is
very much over sized.

Calculating the total system head in USCS units

USCS stands for "United States Customary System Units" as opposed to the SI
(Le Syst`eme International d`Units) or metric units that have been adopted by the
International standards Organization (ISO). In a future paper I will present
another paper using the metric units, but for the moment it is not convenient to
present it in both systems.

It turn out that "head" is a very convenient term in the pumping business.
Capacity is measured in gallons per minute, and each gallon of liquid has weight,
so we can easily calculate the pounds per minute being pumped. Head or height
is measure in feet, so if we multiply these two together we get foot- pounds per
minute which converts directly to work at the rate of 33,000 foot pounds per
minute equals one horsepower.

Pressure is not as convenient a term because the amount of pressure that the
pump will deliver depends upon the weight (specific gravity) of the liquid being
pumped and the specific gravity changes with temperature, fluid, and fluid
concentration.

28
If you will refer to FIG 1, you should get a clear picture of what is meant by static
head. Note that we always measure from the center line of the pump to the
highest liquid level

To calculate head accurately we must calculate the total head on both the
suction and discharge sides of the pump. In addition to the static head we will
learn that there is a head caused by resistance in the piping, fittings and valves
called friction head, and a head caused by any pressure that might be acting on
the liquid in the tanks including atmospheric pressure, called " surface pressure
head".

Once we know these heads it gets simple, we will then subtract the suction head
from the discharge head and the amount remaining will be the amount of head
that the pump must be able to generate at the rated flow. Here is how it looks in a
formula:

System head = total discharge head - total suction head

H = hd - hs

The total discharge head is made from three separate heads:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd

• hd = total discharge head

• hsd = discharge static head
• hpd = discharge surface pressure head
• hfd = discharge friction head

The total suction head also consists of three separate heads

29
hs = hss + hps - hfs

• hs = total suction head

• hss = suction static head
• hps = suction surface pressure head
• hfs = suction friction head

As we make these calculations, you must sure that all calculations are made in
either "feet of liquid gauge" or "feet of liquid absolute". In case you have forgotten
"absolute means that you have added atmospheric pressure (head) to the gauge
reading.

Now we will make some actual calculations:

Figure #2 demonstrates that the discharge head is still measured to the liquid
level, but you will note that it is below the maximum height of the piping.

Although the pump must deliver enough head to get up to this maximum piping
height, it will not have to continue to deliver this head when the pump is running
because of the "siphon effect". There is of course a maximum siphon effect. It is
derived from: 14.7 psi (atmospheric pressure) x 2.31 feet / psi = 33.4 feet
maximum siphon effect.

We will begin with the total suction head calculation

1. The suction head is negative because the liquid level in the suction tank is
below the centerline of the pump:

hss = - 6 feet

30
2. The suction tank is open, so the suction surface pressure equals atmospheric
pressure :

hps = 0 feet gauge

3. You will not have to calculate the suction friction head, I will tell you it is:

hfs = 4 feet at rated flow

4. The total suction head is a gauge value because atmosphere was given as 0,

hs = hss + hps - hfs = -6 +0 -4 = -10 feet of liquid gauge at rated flow

The total discharge head calculation

1. The static discharge head is:

hsd = 125 feet

2. The discharge tank is also open to atmospheric pressure, thus:

hpd = 0 feet, gauge

3. I will give you the discharge friction head as:

hfd = 25 feet at rated flow

4. The total discharge head is:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd = 125 + 0 + 25 = 150 feet of liquid gauge at rated flow

The total system head calculation:

H = hd - hs = 150 - (-10)= 160 feet of liquid at rated flow

Note: did you notice that when we subtracted a minus number (-10) from a
positive number (150) we ended up with a positive 160 because whenever you
subtract minus numbers it is the same as adding them? If you have trouble with
this concept you can learn more about it from a mathematics book.

Our next example involves a few more calculations, but you should be able to
handle them. In this example we are going to learn how to handle a vacuum
application. Pipe friction numbers are taken from the Hydraulic Institute
Engineering Data Book. You can get a copy of this publication from your library if
you want to see the actual charts. I have some of this information in the chart
section of this web site.

31
Specifications:

1. Transferring 1000 gpm. weak acid from the vacuum receiver to the storage
tank

2. Specific Gravity - 0.98

3. Viscosity -equal to water

4. Piping - All 6" Schedule 40 steel pipe

5. Discharge piping rises 40 feet vertically above the pump centerline and then
runs 400 feet horizontally. There is one 90° flanged elbow in this line

6. Suction piping has a square edge inlet, four feet of pipe, one gate valve, and
one 90° flanged elbow all of which are 6" in diameter.

7. The minimum level in the vacuum receiver is 5 feet above the pump centerline.

8. The pressure on top of the liquid in the vacuum receiver is 20 inches of

mercury, vacuum.

To calculate suction surface pressure use one of the following formulas:

• inches of mercury X 1.133specific gravity = feet of liquid

• pounds per square inch X 2.31specific gravity = feet of liquid

32
 • Millimeters of mercury X 122.4 x specific gravity = feet of liquid

Now that you have all of the necessary information we will begin by dividing the
system into two different sections, using the pump as the dividing line.

Total suction head calculation

1. The suction side of the system shows a minimum static head of 5 feet above
suction centerline. Therefore, the static suction head is:

hss = 5 feet

2. Using the first conversion formula, the suction surface pressure is:

hps = -20 Hg X 1.133/ 0.98 = -23.12 feet gauge

3. The suction friction head, fs, equals the sum of all the friction losses in the
suction line. Friction loss in 6" pipe at 1000 gpm from table 15 of the Hydraulic
Institute Engineering Data Book, is 6.17 feet per 100 feet of pipe.

in 4 feet of pipe friction loss = 4/100 x 6.17 = 0.3 feet

Friction loss coefficients (K factors) for the inlet, elbow and valve can be added
together and multiplied by the velocity head:

FITTING K FROM TABLE

6" Square edge inlet 0.50 32 (a)
6" 90 flanged elbow 0.29 32 (a)
6" Gate valve 0.11 32 (b)

Total coefficient, K = 0.90

Total friction loss on the suction side is:

hfs = 0.3 + 1.7 = 2.0 feet at 1000 gpm.

4. The total suction head then becomes:

hs = hss + hps - hfs = 5 + (-23.12) - 2.0 = -20.12 feet, gauge at 1000 gpm.

Total discharge head calculation

33
1. Static discharge head = hsd = 40 feet

2. Discharge surface pressure = hpd = 0 feet gauge

3. Discharge friction head = hfd = sum of the following losses :

Friction loss in 6" pipe at 1000 gpm. from table 15, is 6.17 feet per hundred feet
of pipe.

In 440 feet of pipe the friction loss = 440/100 x 6.17 = 27.2 feet

Friction loss in 6" elbow:

from table 32 (a), K = 0,29

from table 15, V2/2g = 1.92 at 1000 gpm.

Friction loss = K V2/2g = 0.29 x 1.92 = 0.6 feet

The friction loss in the sudden enlargement at the end of the discharge line is
called the exit loss. In systems of this type where the area of the discharge tank
is very large in comparison to the area of the discharge pipe, the loss equals
V2/2g, as shown in table 32 (b).

Friction loss at exit = V2/2g = 1.9 feet

The discharge friction head is the sum of the above losses, that is:

hfd = 27.2 + 0.6 + 1.9 = 29.7 feet at 1000 gpm.

4. The total discharge head then becomes:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd = 40 + 0 + 29.7 = 69.7 feet, gauge at 1000 gpm.

c. Total system head calculation:

H = hd - hs = 69.7 - (-20.2) = 89.9 feet at 1000 gpm.

Our next example will be the same as the one we just finished except. that there
is an additional 10 feet of pipe and another 90° flanged elbow in the vertical leg.
The total suction head will be the same as in the previous example. Take a look
at figure # 4

34
Nothing has changed on the suction side of the pump so the total suction head
will remain the same:

hs = -20.12 feet, gauge at 100 gpm.

Total discharge head calculation

1. The static discharge head "hsd" will change from 40 feet to 30 feet, since the
highest liquid surface in the discharge is now only 30 feet above the pump
centerline.(This value is based on the assumption that the vertical leg in the
discharge tank is full of liquid and that as this liquid falls it will tend to pull the
liquid up and over the loop in the pipe line. This arrangement is called a siphon
leg).

2. The discharge surface pressure is unchanged:

hpd = 0 feet

3. The friction loss in the discharge pipe will be increased by the additional 10
feet of pipe and the additional elbow.

In 10 feet of pipe the friction loss = 10/100 x 6.17 = 0.6 feet

The friction loss in the additional elbow = 0.6 feet

The friction head will then increase as follows:

hfd = 29.7 + 0.6 + 0.6 = 30.9 feet at 1000 gpm.

35
The total discharge head becomes:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd

= 30 + 0 + 30.9

= 60.9 feet, gauge at 1000 gpm.

5. Total system head calculation

H = hd - hs = 60.9 - (-20.12) = 81 feet at 1000 gpm.

For our last example we will look at gauges. Take a look at FIG 5:

Specifications:

• Capacity - 300 gpm.

• Specific gravity - 1.3
• Viscosity - Similar to water
• Piping - 3 inch suction, 2 inch discharge
• Atmospheric pressure - 14.7 psi.

Divide the heads into two sections again:

The discharge gauge head corrected to the centerline of the pump, in feet of
liquid absolute is found by adding the atmospheric pressure to the gauge reading
to get absolute pressure, and then converting to absolute head:

hdg = (130 + 14.7) x 2.31 / (1.3 Specific Gravity + 4 ) = 261.1 feet, absolute

Note the 4 foot head correction to the pump centerline.

36
The discharge velocity head at 300 gpm. is found in table 9 of the Hydraulic
Institute Engineering Data Book

hvd = 12.8 feet at 300 gpm.

The suction gauge reading is in absolute terms so it needs only to be converted

to feet of liquid, absolute.

hgs = 40 x 2.3 / 11.3 +2 = 73.08 feet absolute

Note the 2 foot head correction to the pump centerline.

The suction velocity head at 300 gpm. is found in table 11 of the Pipe Friction
Manual:

hvs = 2.6 feet at 300 gpm.

The total head developed by the pump is:

H = (hgd + hvd ) - ( hgs + hvs ) = (261.1 + 12.8) - (73.08 + 2.6)= 198.22 feet
absolute at 300 gpm.

Estimating the shutoff head of a centrifugal pump:

In the fifteenth century the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli learned that the
combination of head and velocity was a constant throughout a piping system. He
then wrote the formula showing the relationship between this liquid velocity, and
resultant head. As many of you know, I often quote this formula in my pump and
seal schools. The formula looks like this:

• V = Velocity or speed of the liquid at the impeller outside

diameter (ft/sec. or meters/sec.)
• g = gravity = 32.2 feet / second2 or 9.8 meters / second2

My students have heard me quote this formula as the basis for my statement that
you can estimate the shut off head of a 1750 rpm. centrifugal pump by squaring
the diameter of the impeller. How did I come to that conclusion ? Lets look at the
formula again, and we will start by defining velocity:

37
Velocity is a measurement of speed using distance and time as the variables.
The terms we use to discuss velocity are feet/second or meters/ second. In the
inch system the velocity of the impeller outside diameter is determined by the
following formula:

• d = diameter of the impeller

•
• rpm = speed of the impeller outside diameter
• 12 = twelve inches in a foot
• 60 sixty seconds in a minute

Now we will solve the formula. Substituting 1750 for the rpm we would get:

Going back to the original formula we will substitute the new value for "V"

This means that at 1750 rpm the shutoff head is 90% of the diameter of the
impeller squared

If you will check a typical pump curve as supplied by the pump manufacturers,
you will learn that the shut off head actually varies from 90% to 110% of the
diameter of the impeller squared. I elected to use 100% because it is a sensible
average and in some cases it accounts for the additional velocity added to the
fluid as it moves from the impeller eye to the impeller outside diameter.

If we substitute 3500 rpm for the speed, the new numbers would look like this

Going back to the original formula we will substitute the new value for "V"

We can round out the 3.6 to 4.0 and say that at 3500 rpm the shutoff head
equals approximately the outside diameter of the impeller squared, times four.

38
It is a little trickier in the metric system. Instead of using millimeters when
measuring the impeller diameter, move over two decimal places and use
decimeters instead. It will make the calculations a lot simpler because you will be
using more convenient, larger numbers.

Inserting the numbers into the formula we would get a velocity of:

Going back to the head formula we would get:

We can round this off to 3d2

If the pump were running at 2900 rpm you would get

Going back to the head formula we would get:

We can round this off to 12d2

How do we use this information? You can combine this formula with your
knowledge of how to convert pressure to head and come up with an estimate to
see if an operating pump is operating close to its BEP(best efficiency point ). As
an example:

In the inch system a pump discharge pressure gage reads 120 psi. The pump
suction pressure gage reads 20 psi. The pump is pumping the difference
between these readings, so the pump is pumping 100 psi.

At its BEP(best efficiency point) the pump should be running between 80% and
85% of its shut off head. 100 psi is 83% of 120 psi. The pressure to head
conversion is:

39
The pump has an 8.5 inch impeller running at 3500 rpm. The shutoff head would
be (8.5 inches)2 x 4 = 288 feet. Pretty close!

In the metric system we can make the calculation for a 295 millimeter impeller
turning at 2900 rpm

The pump discharge pressure gage reads 10 bar The pump suction pressure
gage reads 1 bar The pump is pumping the difference between these readings
so the pump is pumping 9 bar

At its BEP(best efficiency point) the pump should be running between 80% and
85% of its shutoff head. 9 bar is 83% of 10.8 bar. The pressure to head
conversion is:

106 meters shut off head. The pump has a 295 mm impeller running at 2900 rpm.
The shutoff head would be (2.95 decimeter)2 x12 =104.4. Pretty close!

Rules of thumb for pumps

If you want to know a pumps capabilities the rules are simple, look at the
manufacturer's published pump curve. The problem is that you do not always
have the curve available. Pump companies test their pump to determine its
performance, they have no need for general guide lines or "rules of thumb."

Over the years I have accumulated many of these rules to help me estimate
pump performance, here are a few of them:

PUMP BASICS

• How to estimate the shut off head of a pump (inch sizes)

o At 1750 rpm. Shut off head = Diameter of the impeller squared
o At 3500 rpm. Shut off head = Diameter of the impeller squared x 4
2
o For other speeds you can use the formula : Shut Off Head = D x (new
rpm / 1750)2
• Estimating metric head is a little bit more involved, but it still works:
o Measure the shaft in mm. ( as an example: 250 mm )
o Mark off two places. (2,5)
o Square the number. (6,25)
o For 1450 rpm, multiply by 3 (18,75)
o Add 10 % for the answer in meters. (21 meters )

40
 o NOTE: For 3000 rpm, you would multiply by 12 instead of 3. Although
you can estimate shutoff head with these formulas you cannot estimate the
pump capacity. You will need the pump curves for that.
• The pumps best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is between 80% and 85% of the shut off
head. At this point there is little to no radial thrust on the impeller. Also the
"power in" is closest to the "power out".
• The L3/D4 ratio should be below 60 (2.0 in metric) to prevent excessive shaft
bending. To calculate it for end suction centrifugal pumps :
o L = length of the shaft from the center of the inboard bearing to the center
of the impeller (inches or millimeters). Caution: do not use centimeters,
the numbers will come out wrong.
o D = diameter of the shaft (under the sleeve) in the stuffing box area
(inches or millimeters) Do not use centimeters.
• Since most shaft materials have a similar modulus of elasticity changing shaft
materials will not prevent shaft bending when you operate off of the B.E.P.
Lowering the L3/D4 is the only logical and efficient solution. When pump
manufacturers discuss operating off of the B.E.P. they relate problems to the heat
that will build up in a minimum flow condition and ignore the problems with
shaft bending.
• A double suction pump can run with 27% less N.P.S.H. or at a 40% faster speed
without cavitating.
• If you double the speed of a pump you will get twice the capacity, four times the
head and it will take eight times the horsepower to do it.
• A stainless steel shaft has only a small portion of the conductivity of a carbon
steel shaft. This is very important when you are pumping at elevated temperatures
because we do not want to transmit the high temperature back to the bearing oil.
• If you double the speed of a pump you will get almost four times the shaft whip,
wobble or run out and eight times the wear.
• Multistage pumps reduce efficiency 2% to 4%.
• In many instances an inducer can lower Net Positive Suction Head Required by as
much as 50% .
• If you are pumping paper stock, modify the curves for head, capacity, and
efficiency as follows:
o 0.725 for 6% stock
o 0.825 for 5.5% stock
o 0.90 for 5%
o 0.94 for 4.5%
o 0.98 for 4%
o 1.0 for 3.5% or less
• Open impeller clearance settings are determined by the pump manufacturer and
normally run between 0.008" and 0.015" (0,2 to 0,5 mm) You lose 1% of the
pumps capacity for each 0.002" (0,05 mm) you miss this setting.
• Wear ring clearances are very similar to impeller clearances, but you lose 1%
pump capacity for each 0.001" (0,025 mm) of wear. A typical clearance would be
0.003 inch/inch diameter with 0.010 inches (0,3 mm) minimum clearance for
wear rings less than two inches (50 mm.) in outside diameter.

41
 • Bearing grease or lip seals have a design life of less than 2000 hours. In a
constantly running pump this would be only 83 days. These seals will also
damage the expensive shaft and place a stress point at the maximum bending
moment arm. Substitute non fretting labyrinth seals, or positive face seals in these
locations. It is a good idea to install them in electric motors also to prevent
moisture from entering and damaging the motor windings and bearings.
• Do not use a vent on the top of the bearing case. At shut down the outside
moisture will enter the bearing housing through this vent. Let the moisture
attempt to enter the case through the labyrinth seals instead, they will do a better
job of directing the moisture to the external drain hole. If you install positive face
seals you can forget about this problem.
• The axial clearance in a bearing is ten times the radial clearance. This is the
reason proper installation is so critical. If the bearing is over compressed the
bearing balls will distort and roll instead of spin causing excessive heat and
premature failure. The temperature at the bearing race of a properly installed
bearing is at least 10 degrees Fahrenheit (5° C) higher than the oil sump
temperature.
• The life of bearing oil is directly related to its temperature. The rule of thumb
used by the SKF Bearing Company is that the service life of an oil is specified as
30 years at 30 degrees Centigrade (86° F) and is cut in half for each 10 degree
Centigrade (10 F) temperature increase. This corresponds to :
o A life of 3 months at 100 C. (212 F.)
o A life of 6 months at 90 C. (195 F.)
o A life of 12 months at 80 C. ( 176 F.)

These numbers assume that the lubricating oil is not being contaminated by
water from one or all of the following sources:

• Packing leakage
• The water hose used to wash the packing leakage away from the pump area.
• Aspiration, as moisture laden air enters the bearing case.

An automobile engine running at 1750 rpm. would cover about 100,000 miles
(160,000 kilometers) every 2000 hours (83 days in the life of a constantly running
pump ). Auto manufacturers recommend changing their automatic transmission
oil every 25,000 miles ( 40,000 kilometers)

APPLICATION

• Use Centerline pump designs when the pumping temperature exceeds 200 degrees
Fahrenheit (100° C). This design will allow the wet end of the pump to expand in
two directions instead of from the feet up, destroying the wear rings..
• Try to buy pumps with a Suction Specific Speed (SSS) below 8,500 (10,000
metric) Do not buy pumps with a SSS over 12,000 ( metric 16,500) unless you are
pumping hot water or mixed hydrocarbons. If you have a double suction pump
you can divide the SSS number by 2

42
 • Do not specify a pump with the largest impeller available . Give yourself an
additional 5% or 10% you might need it.
• The maximum viscosity a centrifugal pump can handle would be a product similar
to 30 weight oil at room temperature.
• Use a variable speed pump if your head is mainly system head. Circulating hot or
cold water would be typical applications. If you have a high static or pressure
head, as is the case with a boiler feed pump, the variable speed will not be of
much help in keeping you on or near the best efficiency point.
• Pumps piped in series must have the same capacity (impeller width and speed)
• Pumps piped in parallel must have the same head (impeller diameter and speed )
• Use a rotary positive displacement pump if your capacity is going to be less than
20 gpm.(4,5 cubic meters per hour)
• A centrifugal pump can handle 0.5% air by volume. At 6% it will probably
become air bound and stop pumping. Cavitation can occur with any amount of air.
• Use double volute pumps any time your impeller diameter is 14 inches (355 mm)
or greater. They should also be used on long shaft vertical pumps to prevent
excessive shaft movement that will cause problems with the packing, seals,
bearings and critical dimensions.
• A Vortex pump is 10% to 15% less efficient than a comparable size end suction
centrifugal pump.
• The A.P.I. (American Petroleum Institute). sixth edition states : High energy
pumps, defined as pumping to a head greater than 650 feet (198 meters) and more
than 300 horsepower (224 KW) per stage, require special consideration to avoid
blade passing frequency vibrations and low frequency vibrations at reduced flow
rates.

PIPING ETC..

• There should be at least 10 diameters of pipe between the suction of the pump and
the first elbow. This is especially critical in double ended pump designs as the
turbulent inlet flow can cause shaft thrusting, and subsequent bearing problems.
• Substituting a globe valve for a gate valve in a piping system is similar to adding
another 100 feet (31 meters) of piping to the system. On the discharge side of the
pump this will cause the pump to run off of its B.E.P. with a resultant shaft
bending. On the suction side of the pump it will probably cause Cavitation.
• After the pump and motor have been aligned, dowel both the pump and the motor
to the base plate. Be sure to dowel only the feet closest to the coupling, allowing
the outboard ends to expand with temperature changes.
• Check impeller rotation after installing the pump. Do not assume it will turn in the
correct direction. I have heard about two speed pumps with the second speed
wired backwards. They will drive you crazy because the pump will often meet its
head requirement but not the capacity when the second speed cuts in. You will
also notice excessive noise at this time.
• Use eccentric reducers rather than concentric reducers at the pump suction.
Concentric reducers will trap air. Be sure the eccentric reducer is not installed up
side down.

43
 • Suction piping should be at least one size larger than the suction flange at the
pump.
• Vortexing can occur if any of the following conditions are present:
o Low liquid levels
o Liquid level falling greater than 3 Ft./sec. (1 Meter/ sec.)
o There is a large concentration of dissolved gases in the liquid.
o High outlet velocities in pipes leaving vessels. Generally greater than 10
feet/sec. (3 meters/sec.)
o Liquids near their vapor point.
o High circulation caused by asymmetrical inlet or outlet conditions.
o Inlet piping too close to the wall or bottom of the tank. Consult the
Hydraulic Institute Manual or a similar publication for recommended
clearances.
o In a mixer, the liquid level must be at least one and one half diameters of
the blade, above the blade.

TROUBLESHOOTING

• Cavitation damage on the trailing edge of the impeller blade means :

o The N.P.S.H. available is too low.
o Air is entering at the pump suction.
o There is liquid turbulence at the pump suction.
• Cavitation damage on the leading edge of the impeller blade indicates internal
recirculation. Check the Suction Specific Speed number to see if it is below 9000
(10,000 metric). Higher numbers mean that the problem is with the impeller
shape or adjustment. The problem was created when the pump manufacture tried
to come up with too low a N.P.S.H. Required.
• Cavitation damage just beyond the cutwater, on the casing and tip of the impeller
blade, indicates the impeller blade is too close to the cutwater. This clearance
should be at least 4% of the impeller diameter up to a 14 inch (356 mm.) impeller,
and 6% greater than 14 inch ( 356 mm.). Some self priming pump manufacturers
want a maximum clearance of 1/8" (3 mm) and, as a result, often experience this
problem. A repaired or substituted impeller is often the cause of the problem in a
non self priming pump.
• Water in the bearing oil will reduce bearing life 48%. The water enters from
packing leakage, wash down hoses, and aspiration caused by the temperature
cooling down in the bearing casing after shutdown and moisture laden air
entering the bearing case. A 6% water content in the oil will reduce bearing life
by as much as 83%
• The mass of the pump concrete foundation must be 5 times the mass of the pump,
base plate, and other equipment that is being supported, or vibration will occur.
• Up to 500 horsepower (375 KW), the foundation must be 3 inches (76 mm.) wider
than the base plate all around. Above 500 horsepower (375 KW) the foundation
should be a minimum of 6 inches (150 mm.) wider.

44
 • Imaginary lines extended downward 30 degrees to either side of a vertical through
the pump shaft, should pass through the bottom of the foundation and not the
sides.
• The bearing oil level should be at the center of the lowest most ball of a stationary
bearing. The preferred choice for bearing lubrication would be an oil mist system
with positive face sealing at the bearings, if you could solve the emission problem.
• Pipe from the pump suction flange to the pipe rack, not the other way around.
• Make sure eccentric reducers are not installed upside down at the pump suction.
The top of the reducer should go straight into the suction flange.
• Valve stems, T Branches and elbows should be installed perpendicular to the
pump shaft, not at right angles.
• Do not use packing in any pump that runs under a vacuum, as air will enter the
system through the pump stuffing box.. These applications include :
o Pumps that lift liquid.
o Pumps that take their suction from a condenser or evaporator.
o Any pump that takes its suction from a negative pressure. Heater drain
pumps are a typical application.
• Be sure too vent the stuffing box of a sealed, vertical pump back to the suction
side of the pump or air will become trapped in the stuffing box. The vent must be
located above the lapped seal faces.
• If the Specific Gravity of the pumping liquid should increase, due to temperature,
there is a danger of overloading the motor and therefore motors having sufficient
power should be used. The same overloading power will occur if the pump is run
too far to the right of its B.E.P.. This is a very common problem because of the
great number of oversized pumps in existence.

How to the calculate the water horsepower coming out of the pump?

Horsepower is measured using the units, foot pounds with one horsepower equal
to 33,000 foot pounds. Since fluid has weight we can calculate how many pounds
per minute we are pumping by finding out how much a gallon of our fluid weighs.
After you have done that, multiply the gallons per minute you are pumping by
8.33 (the weight of a gallon of water) and then multiply that result by the specific
gravity (the weight) of your fluid, and you will have the pounds per minute
number you are looking for.

Once you have the pounds per minute you are pumping, you can multiply that
number into the feet of head the pump is producing and you have foot pounds
per minute that can be converted to horsepower.

Please take a look at the following pump curve.

45
Let's use this chart for our example:

You are using the 13 inch impeller at 1750 rpm and pumping 300 gallons per
minute of a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0 to a head of 168 feet

300 gpm x 8.33 x 1.0 sg. = 2,499 pounds of fluid per minute.

We are pumping this fluid to a head of 168 feet so:

2,499 x 168 = 419,832 foot pounds per minute

Since 33,000 foot pound per minute equals one horsepower. We will divide and
get:

419,832 / 33,000 = 12.73 horsepower.

This means that the pump is putting out 12.73 horsepower. Now, the next
question is how much actual horsepower is required to do this?

Please take a look at the ascending lines on the bottom of the chart. Each line
represents a different size impeller with the top line showing the horsepower
required for a 13-inch impeller and the bottom line for a 9-inch impeller. The
horsepower required is shown in the left column under bhp. (brake horsepower).

46
Notice that it calls for 20 horsepower to move 300 gallons per minute with a 13-
inch impeller.

If the pump were 100% efficient, all you would need would be 12.73 horsepower
motor to drive the pump and it would do the job, but motors and pumps are not
100 % efficient because of friction losses and heat generation. This means that
our actual efficiency is

12.73 hp out / 20 hp in = 0.64 or 64% efficient

Suppose the specific gravity of the fluid you are pumping is different than 1.0
(cold water). Just plug the new number into the formula and multiply the pump
curve bhp by the same number. Using a specific gravity of 1.3, the change would
look like this:

300 x 8.33 x 1.3 = 3248.70 pounds per minute

3248.70 x 168 = 545,781.60 foot-pounds per minute

545,781.6 / 33000 = 16.54 water horsepower out of the pump

20 x 1.3 = 26 horsepower is going into the pump

16.54 / 26 = 0.64 efficient

A few things you should know about your pump's piping system

• There should be at least 10 diameters of pipe between the suction of the pump and
the first elbow. This is especially critical in double-ended pump designs as the
turbulent inlet flow can cause shaft thrusting, and subsequent bearing problems. If
an elbow must be installed be sure it is in a plane at right angles to the pump shaft
to prevent an uneven flow to both sides of a double suction impeller.
• Pipe from the pump suction flange to the pipe rack, not the other way around.
• Make sure eccentric reducers are not installed upside down at the pump suction.
The top of the reducer should go straight into the suction flange.
• Piping should be arranged with as few bends as possible. If bends are necessary
use a long radius when ever possible
• Valve stems, T Branches and elbows should be installed perpendicular to the
pump shaft, not at right angles.
• If an expansion joint is installed in the piping between the pump and the nearest
point of anchor in the piping, It should be noted that a force equal to the area of
the expansion joint (which could be a lot larger than the normal piping size) times

47
 the pressure in the piping will be transmitted to the pump proper. Pipe couplings
that do not provide an axially rigid connection have the same affect. If an
expansion join or non-rigid coupling must be used, it is recommended that a pipe
anchor be installed between it and the pump.
• Be aware that radial forces are being generated in the pump housing from the
pressure in the piping system acting on the volute area. The magnitude and
direction of the forces is dependent upon the piping arrangement along with the
areas and pressures involved.
• It is always a good idea to increase the size of the suction and discharge pipes at
the pump nozzle in order to decrease the head loss from pipe friction.
• Suction piping should be at least one size larger than the suction flange at the
pump.
• If increasers are used on the discharge side to increase the size of discharge piping,
they should be installed between the check valve and the pump.
• Both a check and gate valve should be installed in the discharge piping with the
check valve placed between the pump and the stop valve to protect the pump
from reverse flow and excessive back pressure. Manually operated discharge
valves that are hard to reach should have some facility for quick closing. A
sprocket rim wheel and chain or a remotely operated motor are two alternatives
you might consider.
• Suction piping must be kept free of air leaks.
• The installation of check valves should be avoided in the suction piping although
they are often used to reduce the number of valves that have to be operated in
switching between series and parallel pump operation.
• A foot valve is often installed in the suction piping to aid priming. Do not install
them if the pump is operating against a high static head because failure of the
driver would allow liquid to rush back suddenly causing water hammer. This is
especially true for vertical turbine and submersible pumps that are not designed
for use with a foot valve.
• Foot valves should be of the low loss flap type rather than the multiple spring
variety and have a clear passage for the liquid at least the same area as the suction
piping.
• A horizontal suction line should have a gradual rise or slope to the pump suction.
• Cast iron pumps should never be provided with raised face flanges. If steel
suction or discharge piping is used, the pipe flanges should be of the flat face type
and not the raised face type. Full-faced gaskets must be used with cast iron
flanges.
• The optimum control valve location is within five feet (1,5 meters) of the pump
discharge to prevent too much surging of fluid in the system when the discharge
is throttled.
• The optimum pipe size will consider the installed cost of the pipe (the cost
increases with size) and the pump power requirements (the power required
increases with pipe friction)
o Try to limit the friction loss at design flow to 2-5 feet for each 100 feet (1-
2 meters for each 30 meters) of pipe).

48
 o To prevent the settling of solids you need a minimum velocity of about 4
to 7 feet per second (1.5 to 2.5 meters per second)
o Velocities of no more than 10 feet (3 meters) per second are recommended
in the suction side piping to prevent abrasive wear.

A few rules of thumb for mechanical seals

Before selecting your mechanical seal design there are three things you want to
remember:

• All of the seal materials must be chemically compatible with any fluids that will
be pumped through the system and that includes solvents, cleaners or steam that
might be introduced into the system to flush or clean the lines. It also includes
any barrier fluids that are used to circulate between dual mechanical seals.
• The seal faces must stay together. If they open the seal will leak and allow solids
to penetrate between the faces where the solids will eventually destroy the lapped
surfaces.
• Good seal life is defined as running the mechanical seal until the carbon face is
worn away. Any other condition is called a seal failure and is always correctable

The following is offered as a guide when dealing with mechanical seals in

general. If possible you should contact the manufacturer for specific
recommendations and limits. I have spent the past twenty seven years lecturing
about seals and pumps and during that time have picked up a number of rules
that are worth remembering. Here are some of the most important:

• Selecting materials - The elastomer ( the rubber part)

• There are two temperature limits for a mechanical seal:
o You must not exceed the temperature of the seal components. As an
example Ethylene Propylene rubber cannot seal hot fluids in excess of
300° degrees Fahrenheit ( 150° C) without taking a compression set and
eventually leaking.
o You must not exceed the temperature limit of the fluid you are pumping.
Many fluids will change from a liquid to a gas, solid or crystal at elevated
temperature. In almost every case this will cause a seal failure. As an
example, petroleum lubricating oil cokes between 250 and 300 degrees
Fahrenheit (120° C. to 150° C.) and restricts the movement of the seal
components. A Viton® O-ring, in this application would not have been
subjected to its temperature limit, but we had the seal failure because we
exceeded the temperature limit of petroleum products.
• Halogens will attack Teflon® coated elastomers . Halogens are easily identified
because they end in the letters " INE". The list would include Bromine, Chlorine.
Astatine, Fluorine, and Iodine. These Halogens will penetrate the Teflon®

49
 coating and attack the base rubber material causing it to swell and split the Teflon
sleeve or coating.
• Most Viton® compounds are attacked by water. Be sure to check if you have the
correct one. Remember that steam is another name for water and the steam
cleaning of lines is very common in the process industry. Caustic is another
common cleaner and caustic contains a high percentage of water also.
• Buna "N" (Nitrile) is an elastomer that has a short shelf life. This is the elastomer
that is most often used in Rubber Bellows Seals. The problem is Ozone attack.
Ozone is produced by the sparking from electric motors, so it is a very common
problem. A typical shelf life for most Buna compounds would be one year.
• If a round O-Ring becomes square in operation (compression set) it is almost
always caused by excessive heat. Chemical attack is usually recognized by a
swollen and soft elastomer while high heat will produce a shrunken, hard one.
• Chemical attack of the elastomer will usually cause a seal failure within five to
ten days. The swollen elastomer will "lock up" the mechanical seal and in some
instances, open the lapped seal faces.

Determine the correct O-Ring by one of the following methods:

• Look up the chemical in published O-Ring charts provided by all reputable seal
companies. You will find a chart in the chart section of this web site
• Check to see if the plant has any experience with O-Rings, in this fluid, in another
seal application. O-Rings can also be found in filters, strainers, valves, flanges,
expansion joints etc..
• Test the O-Ring by immersing it into the sealing fluid for one week. If the O-Ring
changes weight, shape, or appearance, it is not compatible with the fluid.
• Use a universal O-Ring compound such as Green Tweed's Chemraz, Dupont's
Kalrez® or a similar product.
• When choosing an O-Ring, or any other elastomer, be sure to consider any
cleaners or solvents that might be flushed through the lines or that could come
into contact with the seal. The elastomer must be compatible with these fluids
also.
• Never use " glued together" elastomers in a split seal or any "dynamic"
application. A hard spot will be created that will interfere with the movement of
the dynamic elastomer.

Selecting Materials - The Faces.

• Carbon and most hard face materials have an expansion rate of about one third
that of stainless steel.
• Use two hard faces if the product has a tendency to solidify between the seal faces.
Never use plated or coated hard faces in these applications. Hard faces are
recommended if you find that it is impossible to keep the seal faces together and
solids are present in the sealing liquid. Two hard faces are also recommended in
the sealing of hydrocarbons that have to pass a "fugitive emissions" test. Coke

50
 particles forming between the faces will pull pieces of carbon out of the
carbon/graphite face presenting a leak path for fugitive emissions.
• Although many carbon graphite compounds are available unfilled carbons are the
best because they are corrosion resistant to almost all chemicals except oxidizing
agents and some de ionized water applications. These oxidizing agents will
combine with the carbon to form Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide. The
most common oxidizers are oleum, sulfur trioxide, strong bleaches and nitric
Acid. You cannot use any form of carbon in these applications. Keep in mind that
black elastomers will also be attacked by oxidizing agents because of their carbon
content.
• Ceramic vs. ceramic is a good choice for oxidizing chemicals.
• If you are going to select plated Tungsten Carbide as a face material, use only the
nickel base Tungsten Carbide. Cobalt base is too hard and can crack with normal
seal face differential temperatures. Nickel base, because of its superior corrosion
resistance is the preferred material for solid Tungsten Carbide faces also.
• Reaction bonded Silicone Carbide has excellent wear characteristics, but contains
up to 17% free silica which can be attacked by many chemicals including caustic.
Alpha sintered Silicone Carbide is also available and is Silica free.
• 85% ceramic should never be recommended as a hard seal face as it can break
with as little as a 100 degree Fahrenheit (55 C) temperature difference. 99.5%
would be a much better choice.
• Plating or coating a seal face will not give it corrosion resistance. Coatings are
used for wear resistance and low friction. To get corrosion resistance the outer
coating must be at least 1/8" (3 mm) thick. If the base material is not corrosion
resistant to the pumping fluid and any cleaners or solvents used in the lines the
corrosive will go through the coating and attack the base, causing the plating to
come off in sheets.

Selecting Materials - The Metal Parts.

• Be sure to use low expansion metal such as Carpenter 42 or Invar 36 in your

metal bellows seal face holder if the product temperature can exceed 400°
Fahrenheit (205°C). These low expansion steels will prevent the carbon or hard
seal faces from leaking between the face and the metal holder. Needless to say
glue or epoxy is not a sensible solution to differential expansion problems.
• If your pump is manufactured from Iron, steel, stainless steel, or bronze, you can
probably use a seal manufactured from 316 stainless steel components. The
springs or bellows, however, must be manufactured from Hastelloy "C" to avoid
problems with Chloride Stress Corrosion.

Sealing Limits

• Use only stationary mechanical seals (the springs do not rotate with the shaft) if
the face surface speed exceeds 5000 feet per minute ( 25 M/sec.), but never in a
cartridge design unless some method has been provided to insure that the
cartridge sleeve is square to the shaft.

51
 • Use O-Ring balanced seals in vacuum applications down to 10-2 inches or one
millimeter of mercury (1 Torr.). The O-Ring is the only elastomer that can seal
both vacuum and pressure. Split seals will work in these applications, but they
must be turned around for best operation.
• Any good quality, balanced, O-Ring seal can seal stuffing box pressures to 400
psi (28 bar) and temperatures to 400 degrees Fahrenheit (205° C). There is a
compound of Dupont's Kalrez® that is satisfactory to 600 degrees Fahrenheit
(370° C), but it is not acceptable at ambient temperatures (it gets too hard).

Application

• A Balanced O-Ring seal will not vaporize the product at the seal face if the
stuffing box pressure is at least one atmosphere above the products vapor point.
• The easiest product to seal is a cool, clean, lubricating liquid. All problem
chemicals can be placed into several categories. If you know how to seal these
categories you should have no trouble making seals work in your applications :
o Products that crystallize (caustic or sugar solutions)
o Viscous products (asphalt or molasses)
o Products that solidify (polymers or chocolate)
o Products that vaporize (hot water or benzene)
o Film building liquids (hot petroleum or plating solutions)
o High temperature fluids (heat transfer oil or liquid sulfur)
o Dangerous products (fire hazard, explosive, radioactive, bacteria)
o Non lubricating liquids (solvents or hot water)
o Gases and dry running applications (hydrogen)
o Dry solids (cake mix or pharmaceuticals)
o Corrosive fluids (acids or strong bases)
o Cryogenics (liquid nitrogen)
o Slurries (river water, sewage, most raw products)
• In addition to these chemical categories there are other sealing problems that
include:
o High pressure
o Hard vacuum
o High speed
o Excessive motion
• Dual seals should be balanced in both directions to prevent failure when barrier
fluid pressure changes. The practice of using "one direction" seal balance is
commonly employed by most seal companies and should be avoided for both
safety and reliability.
• Use motion seals on mixers, agitators, sleeve bearing equipment and any rotating
device that has motion greater than 0.005" (0,15 mm.) in a radial or axial
direction. Pump seals do not work well in these applications because the hard
faces are too narrow and the internal seal clearances are too tight.
• Do not use flushing fluid as a coolant in stationary mechanical seals. The coolant
will be directed to only one side of the seal and since a stationary seal does not
rotate the sliding components the differential temperature can cause the faces to

52
 go out of flat. In the case of stationary bellows seals it could cause a bellows
rupture.
• The best way to cool a seal is to use the jacketed stuffing box that came as a part
of the pump. This jacket will not only cool down the seal area, but will provide
the necessary cooling to the shaft so that it will not transmit stuffing box heat
back to the bearings.
• The use of steam in a Quench gland is another solution, but not as good as the
jacketed stuffing box.
• It is all right to dead end fluid in a stuffing box if a jacketed stuffing box is being
used. Do not attempt to recirculate back to the suction side and cool the stuffing
box at the same time. When using a jacketed stuffing box it is best to install a
carbon bushing in the bottom to act as a thermal barrier the pumping fluid and the
seal.
• Do not use rotating, "Back to Back" double seals in dirt or slurry service. The
solids will prevent the inner seal from moving forward as the faces wear and if
the barrier fluid pressure is lost, solids will penetrate the inner seal faces.
• Be sure to vent vertical pumps back to the suction side of the pump. Air trapped
in the stuffing box can cause the seal faces to run hot and in some instances
destroy the elastomer.
• Cyclone type separators or "in line filters" are not a good method of cleaning up
the fluid in the stuffing box.
• Heat affects a seal several ways:
o The faces can be attacked. Plated faces can have the hard coating crack off
and filled carbons can have the binder melted out in high heat.
o The elastomer (rubber part) has a temperature limit determined by the
compound used.
o The corrosion rate of all liquids increases with temperature.
o Thermal expansion can cause seal face loads to alter and seal face flatness
to change.
o Many products will change from a liquid to a solid or gas in the presence
of high temperature. If this should occur between the seal faces, they can
be blown open.
• Do not be tempted to put the mechanical seal outside of the stuffing box to keep
the springs out of the fluid. As the face wears the seal must move into the slurry
where it will eventually "hang up" and leak. In these applications centrifugal
force is throwing solids into the lapped faces and if there is excessive pressure in
the system the seal faces will be blown open.
• When choosing the pressure range of a mechanical seal be sure to consider the
stuffing box pressure not the pump discharge pressure. Very few seals will ever
see discharge pressure.

Technical

• Seals lapped to less than three helium light bands ( 0.000034") inches or 1,0
microns) should not show visible leakage. Visible leakage occurs at about 5 light
bands.

53
• A typical mechanical seal face load would be 30 psi. (0,2 N/mm2) when the
carbon is new and 10 psi. (0,07 N/mm2) when the carbon is fully worn away.
You must never guess as to how much to compress a mechanical seal. Either take
the information from the seal print or calculate the correct length from the above
information.
• Both rotating and stationary metal bellows seals require vibration damping.
Elastomer seals do not experience this vibration problem because the elastomer
touching the shaft is a natural vibration damper. Vibration can be either harmonic
or caused by poor lubricating fluids (slip stick)
• Use only non fretting seal designs. Shafts and sleeves cost too much to ignore this
severe problem.
• Carbon throat bushings should have a shaft clearance of 0.002 inches/inch (0,002
mm/ millimeter) of shaft diameter. If they are to be used as a support bearing you
should cut the clearance down to 0.001 inches/ inch (0,001 mm/millimeter) of
shaft diameter.
• It is not necessary to lubricate seal faces at installation. If the product you are
sealing can vaporize between the faces and cause freezing then you must remove
any lubricant that might have been placed there by the manufacturer.
• Balanced mechanical seals consume about one sixth the horsepower of packing.
Packing a pump would be like running your automobile with the emergency
brake engaged. The car would run, but the fuel consumption would be high.
• Single spring seals are wound in either a right or left handed direction. Check to
see if your seal has a problem in keeping the faces together because of the spring
winding.
• Open impeller pumps require impeller adjustment. Use only cartridge or split
seals in these applications. Do not use seals that locate against a shoulder or set
screw to the shaft, as the face load will change when the impeller is adjusted.
• Do not relap the carbon face unless it is an emergency. Seal face opening is a
common seal failure. When the faces open solid particles imbed them selves into
the carbon face and will be driven in even further during the lapping process. If
you must relap in an emergency never use lapping powder, as the abrasive
particles will imbed into the soft carbon.
• You cannot balance an inside seal by removing material from the carbon face. To
get seal balance you must do one of the following:
o Use a stepped sleeve with rotating seals.
o Let the carbon slide in a case that is sealed to the shaft.
o Use a metal bellows. The balance is not perfect, but good enough.
o Use a stationary seal design, they require no stepped sleeves.
• Seal face hardness is a confusing subject because of the various measuring scales
employed. The two most common are Rockwell "C" and Brinnell. If you divide
the Brinnell scale by ten (10) it is almost equal to the Rockwell "C" scale.
• Avoid oil as a barrier or buffer fluid between two mechanical seals. Most
petroleum base and other oils have a low specific heat (0.2 - 0.4) and combined
with poor conductivity (0.5 of water) makes them a poor choice compared to
fresh water. If oil is mandatory, a clean heat transfer oil would be your best
choice.

54
 • A convection tank can often be used between two balanced O-Ring seals. If you
use unbalanced seals the heat generated by this type of seal is usually excessive
for convection cooling. Contact the seal manufacturer for his recommendations
concerning speed, diameter, face combination and pressure limits for convection
cooling. If convection is not satisfactory, a pumping ring or forced lubrication is
another option.
• If you decide to repair your mechanical seals in house, be sure to purchase the
parts from the original manufacturer. If you decide to have them repaired send
them back to the original manufacturer. It is important that the seal be rebuilt with
the original materials and it must meet the original tolerances. This information is
not available from the manufacturer because of product liability problems.
• O-ring seal designs can tolerate three to four times the "run out" capability of
sliding or pusher seals incorporating wedges, chevrons, U- cups etc..
• Oil on the seal faces can cause the faces to stick together during long periods of
non running. If you do not intend to run the equipment soon remove any oil that
might be on the seal faces during the assembly procedure.

A quick reference to prevent potential seal and pump problems:

The biggest advantage of experience is you have hopefully learned what can get
you into trouble. The following information has been explained in detail in
previous technical papers, but I still see the same problems re-occurring on a
daily basis.

Take a few minutes and look at the following. It might save you a seal or pump
failure.

MATERIALS

• Carbon seal face. Any form of carbon is usually not acceptable in the following
applications:
o Oxidizers, they combine with carbon to form CO & CO2
o Halogens (most of them end in the letters "ine") chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, astintine & iodine
o Where color contamination can be a problem.
o Some de-ionized water applications.
o Hot petroleum products if you are concerned about fugitive emissions.
• A special carbon is used for cryogenic and hot dry air applications. Moisture is
needed to make the graphite release from the carbon-graphite mixture, and in
these applications the needed moisture is not present. A special carbon with an
imbedded organic is made to satisfy these applications.
• Ceramic grade 99.5 is not a satisfactory hard face in hot applications because of
its poor thermal conductivity. Alpha grade silicone carbide or tungsten carbide
are much better choices.

55
 • Ethylene Propylene Rubber O-Rings will be attacked by petroleum products and
this includes any petroleum grease that might be put on the O-ring during the
installation process.
• Kalrez® grade 3018 is not satisfactory if the temperature is below 600°F. (315°C.)
The material is too hard at these lower temperatures.
• Nickel base tungsten carbide can cause galvanic corrosion problems with stainless
steel shafts.
• Reaction bonded silicone carbide is not satisfactory for caustic or most high PH
materials.
• Viton® O-rings are not generally satisfactory in water based fluids. This also
includes steam cleaning or flushing the lines with water based caustic solutions.
Grade 747-75 fluorocarbon is O.K. if the water is cold, but ethylene propylene
rubber is still your best choice as long as the temperature does not exceed 300°F
(150°C.).
• White Chemraz is not recommended for most high PH fluids. Do not use it with:
o Acetaldehyde, Ammonia + Lithium metal solution, Aqua Regia, Black
liquor, DI water, Ethyl Formate, Ethylene Oxide, FC 75, Freon 113 -114 -
114B2 - 115 - 142B- C318 - PCA - TF, Fuming Sulfuric Acid, Green
Sulfate Liquor, KEL-F- Liquids, Lye, Magnesium Hydroxide, Red
Fuming Nitric Acid, Potassium Hydroxide, Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic),
Fuming Sulfuric Acid, and White Liquor.
• If you choose the wrong elastomer it will be attacked by the fluid and break down.
For the first few days the seal will work very well because the elastomer has
become "slimy" and moves easily. The elastomer will then "swell-up" and lock-
up the moveable seal components.

APPLICATION

Remember that chemical attack can be accelerated by temperature, fluid

concentration, and stress. Past plant experience is your best indicator of what
seal and pump materials to use.

• Ammonia compressor; use Neoprene for the O-ring because the fluid is a
combination of ammonia and petroleum oil.
• Black Liquor, as found in paper mill applications can be either sulfite or sulfate.
Sulfate (high PH) is the most common and ethylene propylene can be used for the
O-ring material if the temperature is below 300°F (150°C). If the temperature is
too high, Kalrez is a good choice. White Chemraz is not recommended in these
higher temperature caustic applications.
• Boiler feed pump applications vary a great deal. In some cases they are nothing
more than a simple hot water application, but in other instances a very high
pressure is involved. In any case, cooling is needed in the stuffing box to insure
long seal life. High pressure applications also require a heavy duty seal design.
• Caustic. If the concentration is over 50% Monel metal will probably be needed.
The metal selection depends upon the temperature and stress.

56
 • Ethylene Oxide will penetrate into most elastomers and explode out the other side
of the O-ring. Use two seals and pressurize between them. Ethylene Oxide is a
dangerous product, so two seals should be used in any case.
• Halogens attack most carbon faces and will penetrate the Teflon® encapsulated
O-rings like Vanway, Creavey and & 76 style.
• Hot oils. Coking is always the problem. The seal area must be cooled. Coking is a
function of temperature and time and is independent of the presence of oxygen. If
you want to seal fugitive emissions you will have to go to two hard faces. Even
the best of carbons show some blistering in these applications. In other words, a
metal bellows seal will not eliminate the need for stuffing box cooling.
• High temperature applications. Most metal bellows seal designs incorporate a low
expansion holder (Invar 36 or Carpenter 42) to retain the carbon face. This holder
is also frequently used as a vibration damper to prevent seal face separation
problems caused by "slip stick." If you lose cooling in these applications the
pump shaft expands at a rate three times that of the low expansion steel vibration
damper and can cause the seal faces to be pulled open.
• Kaoline (china clay) will penetrate lapped seal faces because the solids are less
than one micron in size. You will need two seals with a pressurized barrier fluid
between the seals. Water is a good choice for this barrier fluid.
• Latex balls up between the seal faces. Dual seals with a pressurized water barrier
fluid have been used in this application, and non contacting gas seal seem to be
the current choice, but flushing with a small amount of cold water seems to be the
only satisfactory solution to this application.
• Paper stock always requires a small amount of flushing water. You cannot use
suction recirculation and centrifugal force to separate the stock from the water
because of the stock's low specific gravity. If the pump is trying to "lift" paper
stock it will almost always cavitate.
• Pipe line applications almost always involve high pressure. Heavy duty seals
should be used in these applications.
• Products that freeze (cryogenic). Watch out for moisture outboard of the seal.
Dual seals with anti-freeze circulating in a convection tank is your best bet. Do
not put any grease on the seal faces. It will freeze also.
• Salt water. Coat the O-rings and all clamped surfaces with Zinc Oxide paste to
prevent corrosion at these locations.
• Sulfuric acid. Alloy 20 metal is usually needed for these applications. Any
leakage will cause severe corrosion as the product is diluted.

CONVERTING FROM PACKING TO SEALS

Horizontally split pumps:

• Suction recirculation will not work if the stuffing box is at suction pressure. Most
single stage designs fit into this category
• The face of the stuffing box must be resurfaced to get a good gasket seal.

57
 • If you are making a new gasket between the casing halves, be sure to have it
extend outside the stuffing box face and then trim it flush after the halves are
tightened together.
• Be sure to seal between the sleeve and the impeller. This is a potential leak path
after a mechanical seal is installed.
• Some sleeves terminate under the seal. Check that you will not have a corrosion
problem if the sleeve and shaft are different materials,
• Sometimes a new gasket will extrude into the sides of the stuffing box when the
two halves of the pump are bolted together. The gasket can then rub against the
side of the seal interfering with its movement.
• You will need either a stationary mechanical seal or some type of self aligning
feature to seal these pumps successfully.

Flyte sewage pumps can be converted to a single mechanical seal if a special

adapter is made. It's worth the problem. You only have to seal the bearing cavity
in this application

MISCELLANEOUS

• Discharge recirculation can act as a sand blaster against the seal body. This can be
a big problem with the thin metal plates found in metal bellows seals.
• Dual seal barrier or buffer fluid. Oils should be your last choice as a barrier or
buffer fluid because of oils' low specific heat and poor thermal conductivity. You
will definitely need a pumping ring if you are going to use a convection tank.
• Quenching. An excess of water or steam can easily get into, and ruin the bearings.
• Suction recirculation is not affective in the following:
o Duriron pumps, because of their semi- open impeller design.
o If the fluid is close to its vapor point. flashing will occur when the stuffing
box pressure drops.
o If the specific gravity of the solids is lower than the fluid. If the solids
float, centrifugal force will throw the liquid to the outside leaving the
solids against the seal components. Paper stock is a good example of this.
o Single stage, double ended pumps where the stuffing boxes are at suction
pressure.
• Seal set screws are normally manufactured from corrosion resistant materials and
are therefore softer than normal set screws. This means they can slip if reused.
You can substitute hardened set screws in most cartridge seal applications.
• Do not use any type of set screw on non-metallic shafts. Seals must be clamped to
the non metallic shaft or sleeve.
• Split seal designs. Most can seal either a pressure or a vacuum, but not if the
application alternates between them. You can run into this problem in some mixer
applications.
• Troubleshooting hints
o Are other seals working in this application? If they are, you know the
materials are alright. Now you must decide what is different about this
application.

58
 o Has the seal been repaired? You may be looking at a rub mark,
discoloration, or corrosion that is not relevant to this application.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

• Do not let the welder use the pump as an electrical ground. You can ruin the seal
or bearings in the process.
• Pumping off of the best efficiency point will not excessively deflect the shaft with
the following centrifugal pump designs:
o Double volute casings.
o Multi stage designs.
o Diffuser or turbine pump designs.
• Be sure to level the pump when you do an alignment.
• If you trim the impeller, file the tips and re balance the assembly.
• The next time that you look at the pump discharge gauge, remember that the
pump pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads. You must
subtract a positive suction head to determine what head the pump is really
creating.
• Bearing lip or grease seals have a useful life of less than 90 days and will cut and
score the shaft because of fretting corrosion.
• Never cool a bearing housing because it will shrink and over compress the
bearing. Cool only the bearing oil.
• Flushing the system with steam or a cleaner seldom flushes out the stuffing box of
the pump.
• Do not circulate shop water through the cooling jacket on a high temperature
pump. Condensate or low pressure steam is a better choice. Be sure to install a
thermal bushing in the end of the stuffing box to get effective temperature control
in the seal area. Make sure you come into the bottom of the jacket and out the top
to vent any air that might be trapped in the jacket.

What is the best pump and seal technology?

The "Best Technology" phrase comes up in recent government regulations and

every day plant conversations. So what is the best Mechanical Seal and Pump
Technology available today? Here is my opinion:

SEAL TECHNOLOGY

Materials

• Identifiable face materials compatible with the fluid to be sealed and any cleaners
or solvents put through the lines.
• Materials able to handle the full temperature range of the product you are sealing.
• Viton® compatible with water.

59
 • Hard faces that are not sensitive to temperate change or caustic cleaners.
• Unfilled carbon graphite seal faces
• No elastomers with shelf life.
• No stainless steel springs or bellows.

Design

• The seal should shut with spring and system hydraulic pressure.
• Hydraulically balanced designs for low heat generation.
• Two way balance in dual seal designs.
• Built in pumping ring for cartridge dual seals.
• Tandem configuration in dual seal designs. No rotating "back to back" designs.
• Stationary configuration for non-cartridge applications.
• Self aligning design for stationary cartridge versions.
• Springs designed out of the fluid.
• The elastomer should move to a clean surface as the faces wear.
• No spring loaded elastomers.
• Non fretting designs.
• Independent of shaft tolerance and finish
• Static elastomer located away from the seal face
• Cartridge sleeve sealed at wet end.
• Vibration damping of the seal face.
• Seal should be located close to bearing support.
• No elastomer in the seal face.
• Faces in compression.
• Wide operating range
• Low hysteresis.
• Equal & opposite clamping of stationary face.
• Sealing fluid located at the outside diameter of the seal faces
• Leak detection capability
• Independent of shaft finish and tolerance
• Compensate for thermal expansion and adjustments.
• Meet fugitive emission standards.
• Simple installation.
• Eliminate all elastomers if possible
• Short length leaving room for a shaft support bushing.
• Finite element analysis of all components.
• A method of supporting the shaft in the event of a bearing failure.
• Trapped gaskets.

OTHER

• Packaging to survive a one meter drop.

• Back up sealing.
• Built in seal face vent for vertical applications.
• No glued elastomers in split seal configurations.

60
BEST PUMP TECHNOLOGY

• Low shaft diameter to length ratio (less than 60 L3 /D4) .

• Large operating window
• C or D frame adapter to simplify driver to pump alignment
• Centerline design for thermal expansion.
• Oversize stuffing box.
• Adequate bearing retention (no snap rings).
• Positive bearing sealing.
• Oil level indication.
• Oil cooling availability.
• Low NPSH.
• Double volute to prevent shaft deflection.
• Suction specific speed number below 8500.
• Dynamically balanced rotating assembly.
• Impeller specific speed number selected for the application.
• Duplex metal impeller.
• Impeller investment cast.
• Adjust impeller from the wet end to prevent seal face load change.

A new method of troubleshooting centrifugal pumps and mechanical seals:

One of the U. S. based Japanese automobile manufacturers has a unique method of

troubleshooting any type of mechanical failure. The system is called the "Five Whys". It is a
simple but powerful concept, nothing has been solved until the question "why ?" has been asked
at least five times and a sensible answer has been given for each of the "why" questions. As an
example:

1. Why did the seal fail?

• The lapped faces opened and solids penetrated between them. (solids can't get in
until the faces open)

2. Why did the faces open?

• The set screws holding the rotary unit slipped due to a combination of vibration
and system pressure.

3. Set screws are not supposed to slip. Why did the set screws slip?

• The seal was installed on a hardened sleeve.

4. Why was the seal installed on a hardened sleeve?

• This was a packing conversion and a stock sleeve was used.

61
5. Why couldn't the mechanic tell the difference between a hardened sleeve and a soft
one?

• They were both stored in the same bin.

6 Why were they stored in the same bin?

• Because they had the same part number.

7. Why did they have the same part number?

• They should have had different part numbers. Once that problem is corrected, the
failures will stop.

Now you get the idea! Needless to say you may have to go further than just five "whys".
Let's try another example:

1. Why did the seal fail?

• The pump was cavitating and the vibration caused the carbon face to crack.

2. Why was the pump cavitating?

• It did not have enough suction head.

3. Why didn't it have enough suction head?

• The level in the tank got too low.

4. Why did the level in the tank get too low?

• I don't know.

You have not finished five "whys" so you better go find out why the level in the tank go
too low or the problem is going to repeat its self. In the above example the float got stuck
on a corroded rod, giving an incorrect level indication.

One more example should do it:

1. Why did the seal start to leak?

• The elastomer got hard and cracked.

2. Why did the elastomer get hard and crack?

• It got too hot.

3. Why did it get too hot?

62
 • The pump stuffing box ran dry.

4. Why did the stuffing box run dry?

• It was running under a vacuum and it was not supposed to.

5. Why was it running under a vacuum?

• A Goulds pump impeller was adjusted backwards to the back plate and the
impeller pump-out rings emptied the stuffing box.

6. Why was it adjusted backwards?

• Most of the pumps in the facility are of the Duriron brand and they normally
adjust to the back plate. The mechanic confused the impeller adjustment method.
He has since been retrained

This is a powerful trouble shooting technique. I hope you make good use of it.

Operation practices that cause frequent seal and bearing

maintenance problems

Wouldn't it be wonderful if the plant operation and maintenance departments

could work independently? The fact of the matter is that there are three types of
problems we encounter with centrifugal pumps and poor operation is one of them.
If you are curious, the other two are design problems and poor maintenance
practices.

Seals and bearings account for over eighty five percent (85%) of premature
centrifugal pump failure. In the following paragraphs we will be looking at only
those operation practices that can, and will cause premature seal and bearing
failure. Design and maintenance practices will be discussed in other papers in
this series.

When pumps were supplied with jam packing, the soft packing stabilized the
shaft to prevent too much deflection. In an effort to save flushing water and to
conserve power, many of these same pumps have since been converted to a
mechanical seal and the radial stabilization the packing provided has been lost.

The bad operating practices include:

Running the pump dry will cause over-heating and excessive vibration problems
that will shorten seal life. Here are some of the common reasons why a pump is
run dry:

63
 • Failing to vent the pump prior to start-up.
• Running the tank dry at the end of the operation cycle.
• Emptying the tank for steaming or introduction of the next product.
• Running on the steam that is being used to flush the tank.
• Starting the standby pump without venting it. Venting a hazardous product
can cause a lot of problems with the liquid disposal. Many operators have
stopped venting for that reason.
• Tank vents sometimes freeze during cold weather. This will cause a
vacuum in the suction tank, and in some cases could collapse the tank.
• Sump fluids are often dirty, corrosive or both. The control rods for the float
switch will often "gum up" or corrode and give a false reading to the
operator. He may think that there is an adequate level, when in fact, the
tank is empty.

Dead heading the pump can cause severe shaft deflection as the pump moves
off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.). This translates to excessive heat that will
affect both the seal and the bearings as well as causing the seal faces to open,
and the possibility of the impeller contacting the volute when the shaft deflects.

• Starting the centrifugal pump with a shut discharge valve is standard

practice with many operation departments. The concern is to save power
without realizing the damage that is being done to the mechanical seal,
impeller, wear rings and bearings.
• Some pumps are equipped with a recirculation valve that must be opened
to lessen the problem, but many times the valve is not opened, or the
bypass line is clogged or not of the correct diameter to prevent the
excessive head. Another point to remember is that if the bypass line is
discharged to the suction side of the pump the increased temperature can
cause cavitation.
• After a system has been blocked out the pump is started with one or more
valves not opened.
• Discharge valves are shut before the pump has been stopped.

Operating off of the best efficiency point (B.E.P.). Changing the flow rate of the
liquid causes shaft deflection that can fail the mechanical seal and over-load the
bearings.

• Starting the pump with the discharge valve closed to save power.
• The level in the suction tank is changing. Remember that the pump pumps
the difference between the discharge and suction heads. If the suction
head varies, the pump moves to a different point on its curve.
• Any upset in the system such as closing, throttling or opening a valve will
cause the pump to move to a new point on the curve as the tank fills.
• Pumping to the bottom of a tank will cause the pump to move to a different
point on the curve as the tank fills. Some systems were designed for a low
capacity positive displacement pump and have since been converted to a

64
 centrifugal design because of a need for higher capacity. Centrifugal
pumps must discharge to the top of the tank to prevent this problem.
• If the discharge piping is restricted because of product build up on the
inside walls, the pump will run throttled. This is one of the reasons that it is
important to take periodic flow and amperage readings.
• Increasing the flow will often cause cavitation problems.

Seal environmental controls are necessary to insure long mechanical seal life. It
is important that operations understand their function and need because many
times we find the controls installed, but not functioning.

• Cooling-heating jackets should show a differential temperature between

the inlet and outlet lines. If the jacket clogs up, this differential will be lost
and seal failure will shortly follow.
• Barrier fluid is circulated between two mechanical seals. There may or
may not be a differential temperature depending upon the flow rate. If a
convection tank is installed, there should be a temperature differential
between the inlet and outlet lines. The line coming out of the top of the
seal to the side of the tank should be warmer than the line from the bottom
of the tank to the bottom of the seals, otherwise the system is running
backwards and may fail completely. The level in the tank is also critical. It
should be above the tank inlet line or no convection will occur. Some
convection tanks are pressurized with a gas of some type. Many original
equipment (O.E.M.) seal designs will fail if this differential pressure is lost.
• Some seal glands (A.P.I. type) are equipped with a quench connection
that looks like the seal is leaking water or steam. If there is too much
steam pressure on this quench connection, the excessive leakage will get
into the bearings causing premature failure. The steam is often used to
keep the product warm to prevent it from solidifying, crystallizing, getting
too viscous, building a film on the faces etc. Operating people frequently
shut off the quench to stop the condensate from leaking.
• Flushing fluids are used for a variety of purposes, but most of the time
they are used to get rid of unwanted solids. The flush can be closely
controlled with a flow meter or throttling valve. The amount of flush is
determined by the seal design. As an example, those designs that have
springs in the product require more flush.
• It is important to check that the stuffing box has been vented in vertical
pumps. The vent should be coming out of the seal gland and not the
stuffing box lantern ring connection.

There are some additional things that all operators should know to insure longer
rotating equipment life. As an example :

• Mechanical seals have an 85% or more failure rate that is normally

correctable. This is causing unnecessary down time and excessive
operating expense. Seals should run until the sacrificial carbon face is

65
 • There are five different causes of cavitation.
• You should know where the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is on a particular
pump, and how far it is safe to operate off the B.E.P. with a mechanical
seal installed.
• You should be aware that washing down the pump area with a water hose
will cause premature bearing failure when the water penetrates the
bearing case.
• Learn about the affect of shaft L3/D4 on pump operation.
• Know how the pumped product affects the life of the mechanical seal and
why environmental controls are necessary.
• If you are not using cartridge seals, adjusting the open impeller for
efficiency will shorten the seal life. In most cases the seal will open as the
impeller is being adjusted to the volute. Durco pumps are the best
example of the exception to this rule. The popular Durco pumps adjust to
the back plate causing a compression of the seal faces that can create
mechanical seal "over heating" problems.
• Cycling pumps for test will often cause a mechanical seal failure unless an
environmental control has been installed to prevent the failure.
• Mechanical seals should be positioned after the impeller has been
adjusted for thermal growth. This is important on any pump that is
operated above 200°F (100°C) or you will experience premature seal
failure.
• Some elastomers will be affected by steaming the system. A great deal of
caution must be exercised if a flushing fluid such as caustic is going to be
circulated through the lines or used to clean a tank. Both the elastomer
and some seal faces (reaction bonded silicone carbide is a good example)
can be damaged. If the elastomer is attacked, the failure usually occurs
within one week of the cleaning procedure.
• The stuffing box must be vented on all vertical centrifugal pumps or
otherwise air will be trapped at the seal faces that can cause premature
failure of many seal designs.
• Most original equipment seal designs cause shaft damage (fretting)
necessitating the use of shaft sleeves that weaken the shaft and restrict
pump operation to a narrow range at the B.E.P..

Here are a few common misconceptions that cause friction between

maintenance and operation departments

• Shutting the pump discharge valve suddenly, will blow the seal open.
• All ceramics cold shock.
• High head, low capacity consumes a lot of power.
• The pump must come into the shop to change a mechanical seal.
• If you use two hard faces or dual mechanical seals in slurry applications,
you will not need flushing water with its corresponding product dilution.

66
 • If you use metal bellows seals for hot oil applications, you will not need the
stuffing box cooling jacket operating.
• It is O.K. to use an oversized impeller because throttling back will save
power.

A few more thoughts on the subject

• Operators should receive proper schooling on the trouble shooting and

maintenance of pumps. In the military and many modern plants, the
operator and the maintenance mechanic are often the same person. If the
operator knows how the pump works he will have no trouble figuring out
the solution to his problem. Too often he is told to keep the flow gage at a
certain point, or between two values without understanding what is
actually happening with the equipment. If the operator recognizes
cavitation he can tell the maintenance department and help them with
their trouble shooting.
• As you wander around the plant look out for painters that paint the springs
of outside and double mechanical seals. There is a trend to putting two
seals in a pump for environmental reasons and the painting of springs is
becoming a common problem.
• If someone is adjusting the impeller make sure he is resetting the seal
spring tension at the same time.
• If the pump is getting hot or making excessive noises, report it
immediately. After the failure, it does no good to tell maintenance that it
was making noise for two weeks.
• If you are the floor operator it is common knowledge that taking
temperature and pressure readings is very boring, especially on those
gages that are located in hot or awkward locations. Avoid the temptation
to "radio" these readings. From hot to failure is a very short trip.
• Maintenance's favorite expression is "there is never time to do it right, but
there is always time to fix it." Try to keep this in mind when the pressure is
on to get the equipment running again.
• Do not let cleaning people direct their "wash down" hoses directly at the
pump. Water entering the bearings through the lip or grease seals is a
major cause of premature bearing failure. Most water wash downs are
used to dilute and wash away seal leakage. Stop the leak and you have
eliminated the reason for the hose.
• A great many motor and electrical problems are caused by these same
wash down hoses.
• Cooling a bearing outside diameter will cause it to shrink and the bearing
will get hotter as the radial load increases. Keep the water hose and all
other forms of cooling off of the bearing casing.

The pump is not producing enough head to satisfy the application?

67
This is the first paper in a four part series about pump troubleshooting. Let me begin by
pointing out that there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when
troubleshooting centrifugal pump problems:

• The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and
discharge heads. If the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to
meet the system requirements. If the suction head decreases the pump head will
increase to meet the system requirements.
• A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two
numbers multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head
increases the capacity must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity
must increase.
• The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
• If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in
the pump, the suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in
the discharge system.
• Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time
the pump was sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most
plants, causing the pump to run on the left hand side of its curve.

THE PROBLEM COULD BE IN THE PUMP ITS SELF

• The impeller diameter is too small.

o The impeller is running at too slow a speed
o You are running an induction motor. Their speed is different than
synchronous motors. It's always slower. The pump curve was created
using a variable frequency motor that ran at a constant speed. Put a
tachometer on your motor to see its actual speed.
o Your pulley driven pump is running on the wrong pulley diameter.
o A variable frequency motor is running at the wrong speed.
o Check the speed of the driver if the pump is driven by something other
than an electric motor.
• There is something physically wrong with the motor. Check the bearings etc.
• Check the voltage of the electric motor. It may be too low.
• The impeller is damaged. The damage could be caused by excessive wear, erosion,
corrosion or some type of physical damage.
o Physical damage often occurs during the assembly process when the
impeller is driven on or off the shaft with a wooden block and a mallet.
Many impeller designs do not have a nut cast into the impeller hub to ease
removal.
o Erosion occurs when solids enter the eye of the impeller. The solids can
chip off pieces of the ceramic that are passivating the impeller, causing
localized corrosion.
o Damage can occur if the impeller to volute, or back plate clearance is too
small and the shaft experiences some type of deflection. The original
clearance could have diminished with thermal growth of the shaft. Keep in

68
 mind that some open impellers adjust to the volute (Goulds) while other
designs adjust to the back plate (Duriron).
• In an ANSI and similar design centrifugal pumps, the normal thrust towards the
volute has bent the snap ring designed for bearing retention. This can allow the
rotating impeller to hit the stationary volute.
• Here are some examples of shaft displacement:
o Operating the pump too far off the BEP.
o Pulley driven applications.
o Pipe strain.
o Misalignment between the pump and driver.
o The shaft could be bent.
o The rotating assembly was probably not dynamically balanced.
• The impeller is clogged. This is a major problem with closed impellers. With the
exception of finished product, most of what you will be pumping contains
entrained solids. Remember also that some products can solidify, or they can
crystallize with a change in fluid temperature or pressure.
• Impeller balance holes have been drilled between the eye and the wear rings of a
closed impeller. The reverse flow is interfering with the product entering the
impeller eye. A discharge recirculation line should have been used in place of the
balance holes to reduce the axial thrust.
• The double volute casting is clogged with solids or solids have built up on the
surface of the casting.
• The open impeller to volute clearance is too large. 0.017" (0,5 mm) is typical.
This excessive clearance will cause internal recirculation problems. A bad
installation, thermal growth, or normal impeller wear could be the cause.
o A large impeller to cutwater clearance can cause a problem called
discharge recirculation. Wear is a common symptom of this condition.
• If the impeller is positioned too close to the cutwater you could have cavitation
problems that will interfere with the head.
• The impeller specific speed number is too high. Lower specific speed numbered
impellers are used to build higher heads.
• An impeller inducer was left off at the time of assembly. Inducers are almost
always needed with high specific speed impellers. Leaving off the inducer can
cause cavitation problems that will interfere with the head.
• The impeller is loose on the shaft.
• The impeller is running backwards
• The shaft is running backwards because of a wiring problem.
• The pump is running backwards because the discharge check valve is not holding
and system pressure is causing the reverse rotation. This is a common problem
with pumps installed in a parallel configuration. Check valves are notoriously
unreliable.
• The impeller has been installed backwards. This can happen with closed impellers
on double ended pumps
• The second stage of a two stage pump is wired backwards. The pump reverses
when the second stage kicks in. You should have heard a loud noise when this
happened.

69
• The wear ring clearance is too large.
o This is a common problem if the shaft L3/D4 number is greater than 60 (2
in the metric system).
o You should replace the rings when the original clearance doubles.
Needless to say this can only be determined by inspection.
• If you are pumping a product at 200°F (100°C) or more you should use a
centerline design volute to prevent excessive wear ring wear as the volute grows
from the base straight up, engaging the wear rings.
• A wear ring is missing. It was probably left off during the installation process.
• A high suction tank level is reducing the differential pressure across the pump
increasing its capacity. The pump pumps the difference between the suction and
discharge heads.
• A bubble is trapped in the eye of the impeller. The eye is the lowest pressure area.
When this bubble forms it shuts off all liquid coming into the pump suction. This
could cause the pump to lose its prime.
• You cannot vent a running pump because centrifugal force will throw the liquid
out the vent leaving the air trapped inside.
• Air is coming directly into the pump. This happens with a negative pressure at the
suction side. Negative suction happens when the pump is lifting liquid, pumping
from a condenser hot well etc.
o Air is coming into the stuffing box through the pump packing.
o Air is coming into the stuffing box through an unbalanced mechanical seal.
As the carbon face wears the spring load holding the faces together
diminishes.
o If you are using mechanical seals in vacuum service, they should be of the
O-ring design. Unlike other designs, O-rings are the only shape that seals
both pressure and vacuum.
o The pump was not primed prior to start up. With the exception of the self
priming version, centrifugal pumps must be full of liquid at start up.
o Air can enter the stuffing box if the gasket between the two halves of a
double ended pump is defective or does not extend to the stuffing box face.
Any small gaps between the face of the stuffing box and the split at the
side of the stuffing box will allow either air in, or product out.
o Air is coming into the suction side of the pump through a pin hole in the
casing.
o Air is entering the stuffing box between the sleeve and the shaft. This
happens if you convert a double ended pump from packing to a
mechanical seal and fail to install a gasket or o-ring between the impeller
hub and the sleeve.
• The open impeller was adjusted backwards and now the close fitting "pump out
vanes" are creating a vacuum in the stuffing box.
• You need a volute casing instead of a concentric casing. Volute casings are much
better for producing head.
• You have the wrong size pump. It cannot meet the system curve requirements:
• The pump was not selected to meet the system curve requirements because no
system curve was given to the pump supplier.

70
 • At replacement time the same size pump was purchased because no one had
calculated losses in the system.
• The pump was sized from a piping diagram that was thirty five years old. There
have been numerous piping changes and additions since the original layout. In
many instances additional pumps have been installed and this pump is running in
parallel with them, but nobody knows it.

THE PROBLEM IS ON THE SUCTION SIDE OF THE PUMP. THE PUMP COULD BE
CAVITATING.

• Air is entering the suction piping at some point.

o Air is being pumped into the suction piping to reduce cavitation problems
o Fluid returning to the sump is being aerated by too far a free fall. The
return line should terminate below the liquid level.
o The fluid is vortexing at the pump inlet because the sump level is too low
and the pump capacity is too high.
o Air is coming into the system through valves above the water line or
gaskets in the piping flanges.
o The liquid source is being pumped dry. If this is a problem in your
application you might want to consider a self priming pump in the future.
• The vapor pressure of the fluid is too close to atmospheric pressure. When it rains
the drop in atmospheric pressure causes the inlet fluid to vaporize.
• There is a problem with the piping layout. It is reducing the head on the suction
side of the pump.
o There is too much piping between the pump suction and the source tank.
You may need a booster pump or an inducer. The higher the pump speed
the bigger the problem.
o There is an elbow too close to the pump suction. There should be at least
ten diameters of pipe between the elbow and the pump suction. Suction
piping should never run parallel with the pump shaft in a double ended
pump installation. This can cause unnecessary shaft thrusting.
o A piece of pipe of reduced diameter has been installed in the suction
piping.
o Piping was added on the inlet side of the pump to by-pass a piece of
equipment that was installed on the floor.
o A piping to pump reducer has been installed upside down causing an air
pocket. Concentric reducers can cause the same problem..
o Multiple pump inlets are too close together.
• The pump inlet is too close to the tank floor.
• The suction lift is too high.
• A gasket with too small an inside diameter has been installed in the suction piping
restricting the liquid flow.
• A gasket in the suction piping is not centered and is protruding into the product
stream.
• A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve in the suction piping. The loss
of head in a globe valve is many times that of a gate valve.

71
 • Two pumps are connected in series. The first pump is not sending enough
capacity to the second pump.
• The piping inlet is clogged.
• A filter or strainer is clogged or covered with something.
• Intermittent plugging of the suction inlet.
o Loose rags can do this.
o If the suction is from a pond, river, or the sea, grass can be pulled into the
suction inlet.
• A foot valve is stuck.
• A check valve is stuck partially closed
• The foot valve is too small.
• A small clam or marine animal cleared the suction screen, but has now grown
large on the pump side of the screen.
• The suction piping diameter has been reduced.
o The suction piping collapsed when a heavy object either hit or ran over the
piping.
o Solids have built up on the piping walls. Hard water is a good example of
this problem
o A liner has broken away from the piping wall and has collapsed in the
piping. Look for corrosion in the piping caused by a hole in the liner.
o A foreign object is stuck in the piping It was left there when the piping
was repaired.
o The suction is being throttled to prevent the heating of the process fluid.
This is a common operating procedure with fuel pumps where discharge
throttling could cause a fire or explosion.
• The pump inlet temperature is too high.
o The tank is being heated to deaerate the fluid, but it is heating the fluid up
too much. Look for this problem in boiler feed pump applications.
o The sun is heating the inlet piping. The piping should be insulated to
prevent this problem.
o The operating temperature of the pumped fluid has been increased to
accommodate the process requirements.
o A discharge recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid. You should
direct this line to a reservoir rather than the pump suction.
o Steam or some other hot cleaner is being circulated through the lines.
• The problem is in the tank connected to the suction of the pump.
o The pump capacity is too high for the tank volume.
o The tank float is stuck, showing a higher tank level that does not exist.
o The tank vent is partially shut or frozen, lowering the suction pressure.
o There is not enough NPSH available for the fluid you are pumping. Maybe
you can use an inducer or booster pump to increase the suction pressure.
o A high suction tank level is reducing the differential pressure across the
pump, increasing its capacity and lowering the head.

PROBLEMS ON THE DISCHARGE SIDE OF THE PUMP INCLUDING THE PIPING

72
 • Two pumps are in connected in series. The first pump does not have enough
capacity for the second pump. They should be running at the same speed with the
same width impeller.
• The pump discharge is connected to the bottom of the tank. The head is low until
the level in the tank increases.
• Units in the discharge piping should not normally be shut off, they should be by-
passed to prevent too much of a change in the pump's capacity.
• If too many units are being by-passed in the discharge system the head will
decrease as the capacity increases. This can happen if an extra storage tank farm
is being by-passed because the storage capacity is no longer needed.
• A bypass line has been installed in the pump discharge increasing the capacity
and lowering the head.
• Piping or fittings have been removed from the discharge side of the pump
reducing piping resistance.
• Connections have been installed in the discharge piping that have increased the
demand that increases capacity.
• The pump is acting as an accumulator, coming on when the tank level drops. The
head will be low until the accumulator is recharged.
• Consider the possibility of a siphon affect in the discharge piping. This will occur
if the pump discharge piping is entering into the top of a tank and discharging at a
lower level The pump must build enough head initially to take advantage of the
siphoning action.
• A discharge valve (manual or automatic) is opened too much.

The pump is not producing enough capacity to satisfy the

application?
Let me begin by pointing out that there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when
troubleshooting centrifugal pump problems:

• The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and
discharge heads. If the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to
meet the system requirements. If the suction head decreases the pump head will
increase to meet the system requirements.
• A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two
numbers multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head
increases the capacity must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity
must increase.
• The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
• If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in
the pump, the suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in
the discharge system.

73
 • Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time
the pump was sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most
plants, causing the pump to run on the left hand side of its curve.

THE PROBLEM IS IN THE PUMP ITS SELF:

• The impeller diameter is too small

• The impeller width is too narrow
• The impeller speed is too slow. Check the voltage and frequency
• The impeller is damaged.
• The impeller is clogged.
• The open impeller clearance is too large.
• The impeller to cutwater clearance is too large.
• The impeller specific speed number is too low.
• The impeller has been installed backwards
• The shaft is running backwards.
• The wear ring clearance is too large.
• A wear ring is missing.
• The second stage of a two stage pump is wired backwards.
• A bubble is trapped in the eye of the impeller.
• A low suction tank level is increasing the differential pressure across the pump
decreasing its capacity.
• Air is coming into the pump suction through the packing.
• Air is coming into the pump suction through an unbalanced mechanical seal.
• The pump was not primed prior to star up.
• You may need a concentric casing rather than the volute design.
• You are using a variable speed motor trying to produce a flat curve. Remember
that both the head and capacity change with speed.
• The pump is the wrong size. Someone gave the pump distributor a wrong system
curve

THE PROBLEM IS ON THE SUCTION SIDE OF THE PUMP

• There is too much piping between the pump suction and the source tank.
• There is an elbow too close to the pump suction.
• A filter or strainer is clogged.
• Intermittent plugging of the suction inlet. Loose rags can do this.
• A foot valve is stuck
• The tank float is stuck. Showing a higher tank level that does not exist.
• The tank vent is partially shut or frozen.
• A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve.
• A check valve is stuck partially closed
• Solids have built up on the piping walls.
• A liner has broken away from the piping wall and has collapsed in the piping.
• The piping was collapsed by a heavy object that hit the outside of the piping.
• A foreign object is stuck in the piping It was left there when the piping was
repaired.

74
 • A small clam cleared the suction screen, but has now grown large on the pump
side of the screen.
• The sun is heating the inlet piping. It should be insulated to prevent this problem.
• Piping was added on the inlet side of the pump to compensate for a piece of
equipment that was installed in the shop.
• A reducer has been installed upside down.
• A discharge recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid.
• The pump capacity is too high for the tank volume.
• Multiple pump inlets are too close together.
• The suction lift is too high.
• There is not enough NPSH available for the fluid you are pumping. Maybe you
can use an inducer to increase the suction pressure.
• Air is coming into the system through valves above the water line or gaskets in
the piping.
• Air is being pumped into the suction piping to reduce cavitation problems
• Fluid returning to the sump is being aerated by too far a free fall.
• The fluid is vortexing at the pump inlet because the sump level is too low.
• The tank is being heated to deaerate the fluid, but it is heating the fluid up too
much.
• Two pumps are connected in series. The first pump is not sending enough
capacity to the second pump.
• The operating temperature of the pumped fluid has increased.
• The vapor pressure of the fluid is too close to atmospheric pressure. When it rains
the drop in atmospheric pressure causes the inlet fluid to vaporize.
• The suction is being throttled to prevent the heating of the process fluid.

PROBLEMS ON THE DISCHARGE SIDE OF THE PUMP INCLUDING THE PIPING

• Extra piping has been added to the system to accommodate extra storage capacity.
• A bypass line has been installed in the pump discharge.
• Piping or fittings have been added to the discharge side of the pump.
• An orifice has been installed in the discharge piping to reduce the capacity or
produce a false head.
• A gate valve has been substituted for a globe valve in the discharge piping.
• A check valve is stuck partially closed.
• An orifice has been installed into the piping to restrict flow.
• The piping was collapsed by a heavy object that hit the outside of the piping.
• The discharge valve is throttled too much.
• There is a restriction in the discharge piping.
• Extra pumps have been installed into the existing piping They are connected in
parallel, but are not producing the same head.
• Two pumps are in parallel. The larger one is shutting the check valve of the
smaller pump.
• Two pumps are in connected in series. The first pump does not have enough
capacity for the second pump. They should be running at the same speed with the
same width impeller

75
 • The pump discharge is connected to the bottom of the tank. The head is increasing
and the capacity is decreasing as the tank fills.
• The pump is acting as an accumulator&emdash;coming on when the tank level
drops. The head is too high when the tank fills.

Pump selection practices that cause high seal and bearing

maintenance problems:
Purchasing well designed hardware does not bring automatic trouble free performance with it.
The very best equipment will cause problems if it was not designed for your particular application.
Here are a few of the more common selection problems we find with centrifugal pumps:

• Buying the same size pump as the one that came out of the application. That's
O.K. If the old pump was the correct size, but the odds are that it was too big
because of the safety factors that were added at the time of purchase. This will
cause the pump to run off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.) and you will spend
a lot of production money for the additional power that is needed to run against a
throttled discharge valve or orifice installed in the discharge piping.
• Buying to a standard, or making a decision based on efficiency, and believing that
these two some how relate to quality. Standards were written for packed pumps.
When a mechanical seal is being used the shaft L3/D4 number is almost always
too large. Efficiency is always gained at the expense of maintenance. Efficiency
means tight tolerances and smooth passages that will eliminate reliable double
volute designs and keep the maintenance department busy adjusting tight
tolerances to maintain the efficiency you paid for.
• Series and parallel installation problems. We often find pumps installed in parallel,
but no one knows it because the second pump was installed at a much later date
and no one has bothered to trace the piping. Pumps in parallel require that they
have the same diameter impeller and that they run at the same speed, or the larger
pump will throttle the smaller one causing it to run off the best efficiency point,
deflecting the shaft. The capacity should be looked at if the higher capacity pump
might exceed the N.P.S.H. available.
• When pumps are installed in series the impellers must be the same width and they
must run at the same speed or the higher capacity pump will either cavitate
because the smaller capacity pump can not feed liquid at the proper capacity, or it
will run throttled if it is feeding the smaller pump. In either case the larger of the
two pumps will be adversely affected.
• Purchasing a larger pump because it will be needed in the future. Will raise the
operating cost to unacceptable levels (Power = head x capacity) as the pump is
run against a throttled discharge valve. This inefficient use of power will translate
to a higher heat environment for the seal along with all of the problems associated
with shaft deflection.
• Using a variable speed motor to compensate for a pump curve that is not flat
enough. Many boiler feed pumps require a flat curve so that the pump can put out

76
 varying capacities at a constant boiler pressure (head). We see this same need if
we are pumping a varying amount of liquid to a very high constant height.
• Varying the speed of a pump is similar to changing the diameter of the impeller. If
you look at a typical pump curve you will observe that the best efficiency point
(B.E.P.) comes down with impeller size to form an angle with the base line
(capacity line) of the graph. This means that if you vary the speed of the impeller,
the pump always runs off the B.E.P. except in the case where the system curve
intersects the pump curve, or in the case of an exponential system curve such as
we find in a typical hot or cold water circulating system.
• Double ended pumps installed in a vertical position to save floor space. Makes
seal replacement a nightmare unless you are using split or cartridge designs.
• Specifying a desired capacity without knowing the true system head. You can't
guess with this one. Some one has to make the calculations and "walk the system".
The present pump is not a reliable guide because we seldom know where it is
pumping on its' curve. Chart recorders installed on both the suction and discharge
side of the pump will give a more accurate reading of the present head if they are
left on long enough to record the differences in flow. The trouble with this
method is that it will also record a false head caused by a throttled valve, an
orifice, or any other restriction that might be present in the piping.
• Requesting too low a required N.P.S.H. will cause you to end up with a different
kind of cavitation problem. See another paper in this series for information about
"Internal recirculation".
• Failure to request a "center line design" when pumping temperature exceeds
200°F (100°C) it will cause pipe strain that will translate to wear ring damage and
excessive mechanical seal movement.
• The use of "inline" pumps to save floor space. Many of these designs are "close
coupled" with the motor bearings carrying the radial and thrust loads. Because of
typical L3/D4 numbers being very high, the wear rings act as "steady bearings"
after the pump is converted to a mechanical seal. The pump should have been
designed with a separate bearing case and a "C" or "D" frame adapter installed to
connect a motor to the bearing case.
• Thrust bearings being retained by a simple snap ring. Beyond 65% of its rated
efficiency most centrifugal pumps thrust towards the pump volute. The thin snap
ring has to absorb all of this axial thrust and most of them can not do it very well .
• The mechanical seal has been installed in a packing stuffing box that is too
narrow to allow free seal movement. If a mechanical seal was specified, the pump
back plate should have been manufactured with a large diameter seal chamber. In
most cases the stuffing box recirculation line should be installed from the bottom
of this large seal chamber to the suction side of the pump or a low pressure point
in the system. There are some exceptions to this, however:
o If you are pumping at or close to vapor point.
o If the entrained solids have a low specific gravity.
o If you are using a Duriron pump that adjusts to the back plate.
o If you are using a double suction pump where the stuffing boxes are at
suction pressure.
• High temperature applications have several special needs:

77
 o A jacketed stuffing box that isolates the pumpage from the stuffing box
contents by a carbon bushing to retard heat transfer.
o A centerline design to compensate for thermal expansion.
o A cartridge seal design that allows open impeller adjustment after the
pump has come up to operating temperature.
o A stainless steel shaft to retard heat transfer to the bearings.
o A method of cooling the bearing oil, but never the bearings.
o A coupling that will compensate for axial expansion.

The problem with pump

All about specific speed How to read a pump curve?
standards
Why prime a centrifugal pump? The oversized pump Understanding the system curve
Calculating the total system
How efficient is your pump? Piping system for pumps
head
What do we mean by pump Prevent potential seal and Estimating the shutoff head for
efficiency? pump problems pumps
Calculate the water HP coming
Rules of thumb for pumps Rules of thumb for seals
out of pump
A new technique of The best pump and seal Operational practices to avoid
troubleshooting technology? problems
Pumps does not develop Pump does not give enough Pump selection practices leads
enough head? flow? to problems
OSHA 1910 regulation

The problem with pump standards:

A Quick check of existing pump standards will reveal that there are a variety of
them. The list includes:

• Hydraulic Institute Standards

• American National Institute Standards for Chemical Pumps :
o B73.1 for Horizontal type.
o B73.2 for Vertical Inline
• API 610 for centrifugal Pumps
• API 674 for Reciprocating Pumps
• API 675 for Controlled Volume Pumps
• API 676 for Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps
• ISO aimed at the medium duty single stage pumps ( Metric)
• DIN. West German standard
• VDMA West German standard for pump seals.

There are two problems with these standards:

78
 • They were written for pumps equipped with jam packing. Most of the standards
were written in the nineteen fifties at a time mechanical seals were not popular. In
those days we had a lack of the modern materials that make mechanical seals
practical. As an example Viton® was not invented until 1958 and did not come
into general use until the sixties. Kalrez® did not come out until 1975 and in the
eighties the duplex metals came into their own.
• The customer believes that by purchasing a standard design he is getting a good
pump. Customers have the same problem with pump efficiency. They believe
there is a correlation between efficiency and the quality of the pump, needless to
say there is none! Problems caused by these standards are reflected in continual
poor seal performance. The fact of the matter is that these standards reflect only
an attempt to standardize envelope (outside) dimensions, nothing more!

Unfortunately standardizing the length of pumps prevented manufacturers from

designing short shafts that were not prone to the bending problems associated
with low cost A.N.S.I. and I.S.O. design pumps, operating off of their best
efficiency point (B.E.P).

Here is a list of some of the modifications you should make to your standard
A.N.S.I. or I.S.O. pump if you want to get good mechanical seal and bearing life.
Unless you are prepared to upgrade the pump seal and bearing life will always
be less than desirable

WHAT TO MODIFY

• The stuffing box bore is too small for mechanical seals. In most cases there is not
enough material to bore out so you will have to make or purchase a replacement
part. Most of these standard stuffing boxes were designed for 3/8" or 10 mm.
packing. You need at least 1" (25 mm.) radial clearance to take advantage of
centrifugal force throwing solids away from the seal faces.
• When using mechanical seals install a recirculation line from the bottom of the
stuffing box back to the suction of the pump. Try to tap the box as close to the
face as possible to insure good circulation. Most quality seals come with this
connection already installed in the gland.
• Because packing needs lubrication, the pump came equipped with a line from the
discharge side to the stuffing box lantern ring connection. If you install a large
sealing chamber in place of the narrow packing stuffing box that came as original
equipment you should be able to eliminate almost all need for clean flushing
liquid in the seal area. The only exception to this is if you are pumping a fluid
close to its vaporization point. In that instance you do not want to lower stuffing
box pressure because of the possibility of vaporizing the fluid in the stuffing box
and possibly blowing open the seal faces
• Convert to Cartridge or Split Seals to insure correct seal installation and allow
proper impeller settings in "Back Pull Out" or other types of pump designs.
• If you are using single stage centrifugal pumps convert to solid shafts with a low
L3/D4 ratio to resist shaft bending. The back pull out design was made for easy

79
 sleeve removal. If you are using good mechanical seals, corrosion resistant shaft
materials and labyrinth oil seals or positive bearing seals, there should be no need
to replace pump shafts.
• Pump manufacturers are not required to provide L3/D4 ratio numbers that would
predict shaft bending problems with their pump. The relationship between shaft
size and shaft diameter is expressed in the ratio L3/D4. Try to keep it below 60
(2.5 Metric)
o "L" is the distance from the center of the inboard bearing to the center of
the impeller (inches).
o "D" is the diameter of the shaft in the stuffing box area.(inches).
• Substitute labyrinth or positive face seals for the lip or grease seals that are
installed in the bearing case. They will not only do a better job of keeping
contaminants out of the bearing oil/grease, but they will not damage the
expensive shaft. These seals also make sense in the motors to eliminate moisture
from damaging the windings and contaminating the lubricating grease.
• Use only non- fretting mechanical seals. Shafts are too costly not to pay attention
to this.
• The easiest way to get pump/motor alignment is with a "C" (inch) or "D" (metric)
frame adapter. If you elect not to use the adapter you are in for a long process
aligning the pump and driver correctly, and unless you are using split mechanical
seals you are going to have to go through the procedure each time you change
seals. You should be able to get the C or D frame adapter as part of your next
power frame change or upgrade.
• Convert to a "Center Line" wet end if you are pumping liquids in excess of 200
degrees Fahrenheit (100 Centigrade) It will allow the suction flange to expand
without causing pipe strain and wear ring damage.
• Do not use a vent on the bearing cavity of the pump. Each time the pump stops
the vent will allow moisture to enter the bearing cavity as the oil cools down (this
is called aspiration). You are much better off positively sealing the casing and
installing an expansion chamber on the top of the casing to allow for air
expansion.
• If you intend to use a closed impeller, end suction, centrifugal pump try to convert
to a design that has adjustable wear rings
• Install a sight glass to be sure that the oil level is at the correct height. Too much
oil is as bad as not enough. If you have a positive pressure oil mist system be sure
that it does not vent to atmosphere. Oil mist systems require mechanical seals
outboard of the bearings to prevent atmosphere contamination. If you have
installed labyrinth seals, they will almost guarantee the correct oil level because
excess oil will spill out of the labyrinth.
• Coat the inside of the bearing case with a suitable protective covering to prevent
rusting and the leaching out of harmful substances from the bearing casting.
• Install magnetic plugs into the bottom of the bearing casing to attract loose metal
shavings that would damage the bearings.
• Specify double volute designs any time the impeller diameter is 14" (356 mm.) or
greater to prevent shaft deflection. Smaller size pumps do not lend themselves to
this modification.

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 • Convert to a "Vortex" pump volute any time you are pumping liquid that contains
lots of solids. Although the pump efficiency will be lower than conventional
designs, the increased service life will more than compensate.
• At overhaul time substitute a medium or heavy weight power end for the light
weight version that came with the pump and get most of the features we have
discussed. Medium and heavy weight power ends are available for most popular
pump brands.

In addition to these modifications mentioned here are some recommendations to

help insure good seal and bearing life.

• Since a seal failure is the most common reason for shutting down a pump, Install
a back up seal and convection tank to prevent unexpected shut downs.
• Change the bearing oil on a regular basis. Contact your favorite oil supplier for
his recommendation and then follow his advice. If the inside of the bearing frame
has been coated with a protective material to prevent rusting, avoid synthetic oils
as their detergent action can damage these protective coatings.
• Maintain the proper oil level. Too much is just as bad as not enough.
• Trim the impeller to obtain operation at the B.E.P. Throttling the pump discharge
is not the same thing.
• If you are using open impellers, keep them adjusted to the correct clearance.
• Install bearings by expanding the bore with an induction coil. Heating the bearing
in a pan of warm oil is not a good idea because the oil can easily be contaminated.
• Install pressure gages on the suction and discharge of the pump. This is the only
way to tell if the pump is running near its B.E.P.
• Do not specify Canned or Magnetic Pumps if the pumping fluid contains solids or
if it is a poor lubricant.

Pumps equipped with a "repeller" and some sort of static seal can usually be
converted to a good mechanical seal. The problem with the repeller design is that
in most of the designs the seal faces are designed to open when the pump is
running and then close on any solids as the pump stops. The rule with
mechanical seals is a simple one. "Keep the seal faces together" . Do not open
them on purpose.

O.S.H.A. 1910 REGULATION

The regulation is predictably vague, and presently only applies to pressure vessels, storage tanks,
processing piping, relief and vent systems, fire protection system components, emergency shut
down systems, alarms, interlocks and the part that is important to you, pumps . For the first time
Washington is telling the pump user that he has to now document the training he provides to
those people (including contractors) that will be operating or repairing his pumps. Be sure to pick
up a copy of this regulation for your library.

Here are some of the ingredients you will find in the regulation :

81
 • The chemicals in the O.S.H.A. # 1910 specification are different than those chemicals
identified by the E.P.A. for fugitive emission consideration. The O.S.H.A. list identifies
those chemicals that are considered "extremely hazardous" chemicals. O.S.H.A. feels
that the general industry standards are not sufficient for these chemicals
• Your employer is going to have to create a Process Safety Management audit team
(PSM) that will audit company training programs along with insuring that present and
future engineering practices conform to accepted standards and codes.
• The employer is going to have to identify the codes and standards he relied upon to
establish his engineering practices. If he departs from these codes and standards, he
must document that the design and construction are suitable for the intended purpose.
• The written training programs must be reviewed for adequacy of content, frequency of
training, and the effectiveness of the training in terms of goals and objectives. These
training programs must be revised if after the training the employee is not at the level of
skill or knowledge that was expected.
• Contract employees must also receive updated and current training.
• If an accident occurs, the plant is going to have to prove that their training program was
adequate.
• Any mechanical changes made by the maintenance department have to be evaluated to
determine whether operating procedures and practices also need to be changed. The
term "Change" includes all modifications to equipment.
• For existing processes that have been shut down for turnaround or modification, the
employer must ensure that any changes other than "replacement in kind" made to the
process during shutdown go through the management of change procedures.
• Equipment installation jobs need to be properly inspected in the field for use of proper
materials and procedures to insure that qualified workers do the job.
• The employer must ensure that the contractor has the appropriate job skills, knowledge,
and certification.
• The regulations require detailed records of every action taken in maintaining or rebuilding
a pump. The employer must identify which procedures were followed and why he elected
to use those procedures. He must also identify the training that maintenance personnel
had on repairing pumps in that service.
• Equipment used to process, store or handle hazardous chemicals has to be designed,
constructed, installed and maintained to minimize the risk of release of such chemicals.
• The employer must prepare three lines of defense to prevent hazardous chemical from
injuring personnel:
o Contain the chemical in the equipment. The use of two mechanical seals and a
convection tank is a good example of containing the chemical.
o Control the release of the chemicals through venting with a seal quench and vent
connection to a scrubber or flare, or to surge or overflow tanks designed to
receive such chemicals. Dikes or designed drainage systems would be another
alternative.
o A sensible evacuation system is the third line of defense.

If an accident happens and any of the listed chemicals are released to the environment, the
employer is going to have to prove he did every thing he could have to prevent the accident and
contain the spill. If O.S.H.A. does not agree with his assessment, the employer is likely to suffer
stiff penalties.

Since you have knowledge that 90% of mechanical seals are failing prematurely (the carbon
sacrificial face is not wearing out) I expect this new regulation should encourage your employer to
send more people to seal and pump schools and enroll his engineering, maintenance, and
supervisory people in an appropriate certification training program.

82
Why you must prime a centrifugal pump

Although the term "pressure" is not normally a part of a centrifugal pump man's
vocabulary, we are going to have to discuss it for a couple of minutes.

The earth's atmosphere extends approximately fifty miles (80 Km.) above the
earth, and rests on the earth with a weight equivalent to a layer of fresh water
thirty four feet (10 meters) deep at sea level. To remove air from the pump
cavities and the suction piping, the pump must develop enough head to equal the
equivalent of this 14.7 psi., or one bar pressure. In an earlier paper we learned
how to convert this height (head) to a pressure reading by use of the following
formulas:

34 Ft./2.31 = 14.7 Psi.

10 Meters/10 = 1 Bar

Unlike a positive displacement pump that can pump a liquid to any head as long
as the pump body is strong enough, and there is enough horsepower available,
the centrifugal pump can only pump a liquid to its rated head. You will recall that
this head was determined by, and limited to the diameter of the impeller and the
impeller speed (rpm.)

Since the weight of water is approximately 8000 times that of air (50 miles vs. 34
feet or 80 Km. vs. 10 meters) the centrifugal pump can produce only 1/8000 of its
rated liquid pressure. In other words, for every one foot water has to be raised to
prime the pump, the centrifugal pump must produce a discharge head of
approximately 8000 feet (each meter requires a head of 8000 meters) and that is
impossible with conventional impeller diameters and speeds.

All of this means that if you intend to use a centrifugal pump you are going to
have to come up with some sensible method of priming it. Your choices will
include :

• Install a foot valve in the suction piping to insure the liquid will not drain from the
pump casing and suction piping. Keep in mind that these valves have a nasty
habit of leaking.
• Evacuate the air in the system with a positive displacement priming pump
operating between the pump and a closed discharge valve.
• Fill the pump with liquid prior to starting it.
• Convert the application to a self priming pump that maintains a reservoir of liquid
at its suction.

How efficient is your pump?

83
A few years ago, efficiency became "the name of the game". Automotive
companies advertised "miles per gallon (liters per 100 kilometers) information in
their advertisements and appliance manufacturers published kilowatt
consumption numbers along with their pricing information.

Unfortunately high efficiency also means higher maintenance costs because you
are required to maintain tighter tolerances and keep the flow passages smooth
and free from obstructions. The demise of the double volute pump design in
smaller size pumps, is a perfect example of the increase in mechanical seal
problems as the efficiency of the volute pump was increased to satisfy consumer
demand.

Maybe the "trade off" is acceptable as long as you are dealing with accurate
numbers, but are you really doing that? Is the efficiency shown on the pump
curve accurate? How was the data taken? What was included in the data, and
more important, what was left out? As an example:

• Was the data generated on a dynamometer with a constant speed motor?

• Are you going to run at the same speed as shown on the performance curve, or are
you running with an induction motor that slips 2% to 5% and you are not sure of
the actual speed? Horse power (K.W.) varies as the cube of the change in speed at
the best efficiency point, so a small variation in speed can make a big difference
in efficiency.
• Was the published efficiency data generated with a seal or packing in the stuffing
box? The type of packing or seal used can alter the load they consume.
• Was there an elbow at the suction of the pump?
• Was the inside of the volute polished or coated with a low friction material when
the test was made?
• How were the bearings lubricated, and were all of the losses considered in the
published numbers?
• The final numbers will vary with the motor efficiency, and that will vary with the
load on the motor.

If you would like to keep the pump salesman honest, take the data from his pump
curve and then make the following calculation:

In inch sizes : GPM x TDH / 3960 = WHP

• GPM = Gallon per minute at the best efficiency point

• TDH = Total discharge head (measured in feet), as shown on the pump
curve&emdash; at the best efficiency point)
• WHP = Water horse power, or the amount of horse power the pump is generating.

84
If we refer to the above pump curve, and insert the numbers into our formula, we
would get:

in inch size: GPM x TDH / 3960 = 250 X 300 / 3960 = 18.9

You then divide this number by the efficiency shown on the pump curve:

18.9 / .60 = 31.5 horsepower required to generate the WHP. If this number is
lower than the horsepower shown on the performance curves, the efficiency date
is questionable. As an example:

If the performance curve showed a requirement for 40 Horse power, the actual
efficiency would be 18.9 water horse power40 pump horsepower = .47 or 47%
actual efficiency.

Doing the same thing in the metric system we would get:

• M3/ HR = Cubic meters per hour of capacity as measured at the best efficiency
point on the pump curve.
• TDH = Total discharge head, in meters, at the best efficiency point.
• WKW = Water kilowatts of power being generated by the pump.

Referring to the above diagram, and putting in the numbers :

M3 / HR X TDH / 360 = 68 x 76 / 360 = 14.36 WKW. The curve shows a 60%

efficiency so:

14.36 water kilowatts / 0.60 efficiency = 23.93 Kilowatts required. If this number
is lower than shown on the pump performance curve, the efficiency of the plump
is questionable. As an example:

85
If the pump performance curve showed a requirement for a 30 Kilowatt input, the
actual efficiency would be:

14.36 water horse power / 30 Kilowatts required = 48 % actual efficiency.

The fact of the matter is that you seldom operate at the best efficiency point so
the numbers become even more depressing. The point is that efficiency should
only be one of the points taken into consideration when you purchase a
centrifugal pump of a given head, material and capacity. Equally if not more
important should be:

• The L3/D4 number of the shaft. Is the number below 60 in inch sizes or 2 in metric?
• What kind of mechanical seal is installed? Will it seal fugitive emissions?
• How are the bearings being lubricated?
• How are the bearings sealed? Will the seal damage the expensive shaft?
• How is the thrust bearing being retained? In operation the impeller thrusts towards
the volute. Are you relying upon a simple snap ring?
• Is the pump a centerline design? It should be if the product you are pumping is
greater than 200°F (100 C.)
• Is the bearing case vented to atmosphere? If it is, it will allow moisture to
penetrate when the pump stops.
• Has a "C" or "D" frame adapter been installed to reduce alignment time?
• Can the wear rings or open impeller be easily adjusted to compensate for normal
wear so that you can keep the efficiency you paid for?
• Can the seal compensate for thermal growth, or impeller adjustment?

You can save money by lowering operating costs (efficiency) or increasing the
time between repairs (design). Be sure you consider both when you make your
pump buying decision.

What do we mean by pump efficiency?

When we talk about automobiles and discuss efficiency, we mean how many
miles per gallon, or liters per 100 kilometers. When we discuss centrifugal pumps
we are comparing the amount of work or power we get out of the pump to the
amount of power we are putting into the pump. As an example:

How do we measure the horsepower or kilowatts coming out of the pump? All we
have to do is multiply the pump head by the weight of the liquid being pumped,
and then use a simple conversion number. Let's take an example:

Flow = 300 gallons per minute of fresh water as measured coming from the pump
discharge.

86
Head = 160 feet. We measured it at the discharge side of the pump and
corrected it for the fact that the gage was two feet above the pump center line.
Look at the following diagram where we have calculated the discharge head from
the formula shown on the right hand side of the illustration. If there were any
positive head on the suction side of the pump that head would have to be
subtracted. A negative suction head would be added to the discharge head.

The centrifugal pump pumps the difference between the suction and the
discharge heads. There are three kinds of discharge head:

• Static head. The height we are pumping to, or the height to the discharge piping
outlet that is filling the tank from the top. Note: that if you are filling the tank
from the bottom, the static head will be constantly changing.
• Pressure head. If we are pumping to a pressurized vessel (like a boiler) we must
convert the pressure units (psi. or Kg.) to head units (feet or meters).
• System or dynamic head. Caused by friction in the pipes, fittings, and system
components. We get this number by making the calculations from published
charts ( non included in this paper, but available in the chart section of this web
site).

Suction head is measured the same way.

• If the liquid level is above the pump center line, that level is a positive suction
head. If the pump is lifting a liquid level from below its center line, it is a
negative suction head.
• If the pump is pumping liquid from a pressurized vessel, you must convert this
pressure to a positive suction head. A vacuum in the tank would be converted to a
negative suction head.
• Friction in the pipes, fittings, and associated hardware is a negative suction head.
• Negative suction heads are added to the pump discharge head, positive suctions
heads are subtracted from the pump discharge head.

87
Here is the formula for measuring the horsepower out of the pump:

Remember that we are using the actual horsepower or kilowatts going into the
pump and not the horsepower or kilowatts required by the electric motor. Most
motors run some where near 85% efficient.

An 85% efficient motor turning a 76% efficient pump, gives you a real efficiency
of 0 .85 x 0.76 = 0 .65 or 65% efficient.

A survey of popular pump brands demonstrates that pump efficiencies range

from 15% to over 90%. The question then arises, "Is this very wide range due to
poor selection, poor design, or some other variable which would interfere with
good performance?" The best available evidence suggests that pump efficiency
is directly related to " the specific speed number " with efficiencies dropping
dramatically below a number of 1000 . Testing also shows that smaller capacity
pumps exhibit lower efficiencies than higher capacity designs.

Now that we have learned that pump efficiency is closely related to the shape of
the impeller, and the impeller shape is usually dictated by the operating

88
conditions, you should be aware of various conditions that decrease the
efficiency of your pump. These would include:

• Packing generates approximately six times as much heat as a balanced mechanical

seal.
• Wear rings and impeller clearances are critical. Anything that causes these
tolerances to open will cause internal recirculation that is wasting power as the
fluid is returned to the suction of the pump. If the wear ring is rubbing, the
generated heat is consuming power.
• A bypass line installed from the discharge side of the pump to the suction piping.
The heat generated from this recirculation can, in some cases, cause pump
cavitation as it heats the incoming liquid.
• A double volute design pump restricts the discharge passage lowering the overall
efficiency.
• Running the pump with a throttled discharge valve.
• Eroded or corroded internal pump passages will cause fluid turbulence.
• Any restrictions in the pump or piping passages such as product build up, a
foreign object, or a stuck check valve.
• Over lubricated or over loaded bearings.
• Rubbing is a major cause. It can be caused by:
o Misalignment between the pump and driver.
o Pipe strain.
o Impeller imbalance.
o A bent shaft.
o A close fitting bushing.
o Loose hardware.
o A protruding gasket rubbing against the mechanical seal.
o Cavitation. (5 kinds)
o Harmonic vibration.
o Improper assembly of the bearings, seal, wear rings, packing, lip seals etc..
o Thermal expansion of various components in high temperature
applications. The impeller can hit the volute, the wear rings can come into
physical contact etc.
o Solids rubbing against the rotating components, especially the seal.
o Operating too far off of the best efficiency point of the pump.
o Water hammer and pressure surges.
o Operating at a critical speed.
o Dynamic, non O-ring elastomers that cannot flex and roll, but must slide,
eventually fretting the shaft or sleeve.
o A build up of product on the inside of the stuffing box rubbing against the
mechanical seal.
o Grease or lip seals rubbing the shaft next to the bearings.
o Over tightening packing or improper seal installation.
• Vortex pumps can lower efficiency by as much as 50%.

All about specific speed

89
Specific speed is a term used to describe the geometry (shape) of a pump
impeller. People responsible for the selection of the proper pump, for their
application, can use this Specific Speed information to :

• Select the shape of the pump curve.

• Determine the efficiency of the pump.
• Anticipate motor overloading problems.
• Predict N.P.S.H. requirements.
• Select the lowest cost pump for their application.

Specific speed is defined as "the speed of an ideal pump geometrically similar to

the actual pump, which when running at this speed will raise a unit of volume, in
a unit of time through a unit of head".

The performance of a centrifugal pump is expressed in terms of pump speed,

total head, and required flow. This information is available from the pump
manufacturer's published curves. Specific speed is calculated from the following
formula, using data from these curves at the pump's best efficiency point (B.E.P.):

N = The speed of the pump in revolutions per minute (rpm.)

Q = The flow rate in liters per minute ( for either single or double suction
impellers)

H = The total dynamic head in meters

Please refer to the following chart:

Pumps are traditionally divided into three types: radial flow, mixed flow, and axial
flow. When you look at the above chart you can see there is a gradual change

90
from the radial flow impeller, which develops pressure principally by the action of
centrifugal force, to the axial flow impeller, which develops most of its head by
the propelling or lifting action of the vanes on the liquid.

In the specific speed range of approximately 1000 to 6000 double suction

impeller are used as frequently as the single suction impellers.

If you substitute other units for flow and head the numerical value of Ns will vary.
The speed is always given in revolutions per minute (rpm.). Here is how to alter
the Specific Speed number (Ns) if you use other units for capacity and head :

• United States ....Q = G.P.M. and H = feet. Divide the Ns by 1.63

• British ............Q = Imp.G.P.M. and H = feet. Divide the Ns by 1.9
• Metric ............Q = M3/hour and H = meters. Divide the Ns by 1.5

As an example we will make a calculation of Ns in both metric and U.S. units :

• Q= 110 L/sec. or 396 M3/ hour or 1744 G.P.M.

• H = 95 meters or 312 feet
• Speed = 1450 rpm.

If the above results were describing an actual application, we would notice that it
was a low specific speed, radial flow pump, meaning It would be a large pump
with a low efficiency. Going to 2900 rpm. or higher would increase the Ns to 1000
or more, meaning a smaller pump with a much higher efficiency, but this higher
rpm. would have other possible consequences :

• The higher efficiency would allow you to use a less powerful driver that would
reduce your operating costs.
• A smaller pump makes associated hardware cheaper. For instance, a smaller
diameter shaft means a lower cost mechanical seal and lower cost bearings.
• Cavitation could become a problem as the increase in speed means an increase in
the N.P.S.H. required.
• If you are pumping an abrasive fluid, abrasive wear and erosion will increase with
increasing speed.
• Many single mechanical seals have problems passing fugitive emission standards
at the higher pump speeds.
• High heat is a major cause of bearing failure. The higher pump speeds contribute
to the problem.

91
The following diagram illustrates the relationship between specific speed and
pump efficiency. In general, the efficiency increases as Ns increases.

Specific speed also relates to the shape of the individual pump curve as it
describes head, capacity, power consumption and efficiency.

In the above diagram you will note that :

• The steepness of the head/ capacity curve increases as specific speed increases.
• At low specific speed, power consumption is lowest at shut off and rises as flow
increases. This means that the motor could be over loaded at the higher flow rates
unless this was considered at the time of purchase.
• At medium specific speed the power curve peaks at approximately the best
efficiency point. This is a non overloading feature meaning that the pump can
work safely over most of the fluid range with a motor speed to meet the B.E.P.
requirement.

92
 • High specific speed pumps have a falling power curve with maximum power
occurring at minimum flow. These pumps should never be started with the
discharge valve shut. If throttling is required a motor of greater power will be
necessary.

Keep in mind that efficiency and power consumption were calculated at the best
efficiency point (B.E.P.). In practice most pumps operate in a throttled condition
because the pump was oversized at the time it was purchased. Lower specific
speed pumps may have lower efficiency at the B.E.P., but at the same time will
have lower power consumption at reduced flow than many of the higher specific
speed designs.

The result is that it might prove to be more economical to select a lower specific
speed design if the pump had to operate over a broad range of capacity.

The oversized pump

Do a survey of any process plant and you will find that a high percentage of the
centrifugal pumps are oversized. There must be a reason why this is such a
common problem, so here are a few of them :

• Safety margins were added to the original calculations. Several people are
involved in the pump buying decision and each of them is afraid of
recommending a pump that proves to be to small for the job.
• It was anticipated that a larger pump would be needed in the future, so it was
purchased now to save buying the larger pump later on.
• It was the only pump the dealer had in stock and you needed one badly. He might
have offered you a "special deal" to take the larger size.
• You took the pump out of your spare parts inventory. Capital equipment money is
scarce so the larger pump appeared to be your only choice.
• You purchased the same size pump as the one that came out of the application and
that one was over sized also.

Obviously this larger pump and motor required a higher investment, but since we
are not using the full power are we really paying too much for the daily operation?
The easiest way to find the answer to this question is to look at a typical pump
curve and make our calculations from the numbers we get.

You can use any of the following formulas to make your calculations:

Here is as typical pump curve. It can be used for both inch and metric examples.

93
Let us assume that the application requires a pump that moves the liquid at :

300 gpm. to a 156 foot head with an efficiency rating of 60%

156 x 300 / 5308 = 8.8 Kilowatts being produced, and 8.8 / 0.60 efficiency = 14.7
Kilowatts required

As shown in the above drawing, we should be using impeller "E" to do this, but
we have an oversized pump so we are using the larger impeller "A" with the
pump discharge valve throttled back to 300 gpm. giving us an actual head of 250
feet and a 50% efficiency. Now our Kilowatts look like this:

250 x 300 / 5308 = 14.1 KW being produced, and 14.1 / 0.50 efficiency = 28.2
KW

required to do this. If 28.2 KW is being used and only 14.7 KW are required, it
means that we are paying for an extra 13.5 KW to pump against the throttled
discharge valve.

If this pump runs 24 hours per day that would be 8760 hours this year, and at a
power cost of $0.05 cents per Kilowatt hour it would cost your company an
additional:

8760 hours. x .05 cents per Kilowatt hour x 13.5 Kilowatts = $5913.00 per year,
extra operating cost.

94
Now we will work the same problem in the metric system:

Assume that we need to pump 68 m3/hr. to a 47 meter head with a pump that is
60% efficient at that point.

68 x 47360 = 8.9 Kilowatts being produce, and 8.9 / 0.60 efficient = 14.8
Kilowatts required to do this.

As shown in the drawing, we should be using impeller "E" to do this, but we have
an oversized pump so we are using the larger impeller "A" with the pump
discharge valve throttled back to 68 cubic meters per hour, giving us an actual
head of 76 meters. Now our Kilowatts look like this:

68 x 76360 = 14.3 Kilowatts being produced by the pump, and 14.3 / 0.50
efficient = 28.6 Kilowatts required to do this.

Subtracting the amount of kilowatts we should have been using gives us:

28.6 - 14.8 = 13.8 extra kilowatts being used to pump against the throttled
discharge valve. If the pump runs twenty four hours a day that would be 8760
hours per year, times 13.8 extra kilowatts equals 120,880 kw. Multiply this
number by how much you spend for a kilowatt hour of electricity and you will see
that the over sized pump is costing you a lot of money. In this example the extra
cost of the electricity could almost equal the cost of purchasing the pump.

How to read a pump curve

Please look at the above illustration. You will note that I have plotted the head of
the pump against its capacity. The head of a pump is read in feet or meters. The
capacity units will be either gallons per minute, liters per minute, or cubic meters
per hour.

95
According to the above illustration this pump will pump a 40 capacity to about a
110 head, or a 70 capacity to approximately a 85 head (you can substitute either
metric or imperial units as you see fit)

The maximum head of this pump is 115 units. This is called the maximum shutoff
head of the pump. Also note that the best efficiency point (BEP) of this impeller is
between 80% and 85% of the shutoff head. This 80% to 85% is typical of
centrifugal pumps, but if you want to know the exact best efficiency point you
must refer to the manufacturers pump curve.

Ideally a pump would run at its best efficiency point all of the time, but we seldom
hit ideal conditions. As you move away from the BEP the shaft will deflect and
the pump will experience some vibration. You will have to check with your pump
manufacturer to see how far you can safely deviate from the BEP (a maximum of
10% either side is typical)

Now look at the following illustration:

Note that I have added some additional curves to the original illustration. These
curves show what happens when you change the diameter of the impeller.

96
Impeller diameter is measured in either inches or millimeters. If we wanted to
pump at the best efficiency point with a 11.5 impeller we would have to pump a
capacity of 50 to a 75 head.

The bottom half of the illustration shows the power consumption at various
capacities and impeller diameters. I have labeled the power consumption
horsepower, but in the metric system it would be called kilowatts

Each of the lines represents an impeller diameter. The top line would be for the
13 impeller the second for the 12.5 etc. If we were pumping a capacity of 70 with
a 13 impeller it would take about 35 horsepower. A capacity of 60 with the 12
impeller would take about 20 horsepower.

Most pump curves would show you the percent of efficiency at the best efficiency
point . The number varies with impeller design and numbers from 60% to 80%
are normal.

When you will look at an actual pump curve you should have no trouble reading
the various heads and corresponding capacities for the different size impellers.
You will note however, that the curve will usually show an additional piece of
information and that is NPSHR which stands for net positive suction head
required to prevent the pump from cavitating.

Depending upon the pump curve you might find a 10 foot (3.0 meter) NPSH
required head at a capacity of 480 Gallons per minute (110 cubic meters per
hour) if you were using a 13 inch (330 mm.) diameter impeller.

You should keep in mind that the manufacture assumed you were pumping 20° C
( 68° F ) fresh water and the N.P.S.H. Required was tested using this assumption.
If you are pumping water at a different temperature or if you are pumping a
different fluid, you are going to have to add the vapor pressure of that product to
the N.P.S.H. Required. The rule is that Net Positive Suction Head Available
minus the Vapor Pressure of the product you are pumping (converted to head)
must be equal to or greater than Net Positive Suction Head Required by the
manufacturer.

Suppose we wanted to pump some liquid Butane at 32 degrees Fahrenheit (0

degrees Centigrade) with this pump. If we look at the curve for Butane on a vapor
pressure chart similar to the one shown in the charts and graphs section of this
web site you will note that Butane at 32°F needs at least 15 psi (1,0 Bar) to stay
in a liquid state. To convert this pressure to head we use the standard formula :

97
In other words Butane at this temperature would not vaporize as long as I had
the above absolute heads available at the suction side of the pump.

Understanding the system curve

Every pump manufacturer would like to recommend the perfect pump for your
application. To do this he would like you to provide him with an accurate system
curve that would describe the capacity and head needed for your various
operating conditions. Once he has your system curve, he can plot his pump
curves on top of the system curve and hopefully select something that will come
close to your needs. Without this system curve, neither one of you has much of a
chance of coming up with the right pump.

To create a system curve we plot the desired capacities against the required
head over the total anticipated operating range of the pump. The head will be
measured in feet or meters and the capacity will be measured in gallons per
minute or cubic meters per hour.

Some of the confusion begins when we realize that there are three different kinds
of head:

STATIC HEAD This is the vertical distance measured from the center line of the
pump to the height of the piping discharge inside the tank. Look at figure "A" and
note that the piping discharge is below the maximum elevation of the piping
system. We do not use the maximum elevation in our calculations because the
siphoning action will carry the fluid over this point once the piping is full of liquid.
This is the same action that lets you siphon gasoline out of an automobile to a
storage can.

The pump will have to develop enough head to fill the pipe and then the
siphoning action will take over. The pump operating point should move back
towards the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) if the pump was selected correctly.

FIGURE "A"

98
DYNAMIC OR SYSTEM HEAD As the liquid flows through the piping and fittings,
it is subject to the friction caused by the piping inside finish, restricted passages
in the fittings and hardware that has been installed in the system. The resulting
"pressure drop" is described as a "loss of head" in the system, and can be
calculated from graphs and charts provided by the pump and piping
manufacturers. These charts are not included with this paper, you can find them
in the Hydraulic Institute Manuals. This "head" loss is related to the condition of
the system and makes the calculations difficult when you realize that older
systems may have "product build up" on the piping walls, filters, strainers, valves,
elbows, heat exchangers, etc., making the published numbers some what
inaccurate.

A general "rule of thumb" says that the friction loss in clean piping will vary
approximately with 90% of the square of the change in flow in the piping, and
100% of the square with the change of flow in the fittings and accessories. You
calculate the change in flow by dividing the new flow by the old flow and then
square the number. As an example:

99
In the original application system, loss was a combination of the loss through the
piping and the loss through the fittings for a total of 100 feet at 200 gallons per
minute. When we increased the flow to 300 gallons per minute our system head
changed to a total of 208.13 feet. This change would have to be added to the
static and pressure heads to calculate the total head required for the new pump.

Please note that the pump is pumping the difference between the suction head
and the discharge head, so if you fail to consider that the suction head will be
either added to or subtracted from the discharge head, you will make an error in
your calculations. The suction head will be negative if you are lifting liquid from
below ground or if you are pumping from a vacuum. It will be positive if you are
pumping from a tank located above ground. If the suction head is pressurized,
this pressure must be converted to head and subtracted from the total head
required by the pump.

A centrifugal pump will create a head/capacity curve that will generally resemble
one of the curves described in figure "B" The shape of the curve is determined by
the Specific Speed number of the impeller.

Centrifugal pumps always pump somewhere on their curve, but should be

selected to pump as close to the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) as possible. The
B.E.P. will fall some where between 80% and 85% of the shut off head
(maximum head).

The manufacturer generated these curves at a specific R.P.M.. Unless you are
using synchronous motors (you probably are using induction motors on your
pumps) you will have to adjust the curves to match your actual pump speed. Put
a tachometer on the running motor and record the rpm. difference between your
pump and the speed shown on the pump manufacturer's published curve. You
can use the pump affinity laws to approximate the change.

POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS have a different shaped curve. They look

something like Figure "C".

100
In this system, the head remains a constant as the capacity varies. This is a
typical application for:

• A boiler feed pump that is supplying a constant pressure boiler with a varying
steam demand. This is a very common application in many process systems or
aboard a ship that is frequently changing speeds (answering bells).
• Filling a tank from the top and varying the amount of liquid being pumped, is the
normal routine in most process plants. The curve will look like this if the majority
of the head is either static or pressure head.

The second system is the ideal one, Figure "E" describes it:

101
In this system the entire head is system head so it will vary with the capacity.
Look for this type of curve in the following applications:

• A circulating hot or cold water heating/ cooling system.

• Pumping to a non pressurized tank, a long distance from the source with little to
no elevation involved. Filling tank cars is a typical application.

System curve "G" is a common one. It is a combination of static, pressure and

system heads.

102
Once the pump manufacturer has a clear idea as to the shape of your system
curve, and the head and capacity numbers needed he can then select the proper
centrifugal pump. The shape of his curve will be pretty much determined by the
specific speed number of the impeller.

In addition to specific speed he can select impeller diameter, impeller width,

pump rpm., and he also has the option of series or parallel operation along with
the possibility of using a multi-stage pump to satisfy your needs.

The sad fact is that most pumps are selected poorly because of the desire to
offer the customer the lowest possible price. A robust pump, with a low L3/D4, is
still your best protection against seal and bearing premature failure when the
pump is operating off of its best efficiency point. Keep the following in mind as
you select your pump:

• A centrifugal pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
This may bear no relationship to the best efficiency point (B.E.P.), or your desire
for the pump to perform a specific task.
• The further off the B.E.P. you go, the more robust the pump you will need. This is
especially true if you have replaced the packing with a mechanical seal and no
longer have the packing to act as a support bearing when the shaft deflects. Shaft
deflection is always a major problem at start up.

103
 • When you connect pumps in parallel, you add the capacities together. The
capacity of a pump is determined by the impeller width and r.p.m.. The head of a
centrifugal pump is determined by the impeller diameter and rpm. If the heads are
different, the stronger pump will throttle the weaker one, so the impeller
diameters and rpm's must be the same if you connect pumps in parallel. Check the
rpm's on these pumps if you are experiencing any difficulties.
• If you connect the pumps in series, the heads will add together, so the capacities
must be the same or one of them will probably cavitate. You could also have a
problem operating too far to the right of the best efficiency point with a possible
motor "burn out".
• When you vary the speed of a centrifugal pump, the best efficiency point comes
down at an angle. The affect is almost the same as changing the diameter of the
impeller. This means that the variable speed motor will work best on a system
curve that is exponential (Figure "F"). Unfortunately most process and boiler feed
pump system curves are not exponential.
• Pump curves are based on a speed of 1750, 3500, 1450, or 2900 r.p.m.. Electric
induction motors seldom run at these speeds because of "slip". You can estimate
that a 2% to a 5% slip is normal in these pumps with the "slip" directly related to
the price of the motor.
• You should also keep in mind that if the motor is running at its best efficiency
point that does not mean that the pump is running at its B.E.P..

Since you will be using pumps that were supplied at the lowest cost, you can do
the following to resist some of the shaft displacement:

• Use a solid shaft. Sleeves often raise the L3/D4 number to over 60 (2 in the metric
system), and this is too high a number for reliable seal performance.
• Try to keep the mechanical seal as close to the bearings as possible. It is the
mechanical seal that is the most sensitive to shaft deflection and vibration.
• Once the seal has been moved closer to the bearings, you can install a sleeve
bearing in the packing space to support the shaft when the pump is operated off of
its B.E.P. This is especially important at start up, or any time a pump discharge
valve is operated.
• Stop the cavitation if you are experiencing any.
• Balance the rotating assembly.
• Check that the shaft is not bent or the rotating assembly is not out of dynamic
balance.
• Use a "C" or "D" frame adapter to solve pump- motor alignment difficulties.
• A center line design wet end can be used if pipe strain, due to temperature
expansion, is causing an alignment problem.

Do not trust the system prints to make your calculations. The actual system
always differs from that shown on the print, because people tap into the lines,
using the pumped fluid for a variety of purposes and after having done so forget
to change or "mark up" the original system print. You are going to have to "walk
down" the system and note the pipe length, the number of fittings, etc., to make

104
an accurate system head calculation. Do not be surprised to find that the
discharge of your pump is hooked up to the discharge of another pump further
down the line. In other words, the pumps are connected in parallel and no body
knows it. Pressure recorders (not gauges) installed at the pump suction and
discharge is another technique you can use to get a better picture of the system
or dynamic head. They will show you how the head is varying with changes in
flow.

Pump selection is simple but not easy. Do not depend upon the knowledge of the
local pump salesman to select the correct pump for you. In many cases he is
prepared to sell his pump at cost&emdash;to get the spare parts business. If you
are purchasing pumps at too big a discount&emdash;something is wrong, there
is no free lunch. Keep in mind that if several people are involved in the selection
process each of them will commonly add a safety factor to the calculated pump
size. These factors added together can cause you to purchase a pump that is
very much over sized.

Calculating the total system head in USCS units

USCS stands for "United States Customary System Units" as opposed to the SI
(Le Syst`eme International d`Units) or metric units that have been adopted by the
International standards Organization (ISO). In a future paper I will present
another paper using the metric units, but for the moment it is not convenient to
present it in both systems.

It turn out that "head" is a very convenient term in the pumping business.
Capacity is measured in gallons per minute, and each gallon of liquid has weight,
so we can easily calculate the pounds per minute being pumped. Head or height
is measure in feet, so if we multiply these two together we get foot- pounds per
minute which converts directly to work at the rate of 33,000 foot pounds per
minute equals one horsepower.

Pressure is not as convenient a term because the amount of pressure that the
pump will deliver depends upon the weight (specific gravity) of the liquid being
pumped and the specific gravity changes with temperature, fluid, and fluid
concentration.

105
If you will refer to FIG 1, you should get a clear picture of what is meant by static
head. Note that we always measure from the center line of the pump to the
highest liquid level

To calculate head accurately we must calculate the total head on both the
suction and discharge sides of the pump. In addition to the static head we will
learn that there is a head caused by resistance in the piping, fittings and valves
called friction head, and a head caused by any pressure that might be acting on
the liquid in the tanks including atmospheric pressure, called " surface pressure
head".

Once we know these heads it gets simple, we will then subtract the suction head
from the discharge head and the amount remaining will be the amount of head
that the pump must be able to generate at the rated flow. Here is how it looks in a
formula:

System head = total discharge head - total suction head

H = hd - hs

The total discharge head is made from three separate heads:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd

• hd = total discharge head

• hsd = discharge static head
• hpd = discharge surface pressure head
• hfd = discharge friction head

The total suction head also consists of three separate heads

106
hs = hss + hps - hfs

• hs = total suction head

• hss = suction static head
• hps = suction surface pressure head
• hfs = suction friction head

As we make these calculations, you must sure that all calculations are made in
either "feet of liquid gauge" or "feet of liquid absolute". In case you have forgotten
"absolute means that you have added atmospheric pressure (head) to the gauge
reading.

Now we will make some actual calculations:

Figure #2 demonstrates that the discharge head is still measured to the liquid
level, but you will note that it is below the maximum height of the piping.

Although the pump must deliver enough head to get up to this maximum piping
height, it will not have to continue to deliver this head when the pump is running
because of the "siphon effect". There is of course a maximum siphon effect. It is
derived from: 14.7 psi (atmospheric pressure) x 2.31 feet / psi = 33.4 feet
maximum siphon effect.

We will begin with the total suction head calculation

1. The suction head is negative because the liquid level in the suction tank is
below the centerline of the pump:

hss = - 6 feet

107
2. The suction tank is open, so the suction surface pressure equals atmospheric
pressure :

hps = 0 feet gauge

3. You will not have to calculate the suction friction head, I will tell you it is:

hfs = 4 feet at rated flow

4. The total suction head is a gauge value because atmosphere was given as 0,

hs = hss + hps - hfs = -6 +0 -4 = -10 feet of liquid gauge at rated flow

The total discharge head calculation

1. The static discharge head is:

hsd = 125 feet

2. The discharge tank is also open to atmospheric pressure, thus:

hpd = 0 feet, gauge

3. I will give you the discharge friction head as:

hfd = 25 feet at rated flow

4. The total discharge head is:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd = 125 + 0 + 25 = 150 feet of liquid gauge at rated flow

The total system head calculation:

H = hd - hs = 150 - (-10)= 160 feet of liquid at rated flow

Note: did you notice that when we subtracted a minus number (-10) from a
positive number (150) we ended up with a positive 160 because whenever you
subtract minus numbers it is the same as adding them? If you have trouble with
this concept you can learn more about it from a mathematics book.

Our next example involves a few more calculations, but you should be able to
handle them. In this example we are going to learn how to handle a vacuum
application. Pipe friction numbers are taken from the Hydraulic Institute
Engineering Data Book. You can get a copy of this publication from your library if
you want to see the actual charts. I have some of this information in the chart
section of this web site.

108
Specifications:

1. Transferring 1000 gpm. weak acid from the vacuum receiver to the storage
tank

2. Specific Gravity - 0.98

3. Viscosity -equal to water

4. Piping - All 6" Schedule 40 steel pipe

5. Discharge piping rises 40 feet vertically above the pump centerline and then
runs 400 feet horizontally. There is one 90° flanged elbow in this line

6. Suction piping has a square edge inlet, four feet of pipe, one gate valve, and
one 90° flanged elbow all of which are 6" in diameter.

7. The minimum level in the vacuum receiver is 5 feet above the pump centerline.

8. The pressure on top of the liquid in the vacuum receiver is 20 inches of

mercury, vacuum.

To calculate suction surface pressure use one of the following formulas:

• inches of mercury X 1.133specific gravity = feet of liquid

• pounds per square inch X 2.31specific gravity = feet of liquid

109
 • Millimeters of mercury X 122.4 x specific gravity = feet of liquid

Now that you have all of the necessary information we will begin by dividing the
system into two different sections, using the pump as the dividing line.

Total suction head calculation

1. The suction side of the system shows a minimum static head of 5 feet above
suction centerline. Therefore, the static suction head is:

hss = 5 feet

2. Using the first conversion formula, the suction surface pressure is:

hps = -20 Hg X 1.133/ 0.98 = -23.12 feet gauge

3. The suction friction head, fs, equals the sum of all the friction losses in the
suction line. Friction loss in 6" pipe at 1000 gpm from table 15 of the Hydraulic
Institute Engineering Data Book, is 6.17 feet per 100 feet of pipe.

in 4 feet of pipe friction loss = 4/100 x 6.17 = 0.3 feet

Friction loss coefficients (K factors) for the inlet, elbow and valve can be added
together and multiplied by the velocity head:

FITTING K FROM TABLE

6" Square edge inlet 0.50 32 (a)
6" 90 flanged elbow 0.29 32 (a)
6" Gate valve 0.11 32 (b)

Total coefficient, K = 0.90

Total friction loss on the suction side is:

hfs = 0.3 + 1.7 = 2.0 feet at 1000 gpm.

4. The total suction head then becomes:

hs = hss + hps - hfs = 5 + (-23.12) - 2.0 = -20.12 feet, gauge at 1000 gpm.

Total discharge head calculation

110
1. Static discharge head = hsd = 40 feet

2. Discharge surface pressure = hpd = 0 feet gauge

3. Discharge friction head = hfd = sum of the following losses :

Friction loss in 6" pipe at 1000 gpm. from table 15, is 6.17 feet per hundred feet
of pipe.

In 440 feet of pipe the friction loss = 440/100 x 6.17 = 27.2 feet

Friction loss in 6" elbow:

from table 32 (a), K = 0,29

from table 15, V2/2g = 1.92 at 1000 gpm.

Friction loss = K V2/2g = 0.29 x 1.92 = 0.6 feet

The friction loss in the sudden enlargement at the end of the discharge line is
called the exit loss. In systems of this type where the area of the discharge tank
is very large in comparison to the area of the discharge pipe, the loss equals
V2/2g, as shown in table 32 (b).

Friction loss at exit = V2/2g = 1.9 feet

The discharge friction head is the sum of the above losses, that is:

hfd = 27.2 + 0.6 + 1.9 = 29.7 feet at 1000 gpm.

4. The total discharge head then becomes:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd = 40 + 0 + 29.7 = 69.7 feet, gauge at 1000 gpm.

c. Total system head calculation:

H = hd - hs = 69.7 - (-20.2) = 89.9 feet at 1000 gpm.

Our next example will be the same as the one we just finished except. that there
is an additional 10 feet of pipe and another 90° flanged elbow in the vertical leg.
The total suction head will be the same as in the previous example. Take a look
at figure # 4

111
Nothing has changed on the suction side of the pump so the total suction head
will remain the same:

hs = -20.12 feet, gauge at 100 gpm.

Total discharge head calculation

1. The static discharge head "hsd" will change from 40 feet to 30 feet, since the
highest liquid surface in the discharge is now only 30 feet above the pump
centerline.(This value is based on the assumption that the vertical leg in the
discharge tank is full of liquid and that as this liquid falls it will tend to pull the
liquid up and over the loop in the pipe line. This arrangement is called a siphon
leg).

2. The discharge surface pressure is unchanged:

hpd = 0 feet

3. The friction loss in the discharge pipe will be increased by the additional 10
feet of pipe and the additional elbow.

In 10 feet of pipe the friction loss = 10/100 x 6.17 = 0.6 feet

The friction loss in the additional elbow = 0.6 feet

The friction head will then increase as follows:

hfd = 29.7 + 0.6 + 0.6 = 30.9 feet at 1000 gpm.

112
The total discharge head becomes:

hd = hsd + hpd + hfd

= 30 + 0 + 30.9

= 60.9 feet, gauge at 1000 gpm.

5. Total system head calculation

H = hd - hs = 60.9 - (-20.12) = 81 feet at 1000 gpm.

For our last example we will look at gauges. Take a look at FIG 5:

Specifications:

• Capacity - 300 gpm.

• Specific gravity - 1.3
• Viscosity - Similar to water
• Piping - 3 inch suction, 2 inch discharge
• Atmospheric pressure - 14.7 psi.

Divide the heads into two sections again:

The discharge gauge head corrected to the centerline of the pump, in feet of
liquid absolute is found by adding the atmospheric pressure to the gauge reading
to get absolute pressure, and then converting to absolute head:

hdg = (130 + 14.7) x 2.31 / (1.3 Specific Gravity + 4 ) = 261.1 feet, absolute

Note the 4 foot head correction to the pump centerline.

113
The discharge velocity head at 300 gpm. is found in table 9 of the Hydraulic
Institute Engineering Data Book

hvd = 12.8 feet at 300 gpm.

The suction gauge reading is in absolute terms so it needs only to be converted

to feet of liquid, absolute.

hgs = 40 x 2.3 / 11.3 +2 = 73.08 feet absolute

Note the 2 foot head correction to the pump centerline.

The suction velocity head at 300 gpm. is found in table 11 of the Pipe Friction
Manual:

hvs = 2.6 feet at 300 gpm.

The total head developed by the pump is:

H = (hgd + hvd ) - ( hgs + hvs ) = (261.1 + 12.8) - (73.08 + 2.6)= 198.22 feet
absolute at 300 gpm.

Estimating the shutoff head of a centrifugal pump:

In the fifteenth century the Swiss scientist Daniel Bernoulli learned that the
combination of head and velocity was a constant throughout a piping system. He
then wrote the formula showing the relationship between this liquid velocity, and
resultant head. As many of you know, I often quote this formula in my pump and
seal schools. The formula looks like this:

• V = Velocity or speed of the liquid at the impeller outside

diameter (ft/sec. or meters/sec.)
• g = gravity = 32.2 feet / second2 or 9.8 meters / second2

My students have heard me quote this formula as the basis for my statement that
you can estimate the shut off head of a 1750 rpm. centrifugal pump by squaring
the diameter of the impeller. How did I come to that conclusion ? Lets look at the
formula again, and we will start by defining velocity:

114
Velocity is a measurement of speed using distance and time as the variables.
The terms we use to discuss velocity are feet/second or meters/ second. In the
inch system the velocity of the impeller outside diameter is determined by the
following formula:

• d = diameter of the impeller

•
• rpm = speed of the impeller outside diameter
• 12 = twelve inches in a foot
• 60 sixty seconds in a minute

Now we will solve the formula. Substituting 1750 for the rpm we would get:

Going back to the original formula we will substitute the new value for "V"

This means that at 1750 rpm the shutoff head is 90% of the diameter of the
impeller squared

If you will check a typical pump curve as supplied by the pump manufacturers,
you will learn that the shut off head actually varies from 90% to 110% of the
diameter of the impeller squared. I elected to use 100% because it is a sensible
average and in some cases it accounts for the additional velocity added to the
fluid as it moves from the impeller eye to the impeller outside diameter.

If we substitute 3500 rpm for the speed, the new numbers would look like this

Going back to the original formula we will substitute the new value for "V"

We can round out the 3.6 to 4.0 and say that at 3500 rpm the shutoff head
equals approximately the outside diameter of the impeller squared, times four.

115
It is a little trickier in the metric system. Instead of using millimeters when
measuring the impeller diameter, move over two decimal places and use
decimeters instead. It will make the calculations a lot simpler because you will be
using more convenient, larger numbers.

Inserting the numbers into the formula we would get a velocity of:

Going back to the head formula we would get:

We can round this off to 3d2

If the pump were running at 2900 rpm you would get

Going back to the head formula we would get:

We can round this off to 12d2

How do we use this information? You can combine this formula with your
knowledge of how to convert pressure to head and come up with an estimate to
see if an operating pump is operating close to its BEP(best efficiency point ). As
an example:

In the inch system a pump discharge pressure gage reads 120 psi. The pump
suction pressure gage reads 20 psi. The pump is pumping the difference
between these readings, so the pump is pumping 100 psi.

At its BEP(best efficiency point) the pump should be running between 80% and
85% of its shut off head. 100 psi is 83% of 120 psi. The pressure to head
conversion is:

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The pump has an 8.5 inch impeller running at 3500 rpm. The shutoff head would
be (8.5 inches)2 x 4 = 288 feet. Pretty close!

In the metric system we can make the calculation for a 295 millimeter impeller
turning at 2900 rpm

The pump discharge pressure gage reads 10 bar The pump suction pressure
gage reads 1 bar The pump is pumping the difference between these readings
so the pump is pumping 9 bar

At its BEP(best efficiency point) the pump should be running between 80% and
85% of its shutoff head. 9 bar is 83% of 10.8 bar. The pressure to head
conversion is:

106 meters shut off head. The pump has a 295 mm impeller running at 2900 rpm.
The shutoff head would be (2.95 decimeter)2 x12 =104.4. Pretty close!

Rules of thumb for pumps

If you want to know a pumps capabilities the rules are simple, look at the
manufacturer's published pump curve. The problem is that you do not always
have the curve available. Pump companies test their pump to determine its
performance, they have no need for general guide lines or "rules of thumb."

Over the years I have accumulated many of these rules to help me estimate
pump performance, here are a few of them:

PUMP BASICS

• How to estimate the shut off head of a pump (inch sizes)

o At 1750 rpm. Shut off head = Diameter of the impeller squared
o At 3500 rpm. Shut off head = Diameter of the impeller squared x 4
2
o For other speeds you can use the formula : Shut Off Head = D x (new
rpm / 1750)2
• Estimating metric head is a little bit more involved, but it still works:
o Measure the shaft in mm. ( as an example: 250 mm )
o Mark off two places. (2,5)
o Square the number. (6,25)
o For 1450 rpm, multiply by 3 (18,75)
o Add 10 % for the answer in meters. (21 meters )

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 o NOTE: For 3000 rpm, you would multiply by 12 instead of 3. Although
you can estimate shutoff head with these formulas you cannot estimate the
pump capacity. You will need the pump curves for that.
• The pumps best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is between 80% and 85% of the shut off
head. At this point there is little to no radial thrust on the impeller. Also the
"power in" is closest to the "power out".
• The L3/D4 ratio should be below 60 (2.0 in metric) to prevent excessive shaft
bending. To calculate it for end suction centrifugal pumps :
o L = length of the shaft from the center of the inboard bearing to the center
of the impeller (inches or millimeters). Caution: do not use centimeters,
the numbers will come out wrong.
o D = diameter of the shaft (under the sleeve) in the stuffing box area
(inches or millimeters) Do not use centimeters.
• Since most shaft materials have a similar modulus of elasticity changing shaft
materials will not prevent shaft bending when you operate off of the B.E.P.
Lowering the L3/D4 is the only logical and efficient solution. When pump
manufacturers discuss operating off of the B.E.P. they relate problems to the heat
that will build up in a minimum flow condition and ignore the problems with
shaft bending.
• A double suction pump can run with 27% less N.P.S.H. or at a 40% faster speed
without cavitating.
• If you double the speed of a pump you will get twice the capacity, four times the
head and it will take eight times the horsepower to do it.
• A stainless steel shaft has only a small portion of the conductivity of a carbon
steel shaft. This is very important when you are pumping at elevated temperatures
because we do not want to transmit the high temperature back to the bearing oil.
• If you double the speed of a pump you will get almost four times the shaft whip,
wobble or run out and eight times the wear.
• Multistage pumps reduce efficiency 2% to 4%.
• In many instances an inducer can lower Net Positive Suction Head Required by as
much as 50% .
• If you are pumping paper stock, modify the curves for head, capacity, and
efficiency as follows:
o 0.725 for 6% stock
o 0.825 for 5.5% stock
o 0.90 for 5%
o 0.94 for 4.5%
o 0.98 for 4%
o 1.0 for 3.5% or less
• Open impeller clearance settings are determined by the pump manufacturer and
normally run between 0.008" and 0.015" (0,2 to 0,5 mm) You lose 1% of the
pumps capacity for each 0.002" (0,05 mm) you miss this setting.
• Wear ring clearances are very similar to impeller clearances, but you lose 1%
pump capacity for each 0.001" (0,025 mm) of wear. A typical clearance would be
0.003 inch/inch diameter with 0.010 inches (0,3 mm) minimum clearance for
wear rings less than two inches (50 mm.) in outside diameter.

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 • Bearing grease or lip seals have a design life of less than 2000 hours. In a
constantly running pump this would be only 83 days. These seals will also
damage the expensive shaft and place a stress point at the maximum bending
moment arm. Substitute non fretting labyrinth seals, or positive face seals in these
locations. It is a good idea to install them in electric motors also to prevent
moisture from entering and damaging the motor windings and bearings.
• Do not use a vent on the top of the bearing case. At shut down the outside
moisture will enter the bearing housing through this vent. Let the moisture
attempt to enter the case through the labyrinth seals instead, they will do a better
job of directing the moisture to the external drain hole. If you install positive face
seals you can forget about this problem.
• The axial clearance in a bearing is ten times the radial clearance. This is the
reason proper installation is so critical. If the bearing is over compressed the
bearing balls will distort and roll instead of spin causing excessive heat and
premature failure. The temperature at the bearing race of a properly installed
bearing is at least 10 degrees Fahrenheit (5° C) higher than the oil sump
temperature.
• The life of bearing oil is directly related to its temperature. The rule of thumb
used by the SKF Bearing Company is that the service life of an oil is specified as
30 years at 30 degrees Centigrade (86° F) and is cut in half for each 10 degree
Centigrade (10 F) temperature increase. This corresponds to :
o A life of 3 months at 100 C. (212 F.)
o A life of 6 months at 90 C. (195 F.)
o A life of 12 months at 80 C. ( 176 F.)

These numbers assume that the lubricating oil is not being contaminated by
water from one or all of the following sources:

• Packing leakage
• The water hose used to wash the packing leakage away from the pump area.
• Aspiration, as moisture laden air enters the bearing case.

An automobile engine running at 1750 rpm. would cover about 100,000 miles
(160,000 kilometers) every 2000 hours (83 days in the life of a constantly running
pump ). Auto manufacturers recommend changing their automatic transmission
oil every 25,000 miles ( 40,000 kilometers)

APPLICATION

• Use Centerline pump designs when the pumping temperature exceeds 200 degrees
Fahrenheit (100° C). This design will allow the wet end of the pump to expand in
two directions instead of from the feet up, destroying the wear rings..
• Try to buy pumps with a Suction Specific Speed (SSS) below 8,500 (10,000
metric) Do not buy pumps with a SSS over 12,000 ( metric 16,500) unless you are
pumping hot water or mixed hydrocarbons. If you have a double suction pump
you can divide the SSS number by 2

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 • Do not specify a pump with the largest impeller available . Give yourself an
additional 5% or 10% you might need it.
• The maximum viscosity a centrifugal pump can handle would be a product similar
to 30 weight oil at room temperature.
• Use a variable speed pump if your head is mainly system head. Circulating hot or
cold water would be typical applications. If you have a high static or pressure
head, as is the case with a boiler feed pump, the variable speed will not be of
much help in keeping you on or near the best efficiency point.
• Pumps piped in series must have the same capacity (impeller width and speed)
• Pumps piped in parallel must have the same head (impeller diameter and speed )
• Use a rotary positive displacement pump if your capacity is going to be less than
20 gpm.(4,5 cubic meters per hour)
• A centrifugal pump can handle 0.5% air by volume. At 6% it will probably
become air bound and stop pumping. Cavitation can occur with any amount of air.
• Use double volute pumps any time your impeller diameter is 14 inches (355 mm)
or greater. They should also be used on long shaft vertical pumps to prevent
excessive shaft movement that will cause problems with the packing, seals,
bearings and critical dimensions.
• A Vortex pump is 10% to 15% less efficient than a comparable size end suction
centrifugal pump.
• The A.P.I. (American Petroleum Institute). sixth edition states : High energy
pumps, defined as pumping to a head greater than 650 feet (198 meters) and more
than 300 horsepower (224 KW) per stage, require special consideration to avoid
blade passing frequency vibrations and low frequency vibrations at reduced flow
rates.

PIPING ETC..

• There should be at least 10 diameters of pipe between the suction of the pump and
the first elbow. This is especially critical in double ended pump designs as the
turbulent inlet flow can cause shaft thrusting, and subsequent bearing problems.
• Substituting a globe valve for a gate valve in a piping system is similar to adding
another 100 feet (31 meters) of piping to the system. On the discharge side of the
pump this will cause the pump to run off of its B.E.P. with a resultant shaft
bending. On the suction side of the pump it will probably cause Cavitation.
• After the pump and motor have been aligned, dowel both the pump and the motor
to the base plate. Be sure to dowel only the feet closest to the coupling, allowing
the outboard ends to expand with temperature changes.
• Check impeller rotation after installing the pump. Do not assume it will turn in the
correct direction. I have heard about two speed pumps with the second speed
wired backwards. They will drive you crazy because the pump will often meet its
head requirement but not the capacity when the second speed cuts in. You will
also notice excessive noise at this time.
• Use eccentric reducers rather than concentric reducers at the pump suction.
Concentric reducers will trap air. Be sure the eccentric reducer is not installed up
side down.

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 • Suction piping should be at least one size larger than the suction flange at the
pump.
• Vortexing can occur if any of the following conditions are present:
o Low liquid levels
o Liquid level falling greater than 3 Ft./sec. (1 Meter/ sec.)
o There is a large concentration of dissolved gases in the liquid.
o High outlet velocities in pipes leaving vessels. Generally greater than 10
feet/sec. (3 meters/sec.)
o Liquids near their vapor point.
o High circulation caused by asymmetrical inlet or outlet conditions.
o Inlet piping too close to the wall or bottom of the tank. Consult the
Hydraulic Institute Manual or a similar publication for recommended
clearances.
o In a mixer, the liquid level must be at least one and one half diameters of
the blade, above the blade.

TROUBLESHOOTING

• Cavitation damage on the trailing edge of the impeller blade means :

o The N.P.S.H. available is too low.
o Air is entering at the pump suction.
o There is liquid turbulence at the pump suction.
• Cavitation damage on the leading edge of the impeller blade indicates internal
recirculation. Check the Suction Specific Speed number to see if it is below 9000
(10,000 metric). Higher numbers mean that the problem is with the impeller
shape or adjustment. The problem was created when the pump manufacture tried
to come up with too low a N.P.S.H. Required.
• Cavitation damage just beyond the cutwater, on the casing and tip of the impeller
blade, indicates the impeller blade is too close to the cutwater. This clearance
should be at least 4% of the impeller diameter up to a 14 inch (356 mm.) impeller,
and 6% greater than 14 inch ( 356 mm.). Some self priming pump manufacturers
want a maximum clearance of 1/8" (3 mm) and, as a result, often experience this
problem. A repaired or substituted impeller is often the cause of the problem in a
non self priming pump.
• Water in the bearing oil will reduce bearing life 48%. The water enters from
packing leakage, wash down hoses, and aspiration caused by the temperature
cooling down in the bearing casing after shutdown and moisture laden air
entering the bearing case. A 6% water content in the oil will reduce bearing life
by as much as 83%
• The mass of the pump concrete foundation must be 5 times the mass of the pump,
base plate, and other equipment that is being supported, or vibration will occur.
• Up to 500 horsepower (375 KW), the foundation must be 3 inches (76 mm.) wider
than the base plate all around. Above 500 horsepower (375 KW) the foundation
should be a minimum of 6 inches (150 mm.) wider.

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 • Imaginary lines extended downward 30 degrees to either side of a vertical through
the pump shaft, should pass through the bottom of the foundation and not the
sides.
• The bearing oil level should be at the center of the lowest most ball of a stationary
bearing. The preferred choice for bearing lubrication would be an oil mist system
with positive face sealing at the bearings, if you could solve the emission problem.
• Pipe from the pump suction flange to the pipe rack, not the other way around.
• Make sure eccentric reducers are not installed upside down at the pump suction.
The top of the reducer should go straight into the suction flange.
• Valve stems, T Branches and elbows should be installed perpendicular to the
pump shaft, not at right angles.
• Do not use packing in any pump that runs under a vacuum, as air will enter the
system through the pump stuffing box.. These applications include :
o Pumps that lift liquid.
o Pumps that take their suction from a condenser or evaporator.
o Any pump that takes its suction from a negative pressure. Heater drain
pumps are a typical application.
• Be sure too vent the stuffing box of a sealed, vertical pump back to the suction
side of the pump or air will become trapped in the stuffing box. The vent must be
located above the lapped seal faces.
• If the Specific Gravity of the pumping liquid should increase, due to temperature,
there is a danger of overloading the motor and therefore motors having sufficient
power should be used. The same overloading power will occur if the pump is run
too far to the right of its B.E.P.. This is a very common problem because of the
great number of oversized pumps in existence.

How to the calculate the water horsepower coming out of the pump?

Horsepower is measured using the units, foot pounds with one horsepower equal
to 33,000 foot pounds. Since fluid has weight we can calculate how many pounds
per minute we are pumping by finding out how much a gallon of our fluid weighs.
After you have done that, multiply the gallons per minute you are pumping by
8.33 (the weight of a gallon of water) and then multiply that result by the specific
gravity (the weight) of your fluid, and you will have the pounds per minute
number you are looking for.

Once you have the pounds per minute you are pumping, you can multiply that
number into the feet of head the pump is producing and you have foot pounds
per minute that can be converted to horsepower.

Please take a look at the following pump curve.

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Let's use this chart for our example:

You are using the 13 inch impeller at 1750 rpm and pumping 300 gallons per
minute of a fluid with a specific gravity of 1.0 to a head of 168 feet

300 gpm x 8.33 x 1.0 sg. = 2,499 pounds of fluid per minute.

We are pumping this fluid to a head of 168 feet so:

2,499 x 168 = 419,832 foot pounds per minute

Since 33,000 foot pound per minute equals one horsepower. We will divide and
get:

419,832 / 33,000 = 12.73 horsepower.

This means that the pump is putting out 12.73 horsepower. Now, the next
question is how much actual horsepower is required to do this?

Please take a look at the ascending lines on the bottom of the chart. Each line
represents a different size impeller with the top line showing the horsepower
required for a 13-inch impeller and the bottom line for a 9-inch impeller. The
horsepower required is shown in the left column under bhp. (brake horsepower).

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Notice that it calls for 20 horsepower to move 300 gallons per minute with a 13-
inch impeller.

If the pump were 100% efficient, all you would need would be 12.73 horsepower
motor to drive the pump and it would do the job, but motors and pumps are not
100 % efficient because of friction losses and heat generation. This means that
our actual efficiency is

12.73 hp out / 20 hp in = 0.64 or 64% efficient

Suppose the specific gravity of the fluid you are pumping is different than 1.0
(cold water). Just plug the new number into the formula and multiply the pump
curve bhp by the same number. Using a specific gravity of 1.3, the change would
look like this:

300 x 8.33 x 1.3 = 3248.70 pounds per minute

3248.70 x 168 = 545,781.60 foot-pounds per minute

545,781.6 / 33000 = 16.54 water horsepower out of the pump

20 x 1.3 = 26 horsepower is going into the pump

16.54 / 26 = 0.64 efficient

A few things you should know about your pump's piping system

• There should be at least 10 diameters of pipe between the suction of the pump and
the first elbow. This is especially critical in double-ended pump designs as the
turbulent inlet flow can cause shaft thrusting, and subsequent bearing problems. If
an elbow must be installed be sure it is in a plane at right angles to the pump shaft
to prevent an uneven flow to both sides of a double suction impeller.
• Pipe from the pump suction flange to the pipe rack, not the other way around.
• Make sure eccentric reducers are not installed upside down at the pump suction.
The top of the reducer should go straight into the suction flange.
• Piping should be arranged with as few bends as possible. If bends are necessary
use a long radius when ever possible
• Valve stems, T Branches and elbows should be installed perpendicular to the
pump shaft, not at right angles.
• If an expansion joint is installed in the piping between the pump and the nearest
point of anchor in the piping, It should be noted that a force equal to the area of
the expansion joint (which could be a lot larger than the normal piping size) times

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 the pressure in the piping will be transmitted to the pump proper. Pipe couplings
that do not provide an axially rigid connection have the same affect. If an
expansion join or non-rigid coupling must be used, it is recommended that a pipe
anchor be installed between it and the pump.
• Be aware that radial forces are being generated in the pump housing from the
pressure in the piping system acting on the volute area. The magnitude and
direction of the forces is dependent upon the piping arrangement along with the
areas and pressures involved.
• It is always a good idea to increase the size of the suction and discharge pipes at
the pump nozzle in order to decrease the head loss from pipe friction.
• Suction piping should be at least one size larger than the suction flange at the
pump.
• If increasers are used on the discharge side to increase the size of discharge piping,
they should be installed between the check valve and the pump.
• Both a check and gate valve should be installed in the discharge piping with the
check valve placed between the pump and the stop valve to protect the pump
from reverse flow and excessive back pressure. Manually operated discharge
valves that are hard to reach should have some facility for quick closing. A
sprocket rim wheel and chain or a remotely operated motor are two alternatives
you might consider.
• Suction piping must be kept free of air leaks.
• The installation of check valves should be avoided in the suction piping although
they are often used to reduce the number of valves that have to be operated in
switching between series and parallel pump operation.
• A foot valve is often installed in the suction piping to aid priming. Do not install
them if the pump is operating against a high static head because failure of the
driver would allow liquid to rush back suddenly causing water hammer. This is
especially true for vertical turbine and submersible pumps that are not designed
for use with a foot valve.
• Foot valves should be of the low loss flap type rather than the multiple spring
variety and have a clear passage for the liquid at least the same area as the suction
piping.
• A horizontal suction line should have a gradual rise or slope to the pump suction.
• Cast iron pumps should never be provided with raised face flanges. If steel
suction or discharge piping is used, the pipe flanges should be of the flat face type
and not the raised face type. Full-faced gaskets must be used with cast iron
flanges.
• The optimum control valve location is within five feet (1,5 meters) of the pump
discharge to prevent too much surging of fluid in the system when the discharge
is throttled.
• The optimum pipe size will consider the installed cost of the pipe (the cost
increases with size) and the pump power requirements (the power required
increases with pipe friction)
o Try to limit the friction loss at design flow to 2-5 feet for each 100 feet (1-
2 meters for each 30 meters) of pipe).

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 o To prevent the settling of solids you need a minimum velocity of about 4
to 7 feet per second (1.5 to 2.5 meters per second)
o Velocities of no more than 10 feet (3 meters) per second are recommended
in the suction side piping to prevent abrasive wear.

A few rules of thumb for mechanical seals

Before selecting your mechanical seal design there are three things you want to
remember:

• All of the seal materials must be chemically compatible with any fluids that will
be pumped through the system and that includes solvents, cleaners or steam that
might be introduced into the system to flush or clean the lines. It also includes
any barrier fluids that are used to circulate between dual mechanical seals.
• The seal faces must stay together. If they open the seal will leak and allow solids
to penetrate between the faces where the solids will eventually destroy the lapped
surfaces.
• Good seal life is defined as running the mechanical seal until the carbon face is
worn away. Any other condition is called a seal failure and is always correctable

The following is offered as a guide when dealing with mechanical seals in

general. If possible you should contact the manufacturer for specific
recommendations and limits. I have spent the past twenty seven years lecturing
about seals and pumps and during that time have picked up a number of rules
that are worth remembering. Here are some of the most important:

• Selecting materials - The elastomer ( the rubber part)

• There are two temperature limits for a mechanical seal:
o You must not exceed the temperature of the seal components. As an
example Ethylene Propylene rubber cannot seal hot fluids in excess of
300° degrees Fahrenheit ( 150° C) without taking a compression set and
eventually leaking.
o You must not exceed the temperature limit of the fluid you are pumping.
Many fluids will change from a liquid to a gas, solid or crystal at elevated
temperature. In almost every case this will cause a seal failure. As an
example, petroleum lubricating oil cokes between 250 and 300 degrees
Fahrenheit (120° C. to 150° C.) and restricts the movement of the seal
components. A Viton® O-ring, in this application would not have been
subjected to its temperature limit, but we had the seal failure because we
exceeded the temperature limit of petroleum products.
• Halogens will attack Teflon® coated elastomers . Halogens are easily identified
because they end in the letters " INE". The list would include Bromine, Chlorine.
Astatine, Fluorine, and Iodine. These Halogens will penetrate the Teflon®

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 coating and attack the base rubber material causing it to swell and split the Teflon
sleeve or coating.
• Most Viton® compounds are attacked by water. Be sure to check if you have the
correct one. Remember that steam is another name for water and the steam
cleaning of lines is very common in the process industry. Caustic is another
common cleaner and caustic contains a high percentage of water also.
• Buna "N" (Nitrile) is an elastomer that has a short shelf life. This is the elastomer
that is most often used in Rubber Bellows Seals. The problem is Ozone attack.
Ozone is produced by the sparking from electric motors, so it is a very common
problem. A typical shelf life for most Buna compounds would be one year.
• If a round O-Ring becomes square in operation (compression set) it is almost
always caused by excessive heat. Chemical attack is usually recognized by a
swollen and soft elastomer while high heat will produce a shrunken, hard one.
• Chemical attack of the elastomer will usually cause a seal failure within five to
ten days. The swollen elastomer will "lock up" the mechanical seal and in some
instances, open the lapped seal faces.

Determine the correct O-Ring by one of the following methods:

• Look up the chemical in published O-Ring charts provided by all reputable seal
companies. You will find a chart in the chart section of this web site
• Check to see if the plant has any experience with O-Rings, in this fluid, in another
seal application. O-Rings can also be found in filters, strainers, valves, flanges,
expansion joints etc..
• Test the O-Ring by immersing it into the sealing fluid for one week. If the O-Ring
changes weight, shape, or appearance, it is not compatible with the fluid.
• Use a universal O-Ring compound such as Green Tweed's Chemraz, Dupont's
Kalrez® or a similar product.
• When choosing an O-Ring, or any other elastomer, be sure to consider any
cleaners or solvents that might be flushed through the lines or that could come
into contact with the seal. The elastomer must be compatible with these fluids
also.
• Never use " glued together" elastomers in a split seal or any "dynamic"
application. A hard spot will be created that will interfere with the movement of
the dynamic elastomer.

Selecting Materials - The Faces.

• Carbon and most hard face materials have an expansion rate of about one third
that of stainless steel.
• Use two hard faces if the product has a tendency to solidify between the seal faces.
Never use plated or coated hard faces in these applications. Hard faces are
recommended if you find that it is impossible to keep the seal faces together and
solids are present in the sealing liquid. Two hard faces are also recommended in
the sealing of hydrocarbons that have to pass a "fugitive emissions" test. Coke

127
 particles forming between the faces will pull pieces of carbon out of the
carbon/graphite face presenting a leak path for fugitive emissions.
• Although many carbon graphite compounds are available unfilled carbons are the
best because they are corrosion resistant to almost all chemicals except oxidizing
agents and some de ionized water applications. These oxidizing agents will
combine with the carbon to form Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide. The
most common oxidizers are oleum, sulfur trioxide, strong bleaches and nitric
Acid. You cannot use any form of carbon in these applications. Keep in mind that
black elastomers will also be attacked by oxidizing agents because of their carbon
content.
• Ceramic vs. ceramic is a good choice for oxidizing chemicals.
• If you are going to select plated Tungsten Carbide as a face material, use only the
nickel base Tungsten Carbide. Cobalt base is too hard and can crack with normal
seal face differential temperatures. Nickel base, because of its superior corrosion
resistance is the preferred material for solid Tungsten Carbide faces also.
• Reaction bonded Silicone Carbide has excellent wear characteristics, but contains
up to 17% free silica which can be attacked by many chemicals including caustic.
Alpha sintered Silicone Carbide is also available and is Silica free.
• 85% ceramic should never be recommended as a hard seal face as it can break
with as little as a 100 degree Fahrenheit (55 C) temperature difference. 99.5%
would be a much better choice.
• Plating or coating a seal face will not give it corrosion resistance. Coatings are
used for wear resistance and low friction. To get corrosion resistance the outer
coating must be at least 1/8" (3 mm) thick. If the base material is not corrosion
resistant to the pumping fluid and any cleaners or solvents used in the lines the
corrosive will go through the coating and attack the base, causing the plating to
come off in sheets.

Selecting Materials - The Metal Parts.

• Be sure to use low expansion metal such as Carpenter 42 or Invar 36 in your

metal bellows seal face holder if the product temperature can exceed 400°
Fahrenheit (205°C). These low expansion steels will prevent the carbon or hard
seal faces from leaking between the face and the metal holder. Needless to say
glue or epoxy is not a sensible solution to differential expansion problems.
• If your pump is manufactured from Iron, steel, stainless steel, or bronze, you can
probably use a seal manufactured from 316 stainless steel components. The
springs or bellows, however, must be manufactured from Hastelloy "C" to avoid
problems with Chloride Stress Corrosion.

Sealing Limits

• Use only stationary mechanical seals (the springs do not rotate with the shaft) if
the face surface speed exceeds 5000 feet per minute ( 25 M/sec.), but never in a
cartridge design unless some method has been provided to insure that the
cartridge sleeve is square to the shaft.

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 • Use O-Ring balanced seals in vacuum applications down to 10-2 inches or one
millimeter of mercury (1 Torr.). The O-Ring is the only elastomer that can seal
both vacuum and pressure. Split seals will work in these applications, but they
must be turned around for best operation.
• Any good quality, balanced, O-Ring seal can seal stuffing box pressures to 400
psi (28 bar) and temperatures to 400 degrees Fahrenheit (205° C). There is a
compound of Dupont's Kalrez® that is satisfactory to 600 degrees Fahrenheit
(370° C), but it is not acceptable at ambient temperatures (it gets too hard).

Application

• A Balanced O-Ring seal will not vaporize the product at the seal face if the
stuffing box pressure is at least one atmosphere above the products vapor point.
• The easiest product to seal is a cool, clean, lubricating liquid. All problem
chemicals can be placed into several categories. If you know how to seal these
categories you should have no trouble making seals work in your applications :
o Products that crystallize (caustic or sugar solutions)
o Viscous products (asphalt or molasses)
o Products that solidify (polymers or chocolate)
o Products that vaporize (hot water or benzene)
o Film building liquids (hot petroleum or plating solutions)
o High temperature fluids (heat transfer oil or liquid sulfur)
o Dangerous products (fire hazard, explosive, radioactive, bacteria)
o Non lubricating liquids (solvents or hot water)
o Gases and dry running applications (hydrogen)
o Dry solids (cake mix or pharmaceuticals)
o Corrosive fluids (acids or strong bases)
o Cryogenics (liquid nitrogen)
o Slurries (river water, sewage, most raw products)
• In addition to these chemical categories there are other sealing problems that
include:
o High pressure
o Hard vacuum
o High speed
o Excessive motion
• Dual seals should be balanced in both directions to prevent failure when barrier
fluid pressure changes. The practice of using "one direction" seal balance is
commonly employed by most seal companies and should be avoided for both
safety and reliability.
• Use motion seals on mixers, agitators, sleeve bearing equipment and any rotating
device that has motion greater than 0.005" (0,15 mm.) in a radial or axial
direction. Pump seals do not work well in these applications because the hard
faces are too narrow and the internal seal clearances are too tight.
• Do not use flushing fluid as a coolant in stationary mechanical seals. The coolant
will be directed to only one side of the seal and since a stationary seal does not
rotate the sliding components the differential temperature can cause the faces to

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 go out of flat. In the case of stationary bellows seals it could cause a bellows
rupture.
• The best way to cool a seal is to use the jacketed stuffing box that came as a part
of the pump. This jacket will not only cool down the seal area, but will provide
the necessary cooling to the shaft so that it will not transmit stuffing box heat
back to the bearings.
• The use of steam in a Quench gland is another solution, but not as good as the
jacketed stuffing box.
• It is all right to dead end fluid in a stuffing box if a jacketed stuffing box is being
used. Do not attempt to recirculate back to the suction side and cool the stuffing
box at the same time. When using a jacketed stuffing box it is best to install a
carbon bushing in the bottom to act as a thermal barrier the pumping fluid and the
seal.
• Do not use rotating, "Back to Back" double seals in dirt or slurry service. The
solids will prevent the inner seal from moving forward as the faces wear and if
the barrier fluid pressure is lost, solids will penetrate the inner seal faces.
• Be sure to vent vertical pumps back to the suction side of the pump. Air trapped
in the stuffing box can cause the seal faces to run hot and in some instances
destroy the elastomer.
• Cyclone type separators or "in line filters" are not a good method of cleaning up
the fluid in the stuffing box.
• Heat affects a seal several ways:
o The faces can be attacked. Plated faces can have the hard coating crack off
and filled carbons can have the binder melted out in high heat.
o The elastomer (rubber part) has a temperature limit determined by the
compound used.
o The corrosion rate of all liquids increases with temperature.
o Thermal expansion can cause seal face loads to alter and seal face flatness
to change.
o Many products will change from a liquid to a solid or gas in the presence
of high temperature. If this should occur between the seal faces, they can
be blown open.
• Do not be tempted to put the mechanical seal outside of the stuffing box to keep
the springs out of the fluid. As the face wears the seal must move into the slurry
where it will eventually "hang up" and leak. In these applications centrifugal
force is throwing solids into the lapped faces and if there is excessive pressure in
the system the seal faces will be blown open.
• When choosing the pressure range of a mechanical seal be sure to consider the
stuffing box pressure not the pump discharge pressure. Very few seals will ever
see discharge pressure.

Technical

• Seals lapped to less than three helium light bands ( 0.000034") inches or 1,0
microns) should not show visible leakage. Visible leakage occurs at about 5 light
bands.

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• A typical mechanical seal face load would be 30 psi. (0,2 N/mm2) when the
carbon is new and 10 psi. (0,07 N/mm2) when the carbon is fully worn away.
You must never guess as to how much to compress a mechanical seal. Either take
the information from the seal print or calculate the correct length from the above
information.
• Both rotating and stationary metal bellows seals require vibration damping.
Elastomer seals do not experience this vibration problem because the elastomer
touching the shaft is a natural vibration damper. Vibration can be either harmonic
or caused by poor lubricating fluids (slip stick)
• Use only non fretting seal designs. Shafts and sleeves cost too much to ignore this
severe problem.
• Carbon throat bushings should have a shaft clearance of 0.002 inches/inch (0,002
mm/ millimeter) of shaft diameter. If they are to be used as a support bearing you
should cut the clearance down to 0.001 inches/ inch (0,001 mm/millimeter) of
shaft diameter.
• It is not necessary to lubricate seal faces at installation. If the product you are
sealing can vaporize between the faces and cause freezing then you must remove
any lubricant that might have been placed there by the manufacturer.
• Balanced mechanical seals consume about one sixth the horsepower of packing.
Packing a pump would be like running your automobile with the emergency
brake engaged. The car would run, but the fuel consumption would be high.
• Single spring seals are wound in either a right or left handed direction. Check to
see if your seal has a problem in keeping the faces together because of the spring
winding.
• Open impeller pumps require impeller adjustment. Use only cartridge or split
seals in these applications. Do not use seals that locate against a shoulder or set
screw to the shaft, as the face load will change when the impeller is adjusted.
• Do not relap the carbon face unless it is an emergency. Seal face opening is a
common seal failure. When the faces open solid particles imbed them selves into
the carbon face and will be driven in even further during the lapping process. If
you must relap in an emergency never use lapping powder, as the abrasive
particles will imbed into the soft carbon.
• You cannot balance an inside seal by removing material from the carbon face. To
get seal balance you must do one of the following:
o Use a stepped sleeve with rotating seals.
o Let the carbon slide in a case that is sealed to the shaft.
o Use a metal bellows. The balance is not perfect, but good enough.
o Use a stationary seal design, they require no stepped sleeves.
• Seal face hardness is a confusing subject because of the various measuring scales
employed. The two most common are Rockwell "C" and Brinnell. If you divide
the Brinnell scale by ten (10) it is almost equal to the Rockwell "C" scale.
• Avoid oil as a barrier or buffer fluid between two mechanical seals. Most
petroleum base and other oils have a low specific heat (0.2 - 0.4) and combined
with poor conductivity (0.5 of water) makes them a poor choice compared to
fresh water. If oil is mandatory, a clean heat transfer oil would be your best
choice.

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 • A convection tank can often be used between two balanced O-Ring seals. If you
use unbalanced seals the heat generated by this type of seal is usually excessive
for convection cooling. Contact the seal manufacturer for his recommendations
concerning speed, diameter, face combination and pressure limits for convection
cooling. If convection is not satisfactory, a pumping ring or forced lubrication is
another option.
• If you decide to repair your mechanical seals in house, be sure to purchase the
parts from the original manufacturer. If you decide to have them repaired send
them back to the original manufacturer. It is important that the seal be rebuilt with
the original materials and it must meet the original tolerances. This information is
not available from the manufacturer because of product liability problems.
• O-ring seal designs can tolerate three to four times the "run out" capability of
sliding or pusher seals incorporating wedges, chevrons, U- cups etc..
• Oil on the seal faces can cause the faces to stick together during long periods of
non running. If you do not intend to run the equipment soon remove any oil that
might be on the seal faces during the assembly procedure.

A quick reference to prevent potential seal and pump problems:

The biggest advantage of experience is you have hopefully learned what can get
you into trouble. The following information has been explained in detail in
previous technical papers, but I still see the same problems re-occurring on a
daily basis.

Take a few minutes and look at the following. It might save you a seal or pump
failure.

MATERIALS

• Carbon seal face. Any form of carbon is usually not acceptable in the following
applications:
o Oxidizers, they combine with carbon to form CO & CO2
o Halogens (most of them end in the letters "ine") chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, astintine & iodine
o Where color contamination can be a problem.
o Some de-ionized water applications.
o Hot petroleum products if you are concerned about fugitive emissions.
• A special carbon is used for cryogenic and hot dry air applications. Moisture is
needed to make the graphite release from the carbon-graphite mixture, and in
these applications the needed moisture is not present. A special carbon with an
imbedded organic is made to satisfy these applications.
• Ceramic grade 99.5 is not a satisfactory hard face in hot applications because of
its poor thermal conductivity. Alpha grade silicone carbide or tungsten carbide
are much better choices.

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 • Ethylene Propylene Rubber O-Rings will be attacked by petroleum products and
this includes any petroleum grease that might be put on the O-ring during the
installation process.
• Kalrez® grade 3018 is not satisfactory if the temperature is below 600°F. (315°C.)
The material is too hard at these lower temperatures.
• Nickel base tungsten carbide can cause galvanic corrosion problems with stainless
steel shafts.
• Reaction bonded silicone carbide is not satisfactory for caustic or most high PH
materials.
• Viton® O-rings are not generally satisfactory in water based fluids. This also
includes steam cleaning or flushing the lines with water based caustic solutions.
Grade 747-75 fluorocarbon is O.K. if the water is cold, but ethylene propylene
rubber is still your best choice as long as the temperature does not exceed 300°F
(150°C.).
• White Chemraz is not recommended for most high PH fluids. Do not use it with:
o Acetaldehyde, Ammonia + Lithium metal solution, Aqua Regia, Black
liquor, DI water, Ethyl Formate, Ethylene Oxide, FC 75, Freon 113 -114 -
114B2 - 115 - 142B- C318 - PCA - TF, Fuming Sulfuric Acid, Green
Sulfate Liquor, KEL-F- Liquids, Lye, Magnesium Hydroxide, Red
Fuming Nitric Acid, Potassium Hydroxide, Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic),
Fuming Sulfuric Acid, and White Liquor.
• If you choose the wrong elastomer it will be attacked by the fluid and break down.
For the first few days the seal will work very well because the elastomer has
become "slimy" and moves easily. The elastomer will then "swell-up" and lock-
up the moveable seal components.

APPLICATION

Remember that chemical attack can be accelerated by temperature, fluid

concentration, and stress. Past plant experience is your best indicator of what
seal and pump materials to use.

• Ammonia compressor; use Neoprene for the O-ring because the fluid is a
combination of ammonia and petroleum oil.
• Black Liquor, as found in paper mill applications can be either sulfite or sulfate.
Sulfate (high PH) is the most common and ethylene propylene can be used for the
O-ring material if the temperature is below 300°F (150°C). If the temperature is
too high, Kalrez is a good choice. White Chemraz is not recommended in these
higher temperature caustic applications.
• Boiler feed pump applications vary a great deal. In some cases they are nothing
more than a simple hot water application, but in other instances a very high
pressure is involved. In any case, cooling is needed in the stuffing box to insure
long seal life. High pressure applications also require a heavy duty seal design.
• Caustic. If the concentration is over 50% Monel metal will probably be needed.
The metal selection depends upon the temperature and stress.

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 • Ethylene Oxide will penetrate into most elastomers and explode out the other side
of the O-ring. Use two seals and pressurize between them. Ethylene Oxide is a
dangerous product, so two seals should be used in any case.
• Halogens attack most carbon faces and will penetrate the Teflon® encapsulated
O-rings like Vanway, Creavey and & 76 style.
• Hot oils. Coking is always the problem. The seal area must be cooled. Coking is a
function of temperature and time and is independent of the presence of oxygen. If
you want to seal fugitive emissions you will have to go to two hard faces. Even
the best of carbons show some blistering in these applications. In other words, a
metal bellows seal will not eliminate the need for stuffing box cooling.
• High temperature applications. Most metal bellows seal designs incorporate a low
expansion holder (Invar 36 or Carpenter 42) to retain the carbon face. This holder
is also frequently used as a vibration damper to prevent seal face separation
problems caused by "slip stick." If you lose cooling in these applications the
pump shaft expands at a rate three times that of the low expansion steel vibration
damper and can cause the seal faces to be pulled open.
• Kaoline (china clay) will penetrate lapped seal faces because the solids are less
than one micron in size. You will need two seals with a pressurized barrier fluid
between the seals. Water is a good choice for this barrier fluid.
• Latex balls up between the seal faces. Dual seals with a pressurized water barrier
fluid have been used in this application, and non contacting gas seal seem to be
the current choice, but flushing with a small amount of cold water seems to be the
only satisfactory solution to this application.
• Paper stock always requires a small amount of flushing water. You cannot use
suction recirculation and centrifugal force to separate the stock from the water
because of the stock's low specific gravity. If the pump is trying to "lift" paper
stock it will almost always cavitate.
• Pipe line applications almost always involve high pressure. Heavy duty seals
should be used in these applications.
• Products that freeze (cryogenic). Watch out for moisture outboard of the seal.
Dual seals with anti-freeze circulating in a convection tank is your best bet. Do
not put any grease on the seal faces. It will freeze also.
• Salt water. Coat the O-rings and all clamped surfaces with Zinc Oxide paste to
prevent corrosion at these locations.
• Sulfuric acid. Alloy 20 metal is usually needed for these applications. Any
leakage will cause severe corrosion as the product is diluted.

CONVERTING FROM PACKING TO SEALS

Horizontally split pumps:

• Suction recirculation will not work if the stuffing box is at suction pressure. Most
single stage designs fit into this category
• The face of the stuffing box must be resurfaced to get a good gasket seal.

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 • If you are making a new gasket between the casing halves, be sure to have it
extend outside the stuffing box face and then trim it flush after the halves are
tightened together.
• Be sure to seal between the sleeve and the impeller. This is a potential leak path
after a mechanical seal is installed.
• Some sleeves terminate under the seal. Check that you will not have a corrosion
problem if the sleeve and shaft are different materials,
• Sometimes a new gasket will extrude into the sides of the stuffing box when the
two halves of the pump are bolted together. The gasket can then rub against the
side of the seal interfering with its movement.
• You will need either a stationary mechanical seal or some type of self aligning
feature to seal these pumps successfully.

Flyte sewage pumps can be converted to a single mechanical seal if a special

adapter is made. It's worth the problem. You only have to seal the bearing cavity
in this application

MISCELLANEOUS

• Discharge recirculation can act as a sand blaster against the seal body. This can be
a big problem with the thin metal plates found in metal bellows seals.
• Dual seal barrier or buffer fluid. Oils should be your last choice as a barrier or
buffer fluid because of oils' low specific heat and poor thermal conductivity. You
will definitely need a pumping ring if you are going to use a convection tank.
• Quenching. An excess of water or steam can easily get into, and ruin the bearings.
• Suction recirculation is not affective in the following:
o Duriron pumps, because of their semi- open impeller design.
o If the fluid is close to its vapor point. flashing will occur when the stuffing
box pressure drops.
o If the specific gravity of the solids is lower than the fluid. If the solids
float, centrifugal force will throw the liquid to the outside leaving the
solids against the seal components. Paper stock is a good example of this.
o Single stage, double ended pumps where the stuffing boxes are at suction
pressure.
• Seal set screws are normally manufactured from corrosion resistant materials and
are therefore softer than normal set screws. This means they can slip if reused.
You can substitute hardened set screws in most cartridge seal applications.
• Do not use any type of set screw on non-metallic shafts. Seals must be clamped to
the non metallic shaft or sleeve.
• Split seal designs. Most can seal either a pressure or a vacuum, but not if the
application alternates between them. You can run into this problem in some mixer
applications.
• Troubleshooting hints
o Are other seals working in this application? If they are, you know the
materials are alright. Now you must decide what is different about this
application.

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 o Has the seal been repaired? You may be looking at a rub mark,
discoloration, or corrosion that is not relevant to this application.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

• Do not let the welder use the pump as an electrical ground. You can ruin the seal
or bearings in the process.
• Pumping off of the best efficiency point will not excessively deflect the shaft with
the following centrifugal pump designs:
o Double volute casings.
o Multi stage designs.
o Diffuser or turbine pump designs.
• Be sure to level the pump when you do an alignment.
• If you trim the impeller, file the tips and re balance the assembly.
• The next time that you look at the pump discharge gauge, remember that the
pump pumps the difference between the suction and discharge heads. You must
subtract a positive suction head to determine what head the pump is really
creating.
• Bearing lip or grease seals have a useful life of less than 90 days and will cut and
score the shaft because of fretting corrosion.
• Never cool a bearing housing because it will shrink and over compress the
bearing. Cool only the bearing oil.
• Flushing the system with steam or a cleaner seldom flushes out the stuffing box of
the pump.
• Do not circulate shop water through the cooling jacket on a high temperature
pump. Condensate or low pressure steam is a better choice. Be sure to install a
thermal bushing in the end of the stuffing box to get effective temperature control
in the seal area. Make sure you come into the bottom of the jacket and out the top
to vent any air that might be trapped in the jacket.

What is the best pump and seal technology?

The "Best Technology" phrase comes up in recent government regulations and

every day plant conversations. So what is the best Mechanical Seal and Pump
Technology available today? Here is my opinion:

SEAL TECHNOLOGY

Materials

• Identifiable face materials compatible with the fluid to be sealed and any cleaners
or solvents put through the lines.
• Materials able to handle the full temperature range of the product you are sealing.
• Viton® compatible with water.

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 • Hard faces that are not sensitive to temperate change or caustic cleaners.
• Unfilled carbon graphite seal faces
• No elastomers with shelf life.
• No stainless steel springs or bellows.

Design

• The seal should shut with spring and system hydraulic pressure.
• Hydraulically balanced designs for low heat generation.
• Two way balance in dual seal designs.
• Built in pumping ring for cartridge dual seals.
• Tandem configuration in dual seal designs. No rotating "back to back" designs.
• Stationary configuration for non-cartridge applications.
• Self aligning design for stationary cartridge versions.
• Springs designed out of the fluid.
• The elastomer should move to a clean surface as the faces wear.
• No spring loaded elastomers.
• Non fretting designs.
• Independent of shaft tolerance and finish
• Static elastomer located away from the seal face
• Cartridge sleeve sealed at wet end.
• Vibration damping of the seal face.
• Seal should be located close to bearing support.
• No elastomer in the seal face.
• Faces in compression.
• Wide operating range
• Low hysteresis.
• Equal & opposite clamping of stationary face.
• Sealing fluid located at the outside diameter of the seal faces
• Leak detection capability
• Independent of shaft finish and tolerance
• Compensate for thermal expansion and adjustments.
• Meet fugitive emission standards.
• Simple installation.
• Eliminate all elastomers if possible
• Short length leaving room for a shaft support bushing.
• Finite element analysis of all components.
• A method of supporting the shaft in the event of a bearing failure.
• Trapped gaskets.

OTHER

• Packaging to survive a one meter drop.

• Back up sealing.
• Built in seal face vent for vertical applications.
• No glued elastomers in split seal configurations.

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BEST PUMP TECHNOLOGY

• Low shaft diameter to length ratio (less than 60 L3 /D4) .

• Large operating window
• C or D frame adapter to simplify driver to pump alignment
• Centerline design for thermal expansion.
• Oversize stuffing box.
• Adequate bearing retention (no snap rings).
• Positive bearing sealing.
• Oil level indication.
• Oil cooling availability.
• Low NPSH.
• Double volute to prevent shaft deflection.
• Suction specific speed number below 8500.
• Dynamically balanced rotating assembly.
• Impeller specific speed number selected for the application.
• Duplex metal impeller.
• Impeller investment cast.
• Adjust impeller from the wet end to prevent seal face load change.

A new method of troubleshooting centrifugal pumps and mechanical seals:

One of the U. S. based Japanese automobile manufacturers has a unique method of

troubleshooting any type of mechanical failure. The system is called the "Five Whys". It is a
simple but powerful concept, nothing has been solved until the question "why ?" has been asked
at least five times and a sensible answer has been given for each of the "why" questions. As an
example:

1. Why did the seal fail?

• The lapped faces opened and solids penetrated between them. (solids can't get in
until the faces open)

2. Why did the faces open?

• The set screws holding the rotary unit slipped due to a combination of vibration
and system pressure.

3. Set screws are not supposed to slip. Why did the set screws slip?

• The seal was installed on a hardened sleeve.

4. Why was the seal installed on a hardened sleeve?

• This was a packing conversion and a stock sleeve was used.

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5. Why couldn't the mechanic tell the difference between a hardened sleeve and a soft
one?

• They were both stored in the same bin.

6 Why were they stored in the same bin?

• Because they had the same part number.

7. Why did they have the same part number?

• They should have had different part numbers. Once that problem is corrected, the
failures will stop.

Now you get the idea! Needless to say you may have to go further than just five "whys".
Let's try another example:

1. Why did the seal fail?

• The pump was cavitating and the vibration caused the carbon face to crack.

2. Why was the pump cavitating?

• It did not have enough suction head.

3. Why didn't it have enough suction head?

• The level in the tank got too low.

4. Why did the level in the tank get too low?

• I don't know.

You have not finished five "whys" so you better go find out why the level in the tank go
too low or the problem is going to repeat its self. In the above example the float got stuck
on a corroded rod, giving an incorrect level indication.

One more example should do it:

1. Why did the seal start to leak?

• The elastomer got hard and cracked.

2. Why did the elastomer get hard and crack?

• It got too hot.

3. Why did it get too hot?

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 • The pump stuffing box ran dry.

4. Why did the stuffing box run dry?

• It was running under a vacuum and it was not supposed to.

5. Why was it running under a vacuum?

• A Goulds pump impeller was adjusted backwards to the back plate and the
impeller pump-out rings emptied the stuffing box.

6. Why was it adjusted backwards?

• Most of the pumps in the facility are of the Duriron brand and they normally
adjust to the back plate. The mechanic confused the impeller adjustment method.
He has since been retrained

This is a powerful trouble shooting technique. I hope you make good use of it.

Operation practices that cause frequent seal and bearing

maintenance problems

Wouldn't it be wonderful if the plant operation and maintenance departments

could work independently? The fact of the matter is that there are three types of
problems we encounter with centrifugal pumps and poor operation is one of them.
If you are curious, the other two are design problems and poor maintenance
practices.

Seals and bearings account for over eighty five percent (85%) of premature
centrifugal pump failure. In the following paragraphs we will be looking at only
those operation practices that can, and will cause premature seal and bearing
failure. Design and maintenance practices will be discussed in other papers in
this series.

When pumps were supplied with jam packing, the soft packing stabilized the
shaft to prevent too much deflection. In an effort to save flushing water and to
conserve power, many of these same pumps have since been converted to a
mechanical seal and the radial stabilization the packing provided has been lost.

The bad operating practices include:

Running the pump dry will cause over-heating and excessive vibration problems
that will shorten seal life. Here are some of the common reasons why a pump is
run dry:

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 • Failing to vent the pump prior to start-up.
• Running the tank dry at the end of the operation cycle.
• Emptying the tank for steaming or introduction of the next product.
• Running on the steam that is being used to flush the tank.
• Starting the standby pump without venting it. Venting a hazardous product
can cause a lot of problems with the liquid disposal. Many operators have
stopped venting for that reason.
• Tank vents sometimes freeze during cold weather. This will cause a
vacuum in the suction tank, and in some cases could collapse the tank.
• Sump fluids are often dirty, corrosive or both. The control rods for the float
switch will often "gum up" or corrode and give a false reading to the
operator. He may think that there is an adequate level, when in fact, the
tank is empty.

Dead heading the pump can cause severe shaft deflection as the pump moves
off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.). This translates to excessive heat that will
affect both the seal and the bearings as well as causing the seal faces to open,
and the possibility of the impeller contacting the volute when the shaft deflects.

• Starting the centrifugal pump with a shut discharge valve is standard

practice with many operation departments. The concern is to save power
without realizing the damage that is being done to the mechanical seal,
impeller, wear rings and bearings.
• Some pumps are equipped with a recirculation valve that must be opened
to lessen the problem, but many times the valve is not opened, or the
bypass line is clogged or not of the correct diameter to prevent the
excessive head. Another point to remember is that if the bypass line is
discharged to the suction side of the pump the increased temperature can
cause cavitation.
• After a system has been blocked out the pump is started with one or more
valves not opened.
• Discharge valves are shut before the pump has been stopped.

Operating off of the best efficiency point (B.E.P.). Changing the flow rate of the
liquid causes shaft deflection that can fail the mechanical seal and over-load the
bearings.

• Starting the pump with the discharge valve closed to save power.
• The level in the suction tank is changing. Remember that the pump pumps
the difference between the discharge and suction heads. If the suction
head varies, the pump moves to a different point on its curve.
• Any upset in the system such as closing, throttling or opening a valve will
cause the pump to move to a new point on the curve as the tank fills.
• Pumping to the bottom of a tank will cause the pump to move to a different
point on the curve as the tank fills. Some systems were designed for a low
capacity positive displacement pump and have since been converted to a

141
 centrifugal design because of a need for higher capacity. Centrifugal
pumps must discharge to the top of the tank to prevent this problem.
• If the discharge piping is restricted because of product build up on the
inside walls, the pump will run throttled. This is one of the reasons that it is
important to take periodic flow and amperage readings.
• Increasing the flow will often cause cavitation problems.

Seal environmental controls are necessary to insure long mechanical seal life. It
is important that operations understand their function and need because many
times we find the controls installed, but not functioning.

• Cooling-heating jackets should show a differential temperature between

the inlet and outlet lines. If the jacket clogs up, this differential will be lost
and seal failure will shortly follow.
• Barrier fluid is circulated between two mechanical seals. There may or
may not be a differential temperature depending upon the flow rate. If a
convection tank is installed, there should be a temperature differential
between the inlet and outlet lines. The line coming out of the top of the
seal to the side of the tank should be warmer than the line from the bottom
of the tank to the bottom of the seals, otherwise the system is running
backwards and may fail completely. The level in the tank is also critical. It
should be above the tank inlet line or no convection will occur. Some
convection tanks are pressurized with a gas of some type. Many original
equipment (O.E.M.) seal designs will fail if this differential pressure is lost.
• Some seal glands (A.P.I. type) are equipped with a quench connection
that looks like the seal is leaking water or steam. If there is too much
steam pressure on this quench connection, the excessive leakage will get
into the bearings causing premature failure. The steam is often used to
keep the product warm to prevent it from solidifying, crystallizing, getting
too viscous, building a film on the faces etc. Operating people frequently
shut off the quench to stop the condensate from leaking.
• Flushing fluids are used for a variety of purposes, but most of the time
they are used to get rid of unwanted solids. The flush can be closely
controlled with a flow meter or throttling valve. The amount of flush is
determined by the seal design. As an example, those designs that have
springs in the product require more flush.
• It is important to check that the stuffing box has been vented in vertical
pumps. The vent should be coming out of the seal gland and not the
stuffing box lantern ring connection.

There are some additional things that all operators should know to insure longer
rotating equipment life. As an example :

• Mechanical seals have an 85% or more failure rate that is normally

correctable. This is causing unnecessary down time and excessive
operating expense. Seals should run until the sacrificial carbon face is

142
 worn away, but in more that 85% of the cases the seal fails before this
happens.
• There are five different causes of cavitation.
• You should know where the best efficiency point (B.E.P.) is on a particular
pump, and how far it is safe to operate off the B.E.P. with a mechanical
seal installed.
• You should be aware that washing down the pump area with a water hose
will cause premature bearing failure when the water penetrates the
bearing case.
• Learn about the affect of shaft L3/D4 on pump operation.
• Know how the pumped product affects the life of the mechanical seal and
why environmental controls are necessary.
• If you are not using cartridge seals, adjusting the open impeller for
efficiency will shorten the seal life. In most cases the seal will open as the
impeller is being adjusted to the volute. Durco pumps are the best
example of the exception to this rule. The popular Durco pumps adjust to
the back plate causing a compression of the seal faces that can create
mechanical seal "over heating" problems.
• Cycling pumps for test will often cause a mechanical seal failure unless an
environmental control has been installed to prevent the failure.
• Mechanical seals should be positioned after the impeller has been
adjusted for thermal growth. This is important on any pump that is
operated above 200°F (100°C) or you will experience premature seal
failure.
• Some elastomers will be affected by steaming the system. A great deal of
caution must be exercised if a flushing fluid such as caustic is going to be
circulated through the lines or used to clean a tank. Both the elastomer
and some seal faces (reaction bonded silicone carbide is a good example)
can be damaged. If the elastomer is attacked, the failure usually occurs
within one week of the cleaning procedure.
• The stuffing box must be vented on all vertical centrifugal pumps or
otherwise air will be trapped at the seal faces that can cause premature
failure of many seal designs.
• Most original equipment seal designs cause shaft damage (fretting)
necessitating the use of shaft sleeves that weaken the shaft and restrict
pump operation to a narrow range at the B.E.P..

Here are a few common misconceptions that cause friction between

maintenance and operation departments

• Shutting the pump discharge valve suddenly, will blow the seal open.
• All ceramics cold shock.
• High head, low capacity consumes a lot of power.
• The pump must come into the shop to change a mechanical seal.
• If you use two hard faces or dual mechanical seals in slurry applications,
you will not need flushing water with its corresponding product dilution.

143
 • If you use metal bellows seals for hot oil applications, you will not need the
stuffing box cooling jacket operating.
• It is O.K. to use an oversized impeller because throttling back will save
power.

A few more thoughts on the subject

• Operators should receive proper schooling on the trouble shooting and

maintenance of pumps. In the military and many modern plants, the
operator and the maintenance mechanic are often the same person. If the
operator knows how the pump works he will have no trouble figuring out
the solution to his problem. Too often he is told to keep the flow gage at a
certain point, or between two values without understanding what is
actually happening with the equipment. If the operator recognizes
cavitation he can tell the maintenance department and help them with
their trouble shooting.
• As you wander around the plant look out for painters that paint the springs
of outside and double mechanical seals. There is a trend to putting two
seals in a pump for environmental reasons and the painting of springs is
becoming a common problem.
• If someone is adjusting the impeller make sure he is resetting the seal
spring tension at the same time.
• If the pump is getting hot or making excessive noises, report it
immediately. After the failure, it does no good to tell maintenance that it
was making noise for two weeks.
• If you are the floor operator it is common knowledge that taking
temperature and pressure readings is very boring, especially on those
gages that are located in hot or awkward locations. Avoid the temptation
to "radio" these readings. From hot to failure is a very short trip.
• Maintenance's favorite expression is "there is never time to do it right, but
there is always time to fix it." Try to keep this in mind when the pressure is
on to get the equipment running again.
• Do not let cleaning people direct their "wash down" hoses directly at the
pump. Water entering the bearings through the lip or grease seals is a
major cause of premature bearing failure. Most water wash downs are
used to dilute and wash away seal leakage. Stop the leak and you have
eliminated the reason for the hose.
• A great many motor and electrical problems are caused by these same
wash down hoses.
• Cooling a bearing outside diameter will cause it to shrink and the bearing
will get hotter as the radial load increases. Keep the water hose and all
other forms of cooling off of the bearing casing.

The pump is not producing enough head to satisfy the application?

144
This is the first paper in a four part series about pump troubleshooting. Let me begin by
pointing out that there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when
troubleshooting centrifugal pump problems:

• The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and
discharge heads. If the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to
meet the system requirements. If the suction head decreases the pump head will
increase to meet the system requirements.
• A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two
numbers multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head
increases the capacity must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity
must increase.
• The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
• If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in
the pump, the suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in
the discharge system.
• Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time
the pump was sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most
plants, causing the pump to run on the left hand side of its curve.

THE PROBLEM COULD BE IN THE PUMP ITS SELF

• The impeller diameter is too small.

o The impeller is running at too slow a speed
o You are running an induction motor. Their speed is different than
synchronous motors. It's always slower. The pump curve was created
using a variable frequency motor that ran at a constant speed. Put a
tachometer on your motor to see its actual speed.
o Your pulley driven pump is running on the wrong pulley diameter.
o A variable frequency motor is running at the wrong speed.
o Check the speed of the driver if the pump is driven by something other
than an electric motor.
• There is something physically wrong with the motor. Check the bearings etc.
• Check the voltage of the electric motor. It may be too low.
• The impeller is damaged. The damage could be caused by excessive wear, erosion,
corrosion or some type of physical damage.
o Physical damage often occurs during the assembly process when the
impeller is driven on or off the shaft with a wooden block and a mallet.
Many impeller designs do not have a nut cast into the impeller hub to ease
removal.
o Erosion occurs when solids enter the eye of the impeller. The solids can
chip off pieces of the ceramic that are passivating the impeller, causing
localized corrosion.
o Damage can occur if the impeller to volute, or back plate clearance is too
small and the shaft experiences some type of deflection. The original
clearance could have diminished with thermal growth of the shaft. Keep in

145
 mind that some open impellers adjust to the volute (Goulds) while other
designs adjust to the back plate (Duriron).
• In an ANSI and similar design centrifugal pumps, the normal thrust towards the
volute has bent the snap ring designed for bearing retention. This can allow the
rotating impeller to hit the stationary volute.
• Here are some examples of shaft displacement:
o Operating the pump too far off the BEP.
o Pulley driven applications.
o Pipe strain.
o Misalignment between the pump and driver.
o The shaft could be bent.
o The rotating assembly was probably not dynamically balanced.
• The impeller is clogged. This is a major problem with closed impellers. With the
exception of finished product, most of what you will be pumping contains
entrained solids. Remember also that some products can solidify, or they can
crystallize with a change in fluid temperature or pressure.
• Impeller balance holes have been drilled between the eye and the wear rings of a
closed impeller. The reverse flow is interfering with the product entering the
impeller eye. A discharge recirculation line should have been used in place of the
balance holes to reduce the axial thrust.
• The double volute casting is clogged with solids or solids have built up on the
surface of the casting.
• The open impeller to volute clearance is too large. 0.017" (0,5 mm) is typical.
This excessive clearance will cause internal recirculation problems. A bad
installation, thermal growth, or normal impeller wear could be the cause.
o A large impeller to cutwater clearance can cause a problem called
discharge recirculation. Wear is a common symptom of this condition.
• If the impeller is positioned too close to the cutwater you could have cavitation
problems that will interfere with the head.
• The impeller specific speed number is too high. Lower specific speed numbered
impellers are used to build higher heads.
• An impeller inducer was left off at the time of assembly. Inducers are almost
always needed with high specific speed impellers. Leaving off the inducer can
cause cavitation problems that will interfere with the head.
• The impeller is loose on the shaft.
• The impeller is running backwards
• The shaft is running backwards because of a wiring problem.
• The pump is running backwards because the discharge check valve is not holding
and system pressure is causing the reverse rotation. This is a common problem
with pumps installed in a parallel configuration. Check valves are notoriously
unreliable.
• The impeller has been installed backwards. This can happen with closed impellers
on double ended pumps
• The second stage of a two stage pump is wired backwards. The pump reverses
when the second stage kicks in. You should have heard a loud noise when this
happened.

146
• The wear ring clearance is too large.
o This is a common problem if the shaft L3/D4 number is greater than 60 (2
in the metric system).
o You should replace the rings when the original clearance doubles.
Needless to say this can only be determined by inspection.
• If you are pumping a product at 200°F (100°C) or more you should use a
centerline design volute to prevent excessive wear ring wear as the volute grows
from the base straight up, engaging the wear rings.
• A wear ring is missing. It was probably left off during the installation process.
• A high suction tank level is reducing the differential pressure across the pump
increasing its capacity. The pump pumps the difference between the suction and
discharge heads.
• A bubble is trapped in the eye of the impeller. The eye is the lowest pressure area.
When this bubble forms it shuts off all liquid coming into the pump suction. This
could cause the pump to lose its prime.
• You cannot vent a running pump because centrifugal force will throw the liquid
out the vent leaving the air trapped inside.
• Air is coming directly into the pump. This happens with a negative pressure at the
suction side. Negative suction happens when the pump is lifting liquid, pumping
from a condenser hot well etc.
o Air is coming into the stuffing box through the pump packing.
o Air is coming into the stuffing box through an unbalanced mechanical seal.
As the carbon face wears the spring load holding the faces together
diminishes.
o If you are using mechanical seals in vacuum service, they should be of the
O-ring design. Unlike other designs, O-rings are the only shape that seals
both pressure and vacuum.
o The pump was not primed prior to start up. With the exception of the self
priming version, centrifugal pumps must be full of liquid at start up.
o Air can enter the stuffing box if the gasket between the two halves of a
double ended pump is defective or does not extend to the stuffing box face.
Any small gaps between the face of the stuffing box and the split at the
side of the stuffing box will allow either air in, or product out.
o Air is coming into the suction side of the pump through a pin hole in the
casing.
o Air is entering the stuffing box between the sleeve and the shaft. This
happens if you convert a double ended pump from packing to a
mechanical seal and fail to install a gasket or o-ring between the impeller
hub and the sleeve.
• The open impeller was adjusted backwards and now the close fitting "pump out
vanes" are creating a vacuum in the stuffing box.
• You need a volute casing instead of a concentric casing. Volute casings are much
better for producing head.
• You have the wrong size pump. It cannot meet the system curve requirements:
• The pump was not selected to meet the system curve requirements because no
system curve was given to the pump supplier.

147
 • At replacement time the same size pump was purchased because no one had
calculated losses in the system.
• The pump was sized from a piping diagram that was thirty five years old. There
have been numerous piping changes and additions since the original layout. In
many instances additional pumps have been installed and this pump is running in
parallel with them, but nobody knows it.

THE PROBLEM IS ON THE SUCTION SIDE OF THE PUMP. THE PUMP COULD BE
CAVITATING.

• Air is entering the suction piping at some point.

o Air is being pumped into the suction piping to reduce cavitation problems
o Fluid returning to the sump is being aerated by too far a free fall. The
return line should terminate below the liquid level.
o The fluid is vortexing at the pump inlet because the sump level is too low
and the pump capacity is too high.
o Air is coming into the system through valves above the water line or
gaskets in the piping flanges.
o The liquid source is being pumped dry. If this is a problem in your
application you might want to consider a self priming pump in the future.
• The vapor pressure of the fluid is too close to atmospheric pressure. When it rains
the drop in atmospheric pressure causes the inlet fluid to vaporize.
• There is a problem with the piping layout. It is reducing the head on the suction
side of the pump.
o There is too much piping between the pump suction and the source tank.
You may need a booster pump or an inducer. The higher the pump speed
the bigger the problem.
o There is an elbow too close to the pump suction. There should be at least
ten diameters of pipe between the elbow and the pump suction. Suction
piping should never run parallel with the pump shaft in a double ended
pump installation. This can cause unnecessary shaft thrusting.
o A piece of pipe of reduced diameter has been installed in the suction
piping.
o Piping was added on the inlet side of the pump to by-pass a piece of
equipment that was installed on the floor.
o A piping to pump reducer has been installed upside down causing an air
pocket. Concentric reducers can cause the same problem..
o Multiple pump inlets are too close together.
• The pump inlet is too close to the tank floor.
• The suction lift is too high.
• A gasket with too small an inside diameter has been installed in the suction piping
restricting the liquid flow.
• A gasket in the suction piping is not centered and is protruding into the product
stream.
• A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve in the suction piping. The loss
of head in a globe valve is many times that of a gate valve.

148
 • Two pumps are connected in series. The first pump is not sending enough
capacity to the second pump.
• The piping inlet is clogged.
• A filter or strainer is clogged or covered with something.
• Intermittent plugging of the suction inlet.
o Loose rags can do this.
o If the suction is from a pond, river, or the sea, grass can be pulled into the
suction inlet.
• A foot valve is stuck.
• A check valve is stuck partially closed
• The foot valve is too small.
• A small clam or marine animal cleared the suction screen, but has now grown
large on the pump side of the screen.
• The suction piping diameter has been reduced.
o The suction piping collapsed when a heavy object either hit or ran over the
piping.
o Solids have built up on the piping walls. Hard water is a good example of
this problem
o A liner has broken away from the piping wall and has collapsed in the
piping. Look for corrosion in the piping caused by a hole in the liner.
o A foreign object is stuck in the piping It was left there when the piping
was repaired.
o The suction is being throttled to prevent the heating of the process fluid.
This is a common operating procedure with fuel pumps where discharge
throttling could cause a fire or explosion.
• The pump inlet temperature is too high.
o The tank is being heated to deaerate the fluid, but it is heating the fluid up
too much. Look for this problem in boiler feed pump applications.
o The sun is heating the inlet piping. The piping should be insulated to
prevent this problem.
o The operating temperature of the pumped fluid has been increased to
accommodate the process requirements.
o A discharge recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid. You should
direct this line to a reservoir rather than the pump suction.
o Steam or some other hot cleaner is being circulated through the lines.
• The problem is in the tank connected to the suction of the pump.
o The pump capacity is too high for the tank volume.
o The tank float is stuck, showing a higher tank level that does not exist.
o The tank vent is partially shut or frozen, lowering the suction pressure.
o There is not enough NPSH available for the fluid you are pumping. Maybe
you can use an inducer or booster pump to increase the suction pressure.
o A high suction tank level is reducing the differential pressure across the
pump, increasing its capacity and lowering the head.

PROBLEMS ON THE DISCHARGE SIDE OF THE PUMP INCLUDING THE PIPING

149
 • Two pumps are in connected in series. The first pump does not have enough
capacity for the second pump. They should be running at the same speed with the
same width impeller.
• The pump discharge is connected to the bottom of the tank. The head is low until
the level in the tank increases.
• Units in the discharge piping should not normally be shut off, they should be by-
passed to prevent too much of a change in the pump's capacity.
• If too many units are being by-passed in the discharge system the head will
decrease as the capacity increases. This can happen if an extra storage tank farm
is being by-passed because the storage capacity is no longer needed.
• A bypass line has been installed in the pump discharge increasing the capacity
and lowering the head.
• Piping or fittings have been removed from the discharge side of the pump
reducing piping resistance.
• Connections have been installed in the discharge piping that have increased the
demand that increases capacity.
• The pump is acting as an accumulator, coming on when the tank level drops. The
head will be low until the accumulator is recharged.
• Consider the possibility of a siphon affect in the discharge piping. This will occur
if the pump discharge piping is entering into the top of a tank and discharging at a
lower level The pump must build enough head initially to take advantage of the
siphoning action.
• A discharge valve (manual or automatic) is opened too much.

The pump is not producing enough capacity to satisfy the

application?
Let me begin by pointing out that there are a couple of things you must keep in mind when
troubleshooting centrifugal pump problems:

• The centrifugal pump always pumps the difference between the suction and
discharge heads. If the suction head increases, the pump head will decrease to
meet the system requirements. If the suction head decreases the pump head will
increase to meet the system requirements.
• A centrifugal pump always pumps a combination of head and capacity. These two
numbers multiplied together must remain a constant. In other words, if the head
increases the capacity must decrease. Likewise if the head decreases, the capacity
must increase.
• The pump will pump where the pump curve intersects the system curve.
• If the pump is not meeting the system curve requirements the problem could be in
the pump, the suction side including the piping and source tank, or somewhere in
the discharge system.

150
 • Most pumps are oversized because of safety factors that were added at the time
the pump was sized. This means that throttling is a normal condition in most
plants, causing the pump to run on the left hand side of its curve.

THE PROBLEM IS IN THE PUMP ITS SELF:

• The impeller diameter is too small

• The impeller width is too narrow
• The impeller speed is too slow. Check the voltage and frequency
• The impeller is damaged.
• The impeller is clogged.
• The open impeller clearance is too large.
• The impeller to cutwater clearance is too large.
• The impeller specific speed number is too low.
• The impeller has been installed backwards
• The shaft is running backwards.
• The wear ring clearance is too large.
• A wear ring is missing.
• The second stage of a two stage pump is wired backwards.
• A bubble is trapped in the eye of the impeller.
• A low suction tank level is increasing the differential pressure across the pump
decreasing its capacity.
• Air is coming into the pump suction through the packing.
• Air is coming into the pump suction through an unbalanced mechanical seal.
• The pump was not primed prior to star up.
• You may need a concentric casing rather than the volute design.
• You are using a variable speed motor trying to produce a flat curve. Remember
that both the head and capacity change with speed.
• The pump is the wrong size. Someone gave the pump distributor a wrong system
curve

THE PROBLEM IS ON THE SUCTION SIDE OF THE PUMP

• There is too much piping between the pump suction and the source tank.
• There is an elbow too close to the pump suction.
• A filter or strainer is clogged.
• Intermittent plugging of the suction inlet. Loose rags can do this.
• A foot valve is stuck
• The tank float is stuck. Showing a higher tank level that does not exist.
• The tank vent is partially shut or frozen.
• A globe valve has been substituted for a gate valve.
• A check valve is stuck partially closed
• Solids have built up on the piping walls.
• A liner has broken away from the piping wall and has collapsed in the piping.
• The piping was collapsed by a heavy object that hit the outside of the piping.
• A foreign object is stuck in the piping It was left there when the piping was
repaired.

151
 • A small clam cleared the suction screen, but has now grown large on the pump
side of the screen.
• The sun is heating the inlet piping. It should be insulated to prevent this problem.
• Piping was added on the inlet side of the pump to compensate for a piece of
equipment that was installed in the shop.
• A reducer has been installed upside down.
• A discharge recirculation line is heating the incoming fluid.
• The pump capacity is too high for the tank volume.
• Multiple pump inlets are too close together.
• The suction lift is too high.
• There is not enough NPSH available for the fluid you are pumping. Maybe you
can use an inducer to increase the suction pressure.
• Air is coming into the system through valves above the water line or gaskets in
the piping.
• Air is being pumped into the suction piping to reduce cavitation problems
• Fluid returning to the sump is being aerated by too far a free fall.
• The fluid is vortexing at the pump inlet because the sump level is too low.
• The tank is being heated to deaerate the fluid, but it is heating the fluid up too
much.
• Two pumps are connected in series. The first pump is not sending enough
capacity to the second pump.
• The operating temperature of the pumped fluid has increased.
• The vapor pressure of the fluid is too close to atmospheric pressure. When it rains
the drop in atmospheric pressure causes the inlet fluid to vaporize.
• The suction is being throttled to prevent the heating of the process fluid.

PROBLEMS ON THE DISCHARGE SIDE OF THE PUMP INCLUDING THE PIPING

• Extra piping has been added to the system to accommodate extra storage capacity.
• A bypass line has been installed in the pump discharge.
• Piping or fittings have been added to the discharge side of the pump.
• An orifice has been installed in the discharge piping to reduce the capacity or
produce a false head.
• A gate valve has been substituted for a globe valve in the discharge piping.
• A check valve is stuck partially closed.
• An orifice has been installed into the piping to restrict flow.
• The piping was collapsed by a heavy object that hit the outside of the piping.
• The discharge valve is throttled too much.
• There is a restriction in the discharge piping.
• Extra pumps have been installed into the existing piping They are connected in
parallel, but are not producing the same head.
• Two pumps are in parallel. The larger one is shutting the check valve of the
smaller pump.
• Two pumps are in connected in series. The first pump does not have enough
capacity for the second pump. They should be running at the same speed with the
same width impeller

152
 • The pump discharge is connected to the bottom of the tank. The head is increasing
and the capacity is decreasing as the tank fills.
• The pump is acting as an accumulator&emdash;coming on when the tank level
drops. The head is too high when the tank fills.

Pump selection practices that cause high seal and bearing

maintenance problems:
Purchasing well designed hardware does not bring automatic trouble free performance with it.
The very best equipment will cause problems if it was not designed for your particular application.
Here are a few of the more common selection problems we find with centrifugal pumps:

• Buying the same size pump as the one that came out of the application. That's
O.K. If the old pump was the correct size, but the odds are that it was too big
because of the safety factors that were added at the time of purchase. This will
cause the pump to run off of its best efficiency point (B.E.P.) and you will spend
a lot of production money for the additional power that is needed to run against a
throttled discharge valve or orifice installed in the discharge piping.
• Buying to a standard, or making a decision based on efficiency, and believing that
these two some how relate to quality. Standards were written for packed pumps.
When a mechanical seal is being used the shaft L3/D4 number is almost always
too large. Efficiency is always gained at the expense of maintenance. Efficiency
means tight tolerances and smooth passages that will eliminate reliable double
volute designs and keep the maintenance department busy adjusting tight
tolerances to maintain the efficiency you paid for.
• Series and parallel installation problems. We often find pumps installed in parallel,
but no one knows it because the second pump was installed at a much later date
and no one has bothered to trace the piping. Pumps in parallel require that they
have the same diameter impeller and that they run at the same speed, or the larger
pump will throttle the smaller one causing it to run off the best efficiency point,
deflecting the shaft. The capacity should be looked at if the higher capacity pump
might exceed the N.P.S.H. available.
• When pumps are installed in series the impellers must be the same width and they
must run at the same speed or the higher capacity pump will either cavitate
because the smaller capacity pump can not feed liquid at the proper capacity, or it
will run throttled if it is feeding the smaller pump. In either case the larger of the
two pumps will be adversely affected.
• Purchasing a larger pump because it will be needed in the future. Will raise the
operating cost to unacceptable levels (Power = head x capacity) as the pump is
run against a throttled discharge valve. This inefficient use of power will translate
to a higher heat environment for the seal along with all of the problems associated
with shaft deflection.
• Using a variable speed motor to compensate for a pump curve that is not flat
enough. Many boiler feed pumps require a flat curve so that the pump can put out

153
 varying capacities at a constant boiler pressure (head). We see this same need if
we are pumping a varying amount of liquid to a very high constant height.
• Varying the speed of a pump is similar to changing the diameter of the impeller. If
you look at a typical pump curve you will observe that the best efficiency point
(B.E.P.) comes down with impeller size to form an angle with the base line
(capacity line) of the graph. This means that if you vary the speed of the impeller,
the pump always runs off the B.E.P. except in the case where the system curve
intersects the pump curve, or in the case of an exponential system curve such as
we find in a typical hot or cold water circulating system.
• Double ended pumps installed in a vertical position to save floor space. Makes
seal replacement a nightmare unless you are using split or cartridge designs.
• Specifying a desired capacity without knowing the true system head. You can't
guess with this one. Some one has to make the calculations and "walk the system".
The present pump is not a reliable guide because we seldom know where it is
pumping on its' curve. Chart recorders installed on both the suction and discharge
side of the pump will give a more accurate reading of the present head if they are
left on long enough to record the differences in flow. The trouble with this
method is that it will also record a false head caused by a throttled valve, an
orifice, or any other restriction that might be present in the piping.
• Requesting too low a required N.P.S.H. will cause you to end up with a different
kind of cavitation problem. See another paper in this series for information about
"Internal recirculation".
• Failure to request a "center line design" when pumping temperature exceeds
200°F (100°C) it will cause pipe strain that will translate to wear ring damage and
excessive mechanical seal movement.
• The use of "inline" pumps to save floor space. Many of these designs are "close
coupled" with the motor bearings carrying the radial and thrust loads. Because of
typical L3/D4 numbers being very high, the wear rings act as "steady bearings"
after the pump is converted to a mechanical seal. The pump should have been
designed with a separate bearing case and a "C" or "D" frame adapter installed to
connect a motor to the bearing case.
• Thrust bearings being retained by a simple snap ring. Beyond 65% of its rated
efficiency most centrifugal pumps thrust towards the pump volute. The thin snap
ring has to absorb all of this axial thrust and most of them can not do it very well .
• The mechanical seal has been installed in a packing stuffing box that is too
narrow to allow free seal movement. If a mechanical seal was specified, the pump
back plate should have been manufactured with a large diameter seal chamber. In
most cases the stuffing box recirculation line should be installed from the bottom
of this large seal chamber to the suction side of the pump or a low pressure point
in the system. There are some exceptions to this, however:
o If you are pumping at or close to vapor point.
o If the entrained solids have a low specific gravity.
o If you are using a Duriron pump that adjusts to the back plate.
o If you are using a double suction pump where the stuffing boxes are at
suction pressure.
• High temperature applications have several special needs:

154
 o A jacketed stuffing box that isolates the pumpage from the stuffing box
contents by a carbon bushing to retard heat transfer.
o A centerline design to compensate for thermal expansion.
o A cartridge seal design that allows open impeller adjustment after the
pump has come up to operating temperature.
o A stainless steel shaft to retard heat transfer to the bearings.
o A method of cooling the bearing oil, but never the bearings.
o A coupling that will compensate for axial expansion.

Pipe Data
Carbon and Alloy Steel - Stainless Steel
Transverse Extern
Identification Internal Weig al
Area
Area Weig ht Surfac
Outsi of
Mome ht Wate e
Pipe de Steel Wall Inside Meta Sectio
nt of Pipe r
Size Diam Iro Stainle Thickn Diame l (a) n
Inertia Poun
Inch . ess (t) ter (d) Squa Squa (A) Modul
n ss (l) ds Poun Sq. Ft.
es Inche Pip Sche Steel Inches Inches re re Squar per us
d. Sched. Inches per ds
s e Inch Inch e Feet foot
No. No. foot per
Siz es es of
foot
e pipe
10S 0.49 .307 .054 .074 .0005 .0008 .19 .032 .106 .00437
ST 40 40S 0.68 .269 8 0 1 8 .24 .025 .106 .00523
D 80 80S 0.95 .215 .072 .056 .0004 .0010 .31 .016 .106 .00602
1/8 0.405
XS 0 8 0 6
.092 .036 .0002 .0012
5 4 5 2
10S .065 .410 .097 .132 .0009 .0027 .33 .057 .141 .01032
ST 40 40S .088 .364 0 0 1 9 .42 .045 .141 .01227
D 80 80S .119 .302 .125 .104 .0007 .0033 .54 .031 .141 .01395
¼ 0.540
XS 0 1 2 1
.157 .071 .0005 .0037
4 6 0 7
10S .065 .545 .124 .233 .0016 .0058 .42 .101 .178 .01736
ST 40 40S .091 .493 6 3 2 6 .57 .083 .178 .02160
D 80 80S .126 .423 .167 .191 .0013 .0072 .74 .061 .178 .02554
3/8 0.675
XS 0 0 3 9
.217 .140 .0009 .0086
3 5 8 2
5S .065 .710 .158 .395 .0027 .0119 .54 .172 .220 .02849
½ 0.840 40 10S .083 .674 3 9 5 7 .67 .155 .220 .03407
ST 80 40S .109 .622 .197 .356 .0024 .0143 .85 .132 220 .04069

155
 D 160 80S .147 .546 4 8 8 1 1.09 .102 .220 .04780
XS .187 .466 .250 .304 .0021 .0170 1.31 .074 220 .05267
.294 .252 3 0 1 9 1.71 .022 .220 .05772
XX .320 .234 .0016 .0200
S 0 0 3 8
.383 .170 .0011 .0221
6 6 8 2
.504 .050 .0003 .0242
3 5 4
5S .065 .920 .201 .664 .0046 .0245 .69 .288 .275 .04667
40 10S .083 .884 1 8 2 0 .86 .266 .275 .05655
ST 80 40S .113 .824 .252 .613 .0042 .0296 1.13 .231 .275 .07055
D 160 80S .154 .742 1 8 6 9 1.47 .188 .275 .08531
XS .219 .612 .332 .533 .0037 .0370 1.94 .128 .275 .10036
.308 .434 6 0 1 4 2.44 .064 .275 .11032
¾ 1.050
XX .433 .433 .0030 .0447
S 5 0 0 9
.569 .296 .0020 .0526
8 1 6 9
.718 .148 .0010 .0579
0 3 2
5S .065 1.185 .255 1.10 .0076 .0499 .87 .478 .344 .07603
40 10S .109 1.097 3 29 6 9 1.40 .409 .344 .11512
ST 80 40S .133 1.049 .413 .945 .0065 .0756 1.68 .375 .344 .1328
D 160 80S .179 .957 0 2 6 9 2.17 .312 .344 .1606
XS .250 .815 .493 .864 .0060 .0873 2.84 .230 .344 .1903
.358 .599 9 0 0 4 3.66 .122 .344 .2136
1 1.315
XX .638 .719 .0049 .1056
S 8 0 9 .1251
.836 .521 .0036 .1405
5 7 2
1.07 .282 .0019
60 6
5S .065 1.530 .325 1.83 .0127 .1038 1.11 .797 .435 .1250
40 10S .109 1.442 7 9 7 .1605 1.81 .708 .435 .1934
ST 80 40S .140 1.380 .471 1.63 .0113 .1947 2.27 .649 .435 .2346
D 160 80S .191 1.278 7 3 4 .2418 3.00 .555 .435 .2913
XS .250 1.160 .668 1.49 .0104 .2839 3.76 .458 .435 .3421
.382 .896 5 5 0 .3411 5.21 .273 .435 .4110
1 ¼ 1.660
XX .881 1.28 .0089
S 5 3 1
1.10 1.05 .0073
70 7 4
1.53 .630 .0043
4 8
5S .065 1.770 .374 2.46 .0170 .1579 1.28 1.066 .497 .1662
40 10S .109 1.682 7 1 9 .2468 2.09 .963 .497 .2598
ST 80 40S .145 1.610 .613 2.22 .0154 .3099 2.72 .882 .497 .3262
D 160 80S .200 1.500 3 2 3 .3912 3.63 .765 .497 .4118
1 ½ 1.900 XS .281 1.338 .799 2.03 .0141 .4824 4.86 .608 .497 .5078
.400 1.100 5 6 4 .5678 6.41 .42 .497 .5977
XX 1.06 1.76 .0122
S 8 7 5
1.42 1.40 .0097

156
 9 6 6
1.88 .950 .0066
5 0
5S .065 2.245 .471 3.95 .0274 .3149 1.61 1.72 .622 .2652
40 10S .109 2.157 7 8 9 .4992 2.64 1.58 .622 .4204
ST 80 40S .154 2.067 .776 3.65 .0253 .6657 3.65 1.45 .622 .5606
D 160 80S .218 1.939 0 4 8 .8679 5.02 1.28 .622 .7309
XS .344 1.687 1.07 3.35 .0233 1.162 7.46 .97 .622 .979
.436 1.503 5 5 0 1.311 9.03 .77 .622 1.104
2 2.375
XX 1.47 2.95 .0205
S 7 3 0
2.19 2.24 .0155
0 1 6
2.65 1.77 .0123
6 4 2
5S .083 2.709 .728 5.76 .0400 .7100 2.48 2.50 .753 .4939
40 10S .120 2.635 0 4 2 .9873 3.53 2.36 .753 .6868
ST 80 40S .203 2.469 1.03 5.45 .0378 1.530 5.79 2.07 .753 1.064
D 160 80S .276 2.323 9 3 7 1.924 7.66 1.87 .753 1.339
XS .375 2.125 1.70 4.78 .0332 2.353 10.01 1.54 .753 1.638
.552 1.771 4 8 2 2.871 13.69 1.07 .753 1.997
2 ½ 2.875
XX 2.25 4.23 .0294
S 4 8 2
2.94 3.54 .0246
5 6 3
4.02 2.46 .0171
8 4 0
5S .083 3.334 .891 8.73 .0606 1.301 3.03 3.78 .916 .7435
40 10S .120 3.260 0 0 3 1.822 4.33 3.62 .916 1.041
ST 80 40S .216 3.068 1.27 8.34 .0579 3.017 7.58 3.20 .916 1.724
D 160 80S .300 2.900 4 7 6 3.894 10.25 2.6 .916 2.225
XS .438 2.624 2.22 7.39 .0513 5.032 14.32 2.35 .916 2.876
.600 2.300 8 3 0 5.993 18.58 1.80 .916 3.424
3 3.500
XX 3.01 6.60 .0458
S 6 5 7
4.20 5.40 .0375
5 8 5
5.46 4.15 .0288
6 5 5
5S .083 3.834 1.02 11.5 .0801 1.960 3.48 5.00 1.047 .9799
10S .120 3.760 1 45 7 2.755 4.97 4.81 1.047 1.378
ST 40 40S .226 3.548 1.46 11.1 .0771 4.788 9.11 4.29 1.047 2.394
D 80 80S .318 3.364 3 04 1 6.280 12.50 3.84 1.047 3.140
3 ½ 4.000
XS 2.68 9.88 .0687
0 6 0
3.67 8.88 .0617
8 8 0
5S .083 4.334 1.15 14.7 .1024 2.810 3.92 6.39 1.178 1.249
40 10S .120 4.260 2 5 5 3.963 5.61 6.18 1.178 1.761
ST 80 40S .237 4.026 1.65 14.2 .0989 7.233 10.79 5.50 1.178 3.214
4 4.500
D 120 80S .337 3.826 1 5 8 9.610 14.98 4.98 1.178 4.271
NS 160 .438 3.624 3.17 12.7 .0884 11.65 19.0 4.47 1.178 5.178
.531 3.438 4 3 0 13.27 22.51 4.02 1.178 5.898

157
 .674 3.152 4.40 11.5 .0798 15.28 27.54 3.38 1.178 6.791
XX 7 0 6
S 5.59 10.3 .0716
5 1 .0645
6.62 9.28 .0542
1 7.80
8.10
1
5S .109 5.345 1.86 22.4 .1558 6.947 6.36 9.72 1.456 2.498
10S .134 5.295 8 4 .1529 8.425 7.77 9.54 1.456 3.029
ST 40 40S .258 5.047 2.28 22.0 .1390 15.16 14.62 8.67 1.456 5.451
D 80 80S .375 4.813 5 2 .1263 20.67 20.78 7.88 1.456 7.431
XS 120 .500 4.563 4.30 20.0 .1136 25.73 27.04 7.09 1.456 9.250
160 .625 4.313 0 1 .1015 30.03 32.96 6.33 1.456 10.796
.750 4.063 6.11 18.1 .0901 33.63 38.55 5.61 1.456 12.090
5 5.563
XX 2 9
S 7.95 16.3
3 5
9.69 14.6
6 1
11.3 12.9
40 7
5S .109 6.407 2.23 32.2 .2239 11.85 7.60 13.97 1.734 3.576
10S .134 6.357 1 4 .2204 14.40 9.29 13.75 1.734 4.346
ST 40 40S .280 6.065 2.73 31.7 .2006 28.14 18.97 12.51 1.734 8.496
D 80 80S .432 5.761 3 4 .1810 40.49 28.57 11.29 1.734 12.22
XS 120 .562 5.501 5.58 28.8 .1650 49.61 36.39 10.30 1.734 14.98
160 .719 5.187 1 9 .1469 58.97 45.35 9.16 1.734 17.81
.864 4.897 8.40 26.0 .1308 66.33 53.16 8.16 1.734 20.02
6 6.625
XX 5 7
S 10.7 23.7
0 7
13.3 21.1
2 5
15.6 18.8
4 4
5S .109 8.407 2.91 55.5 .3855 26.44 9.93 24.06 2.258 6.131
10S .148 8.329 6 1 .3784 35.41 13.40 23.61 2.258 8.212
20 .250 8.125 3.94 54.4 .3601 57.72 22.36 22.47 2.258 13.39
ST
30 .277 8.071 1 8 .3553 63.35 24.70 22.17 2.258 14.69
D40 40S .322 7.981 6.57 51.8 .3474 72.49 28.55 21.70 2.258 16.81
60 .406 7.813 7.26 5 .3329 88.73 35.64 20.77 2.258 20.58
XS 80 80S .500 7.625 8.40 51.1 .3171 105.7 43.39 19.78 2.258 24.51
100 .594 7.437 10.4 6 .3018 121.3 50.95 18.83 2.258 28.14
120 .719 7.187 8 50.0 .2819 140.5 60.71 17.59 2.258 32.58
8 8.625
140 .812 7.001 12.7 3 .2673 153.7 67.76 16.68 2.258 35.65
XX .875 6.875 6 47.9 .2578 162.0 72.42 16.10 2.258 37.56
S 160 .906 6.813 14.9 4 .2532 165.9 74.69 15.80 2.258 38.48
6 45.6
17.8 6
4 43.4
19.9 6
3 40.5
21.3 9

158
 0 38.5
21.9 0
7 37.1
2
36.4
6
5S .134 10.482 4.36 86.2 .5992 63.0 15.19 37.39 2.814 11.71
10S .165 10.420 5.49 9 .5922 76.9 18.65 36.95 2.814 14.30
20 .250 10.250 8.24 85.2 .5731 113.7 28.04 35.76 2.814 21.15
ST
30 .307 10.136 10.0 8 .5603 137.4 34.24 34.96 2.814 25.57
D40 40S .365 10.020 7 82.5 .5475 160.7 40.48 34.20 2.814 29.90
XS
60 80S .500 9.750 11.9 2 .5185 212.0 54.74 32.35 2.814 39.43
80 .594 9.562 0 80.6 .4989 244.8 64.43 31.13 2.814 45.54
100 .719 9.312 16.1 9 .4732 286.1 77.03 29.53 2.814 53.22
120 .844 9.062 0 78.8 .4481 324.2 89.29 27.96 2.814 60.32
XX 140 1.000 8.750 18.9 6 .4176 367.8 104.1 26.06 2.814 68.43
10.75 S 160 1.125 8.500 2 74.6 .3941 399.3 3 24.59 2.814 74.29
10
0 22.6 6 115.6
3 71.8 4
26.2 4
4 68.1
30.6 3
3 64.5
34.0 3
2 60.1
3
56.7
5
5S .156 12.438 6.17 121. .8438 122.4 20.98 52.65 3.338 19.2
10S .180 12.390 7.11 50 .8373 140.4 24.17 52.25 3.338 22.0
20 .250 12.250 9.82 120. .8185 191.8 33.38 51.07 3.338 30.2
30 .330 12.090 12.8 57 .7972 248.4 43.77 49.74 3.338 39.0
ST 40S .375 12.000 7 117. .7854 279.3 49.56 49.00 3.338 43.8
D 40 .406 11.938 14.5 86 .7773 300.3 53.52 48.50 3.338 47.1
80S .500 11.750 8 114. .7528 361.5 65.42 46.92 3.338 56.7
XS 60 .562 11.626 15.7 80 .7372 400.4 73.15 46.00 3.338 62.8
80 .688 11.374 7 113. .7058 475.1 88.63 44.04 3.338 74.6
100 .844 11.062 19.2 10 .6677 561.6 107.3 41.66 3.338 88.1
120 1.000 10.750 4 111. .6303 641.6 2 39.33 3.338 100.7
XX 140 1.125 10.500 21.5 93 .6013 700.5 125.4 37.52 3.338 109.9
S 160 1.312 10.126 2 108. .5592 781.1 9 34.89 3.338 122.6
12 12.75
26.0 43 139.6
3 106. 7
31.5 16 160.2
3 101. 7
36.9 64
1 96.1
41.0 4
8 90.7
47.1 6
4 86.5
9
80.5
3

159
 5S .156 13.688 6.78 147. 1.021 162.6 23.07 63.77 3.665 23.2
10S .188 13.624 8.16 15 9 194.6 27.73 63.17 3.665 27.8
10 .250 13.500 10.8 145. 1.012 255.3 36.71 62.03 3.665 36.6
20 .312 13.376 0 78 4 314.4 45.61 60.89 3.665 45.0
ST 30 .375 13.250 13.4 143. .9940 372.8 54.57 59.75 3.665 53.2
D 40 .438 13.124 2 14 .9758 429.1 63.44 58.64 3.665 61.3
.500 13.000 16.0 140. .9575 483.8 72.09 57.46 3.665 69.1
XS 60 .594 12.812 5 52 .9394 562.3 85.05 55.86 3.665 80.3
80 .750 12.500 18.6 137. .9217 678.3 106.1 53.18 3.665 98.2
100 .938 12.124 6 88 .8956 824.4 3 50.04 3.665 117.8
120 1.094 11.812 21.2 135. .8522 929.6 130.8 47.45 3.665 132.8
140 1.250 11.500 1 28 .8020 1027. 5 45.01 3.665 146.8
160 1.406 11.188 24.9 132. .7612 0 150.7 42.60 3.665 159.6
14 14.00
8 73 .7213 1117. 9
31.2 128. .6827 0 170.2
2 96 8
38.4 122. 189.1
5 72 1
44.3 115.
2 49
50.0 109.
7 62
55.6 103.
3 87
98.3
1
5S .165 15.670 8.21 192. 1.339 257.3 27.90 83.57 4.189 32.2
10S .188 15.624 9.34 85 3 291.9 31.75 83.08 4.189 36.5
10 .250 15.500 12.3 191. 1.331 383.7 42.05 81.74 4.189 48.0
20 .312 15.376 7 72 4 473.2 52.27 80.50 4.189 59.2
ST 30 .375 15.250 15.3 188. 1.310 562.1 62.58 79.12 4.189 70.3
D 40 .500 15.000 8 69 3 731.9 82.77 76.58 4.189 91.5
XS 60 .656 14.688 18.4 185. 1.289 932.4 107.5 73.42 4.189 116.6
80 .844 14.312 1 69 5 1155. 0 69.73 4.189 144.5
100 1.031 13.938 24.3 182. 1.268 8 136.6 66.12 4.189 170.5
120 1.219 13.562 5 65 4 1364. 1 62.62 4.189 194.5
140 1.438 13.124 31.6 176. 1.227 5 164.8 58.64 4.189 220.0
160 1.594 12.812 2 72 2 1555. 2 55.83 4.189 236.7
16 16.00
40.1 169. 1.176 8 192.4
4 44 6 1760. 3
48.4 160. 1.175 3 223.6
8 92 1.059 1893. 4
56.5 152. 6 5 245.2
6 58 1.003 5
65.7 144. 5
8 50 .9394
72.1 135. .8956
0 28
128.
96
5S .165 17.670 9.25 245. 1.702 367.6 31.43 106.2 4.712 40.8
10S .188 17.624 10.5 22 9 417.3 35.76 6 4.712 46.4
18 18.00 10 .250 17.500 2 243. 1.694 549.1 47.39 105.7 4.712 61.1
ST 20 .312 17.376 13.9 95 1 678.2 58.94 1 4.712 75.5
D .375 17.250 4 240. 1.670 806.7 70.59 104.2 4.712 89.6

160
 30 .438 17.124 17.3 53 3 930.3 82.15 1 4.712 103.4
XS .500 17.000 4 237. 1.646 1053. 93.45 102.7 4.712 117.0
40 .562 16.876 20.7 13 7 2 104.6 7 4.712 130.1
60 .750 16.500 6 233. 1.623 1171. 7 101.1 4.712 168.3
80 .938 16.124 24.1 71 0 5 138.1 8 4.712 203.8
100 1.156 15.688 7 230. 1.599 1514. 7 99.84 4.712 242.3
120 1.375 15.250 27.4 30 0 7 170.9 98.27 4.712 277.6
140 1.562 14.876 9 226. 1.576 1833. 2 96.93 4.712 305.5
160 1.781 14.438 30.7 98 3 0 207.9 92.57 4.712 335.6
9 223. 1.553 2180. 6 88.50
40.6 68 3 0 244.1 83.76
4 213. 1.484 2498. 4 79.07
50.2 83 9 1 274.2 75.32
3 204. 1.418 2749. 2 70.88
61.1 24 3 0 308.5
7 193. 1.342 3020. 0
71.8 30 3 0
1 182. 1.268
80.6 66 4
6 173. 1.207
90.7 80 0
5 163. 1.136
72 9
ST 5S .188 19.624 11.7 302. 2.100 574.2 39.78 131.0 5.236 57.4
D 10S .218 19.564 0 46 4 662.8 46.06 6 5.236 66.3
XS 10 .250 19.500 13.5 300. 2.087 765.4 52.73 130.2 5.236 75.6
20 .375 19.250 5 61 6 1113. 78.60 7 5.236 111.3
30 .500 19.000 15.5 298. 2.074 0 104.1 129.4 5.236 145.7
40 .594 18.812 1 65 0 1457. 3 2 5.236 170.4
60 .812 18.376 23.1 290. 2.014 0 123.1 125.6 5.236 225.7
80 1.031 17.938 2 04 2 1703. 1 7 5.236 277.1
100 1.281 17.438 30.6 283. 1.969 0 166.4 122.8 5.236 331.5
120 1.500 17.000 3 53 0 2257. 0 7 5.236 375.5
140 1.750 16.500 36.1 278. 1.930 0 208.8 120.4 5.236 421.7
160 1.969 16.062 5 00 5 2772. 7 6 5.236 458.5
20 20.00
48.9 265. 1.841 0 256.1 114.9
5 21 7 3315. 0 2
61.4 252. 1.755 2 296.3 109.5
4 72 0 3754. 7 1
75.3 238. 1.658 0 341.0 103.3
3 83 5 4216. 9 9
87.1 226. 1.576 0 379.1 98.35
8 98 2 4585. 7 92.66
100. 213. 1.484 5 87.74
33 82 9
111. 202. 1.407
49 67 4
5S .188 21.624 12.8 367. 2.550 766.2 43.80 159.1 5.760 69.7
10S .218 21.564 8 25 3 884.8 50.71 4 5.760 80.4
10 .250 21.500 14.9 365. 2.536 1010. 58.07 158.2 5.760 91.8
ST 20 .375 21.250 2 21 2 3 86.61 6 5.760 135.4
22 22.00
D 30 .500 21.000 17.0 363. 2.521 1489. 114.8 157.3 5.760 117.5
XS 60 .875 20.250 8 05 2 7 1 2 5.760 295.0
80 1.125 19.75 25.4 354. 2.462 1952. 197.4 153.6 5.760 366.4
100 1.375 19.25 8 66 9 5 1 8 5.760 432.6

161
 120 1.625 18.75 33.7 346. 2.405 3244. 250.8 150.0 5.760 493.8
140 1.875 18.25 7 36 3 9 1 9 5.760 550.3
160 2.125 17.75 58.0 322. 2.236 4030. 302.8 139.5 5.760 602.4
7 06 5 4 8 6
73.7 306. 2.127 4758. 353.6 132.7
8 35 5 5 1 6
89.0 291. 2.021 5432. 403.0 126.1
9 04 1 0 0 2
104. 276. 1.917 6053. 451.0 119.6
02 12 5 7 6 5
118. 261. 1.816 6626. 113.3
55 59 6 4 6
132. 247. 1.718 107.2
68 45 40 3
5S .218 23.564 16.2 436. 3.028 1151. 55.37 188.9 6.283 96.0
ST 10 10S .250 23.500 9 10 5 6 63.41 8 6.283 109.6
D 20 .375 23.250 18.6 433. 3.012 1315. 94.62 187.9 6.283 161.9
XS .500 23.000 5 74 1 4 125.4 5 6.283 212.5
30 .562 22.876 27.8 424. 2.948 1942. 9 183.9 6.283 237.0
40 .688 22.624 3 56 3 0 140.6 5 6.283 285.1
60 .969 22.062 36.9 415. 2.885 2549. 8 179.8 6.283 387.7
80 1.219 21.562 1 48 3 5 171.2 7 6.283 472.8
100 1.531 20.938 41.3 411. 2.854 2843. 9 178.0 6.283 570.8
120 1.812 20.376 9 00 2 0 238.3 9 6.283 652.1
140 2.062 19.876 50.3 402. 2.792 3421. 5 174.2 6.283 718.9
160 2.344 19.312 1 07 1 3 296.5 3 6.283 787.9
24 24.00
70.0 382. 2.655 4652. 8 165.5
4 35 2 8 367.3 2
87.1 365. 2.536 5672. 9 158.2
7 22 2 0 429.3 6
108. 344. 2.391 6849. 9 149.0
07 32 1 9 483.1 6
126. 326. 2.264 7825. 2 141.1
31 08 5 0 542.1 7
142. 310. 2.154 8625. 3 134.4
11 28 7 0 5
159. 292. 2.034 9455. 126.8
41 98 6 9 4
10 .312 25.376 25.1 505. 3.512 2077. 85.60 219.1 6.806 159.8
ST .375 25.250 8 75 2 2 102.6 6 6.806 190.6
D 20 .500 25.000 30.1 500. 3.477 2478. 3 216.9 6.806 250.5
26 26.00
XS 9 74 4 4 136.1 9
40.0 490. 3.408 3257. 7 212.7
6 87 8 0 1
10 .312 27.376 27.1 588. 4.087 2601. 92.26 255.0 7.330 185.8
ST .375 27.250 4 61 6 0 110.6 7 7.330 221.8
D 20 .500 27.000 32.5 583. 4.050 3105. 4 252.7 7.330 291.8
XS 30 .625 26.750 4 21 1 1 146.8 3 7.330 359.8
28 28.00
43.2 572. 3.976 4084. 5 248.1
0 56 1 8 182.7 1
53.7 562. 3.902 5037. 3 243.5
5 00 8 7 3
5S .250 29.500 23.3 683. 4.746 2585. 79.43 296.1 7.854 172.3
30 30.00
10 10S .312 29.376 7 49 5 2 98.93 8 7.854 213.8

162
 ST .375 29.250 29.1 677. 4.706 3206. 118.6 293.7 7.854 255.3
D 20 .500 29.000 0 76 7 3 5 0 7.854 336.1
XS 30 .625 28.750 34.9 671. 4.666 3829. 157.5 291.1 7.854 414.9
0 96 4 4 3 8
46.3 660. 4.586 5042. 196.0 286.2
4 52 9 2 8 2
57.6 649. 4.508 6224. 281.3
8 18 2 0 1
ST 10 .312 31.376 31.0 773. 5.369 3898. 105.5 335.0 8.378 243.7
D .375 31.250 6 19 4 9 9 5 8.378 291.2
XS 20 .500 31.000 37.2 766. 5.326 4658. 126.6 332.3 8.378 383.7
30 .625 30.750 6 99 3 5 6 6 8.378 474.0
40 .688 30.624 49.4 754. 5.241 6138. 168.2 327.0 8.378 518.6
32 32.00
8 77 4 6 1 6
61.6 742. 5.157 7583. 209.4 321.8
0 64 2 4 3 1
67.6 736. 5.115 8298. 230.0 319.1
8 57 1 3 8 8
10 .344 33.312 36.3 871. 6.052 5150. 123.6 377.6 8.901 303.0
ST .375 33.250 7 55 4 5 5 7 8.901 329.4
D 20 .500 33.000 39.6 868. 6.029 5599. 134.6 376.2 8.901 434.3
XS 30 .625 32.750 1 31 9 3 7 7 8.901 536.9
40 .688 32.624 52.6 855. 5.939 7383. 178.8 370.6 8.901 587.7
34 34.00
2 30 6 5 9 3
65.5 842. 5.849 9127. 222.7 365.0
3 39 9 6 8 3
72.0 835. 5.805 9991. 244.7 362.2
0 92 0 6 7 3
10 .312 35.376 34.9 982. 6.825 5569. 118.9 425.9 9.425 309.4
ST .375 35.250 8 90 7 5 2 2 9.425 369.9
D 20 .500 35.000 41.9 975. 6.777 6658. 142.6 422.8 9.425 488.1
XS 30 .625 34.750 7 91 1 9 8 9 9.425 603.8
40 .750 34.500 55.7 962. 6.681 8786. 189.5 416.9 9.425 717.0
36 36.00
6 11 3 2 7 1
69.4 948. 6.586 10868 236.1 417.2
6 42 2 .4 3 2
83.0 934. 6.491 12906 282.3 405.0
6 82 8 .1 5 9

Identification, wall thickness and weights are extracted from ANSI B 36.10 and
B36.19. The notations STD, XS, and XXS indicate Standard, Extra Strong, and Double
Extra Strong pipe respectively.

Transverse internal area values listed in "square feet" also represent volume in cubic
feet per foot of pipe length.

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Moody Friction Factor Calculator:

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Table of Fluid Properties (Liquids and Gases)

Symbols:
p (greek letter rho) = Density (units are mass/volume). The English (U.S.
Customary Unit) for mass is the slug. The SI (metric) unit for mass is the kg.
v (greek letter nu) = kinematic viscosity (units are length squared/time). If
you're more familiar with dynamic viscosity µ (greek letter mu), then it may
help to know that v = µ/p.

T Density v T Density v
Fluid
(°F) (slug/ft3) (ft2/s) (°C) (kg/m3) (m2/s)
Liquids:
Water 70 1.936 1.05e-5 20 998.2 1.00e-6
Water 40 1.94 1.66e-5 5 1000 1.52e-6
Seawater 60 1.99 1.26e-5 16 1030 1.17e-6
SAE 30 oil 60 1.77 0.0045 16 912 4.2e-4
Gasoline 60 1.32 4.9e-6 16 680 4.6e-7
Mercury 68 26.3 1.25e-6 20 13600 1.15e-7

Gases (at standard atmospheric pressure, i.e. 1 atm):

Air 70 0.00233 1.64e-4 20 1.204 1.51e-5
Carbon Dioxide 68 0.00355 8.65e-5 20 1.83 8.03e-6
Nitrogen 68 0.00226 1.63e-4 20 1.16 1.52e-5
Helium 68 3.23e-4 1.27e-4 20 0.166 1.15e-4

The equations used in this program represent the Moody diagram which is
the old-fashioned way of finding f. You may enter numbers in any units, so
long as you are consistent. (L) means that the variable has units of length
(e.g. meters). (L3/T) means that the variable has units of cubic length per
time (e.g. m3/s). The Moody friction factor (f) is used in the Darcy-Weisbach
major loss equation. Note that for laminar flow, f is independent of

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e. However, you must still enter an e for the program to run even though e
is not used to compute f.

A more complicated equation which represents a slightly larger range of

Reynolds numbers and e/D's is used in Design of Circular Liquid or Gas Pipes.

Minor Loss Coefficients, Hazen-Williams Coefficients, and Surface

Roughness:

Table of Minor Loss Coefficients (K has no units)

Fitting K Fitting K
Valves: Elbows:
Globe, fully open 10 Regular 90°, flanged 0.3
Angle, fully open 2 Regular 90°, threaded 1.5
Gate, fully open 0.15 Long radius 90°, flanged 0.2
Gate 1/4 closed 0.26 Long radius 90°, threaded 0.7
Gate, 1/2 closed 2.1 Long radius 45°, threaded 0.2
Gate, 3/4 closed 17 Regular 45°, threaded 0.4
Swing check, forward flow 2
Swing check, backward flow infinity Tees:
Line flow, flanged 0.2
180° return bends: Line flow, threaded 0.9
Flanged 0.2 Branch flow, flanged 1.0
Threaded 1.5 Branch flow, threaded 2.0

Table of Hazen-Williams Coefficients (C has no units) To top of page

Material C Material C
Asbestos Cement 140 Copper 130-140
Brass 130-140 Galvanized iron 120
Brick sewer 100 Glass 140
Cast-Iron: Lead 130-140
New, unlined 130 Plastic 140-150
10 yr. old 107-113 Steel:
20 yr. old 89-100 Coal-tar enamel lined 145-150
30 yr. old 75-90 New unlined 140-150
40 yr. old 64-83 Riveted 110
Concrete/Concrete-lined:
Steel forms 140 Tin 130
Wooden forms 120 Vitrif. clay (good condition) 110-140

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Centrifugally spun 135 Wood stave (avg. condition) 120

Table of Surface Roughnesses To top of page

Material Surface Roughness, e

feet meters
PVC, plastic, glass 0.0 0.0
Commercial Steel or Wrought Iron 1.5e-4 4.5e-5
Galvanized Iron 5.0e-4 1.5e-4
Cast Iron 8.5e-4 2.6e-4
Asphalted Cast Iron 4.0e-4 1.2e-4
Riveted Steel 0.003 to 0.03 9.0e-4 to 9.0e-3
Drawn Tubing 5.0e-6 1.5e-6
Wood Stave 6.0e-4 to 3.0e-3 1.8e-4 to 9.0e-4
Concrete 0.001 to 0.01 3.0e-4 to 3.0e-3

Major Loss Calculation for Water in Pipes using Hazen-Williams

Friction Loss Equation:

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browser does not support Java, or Java is disabled in your browser.
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k is a unit conversion factor:

k=1.318 for English units (feet and seconds). k=0.85 for SI units (meters
and seconds)
Rh=hydraulic radius=D/4 for circular pipe

The Hazen-Williams method is only valid for water flowing at ordinary

temperatures (about 40 to 75 oF). For other liquids or gases, the Darcy-
Weisbach method should be used. Major loss (hf) is the energy (or head) loss
(expressed in length units - think of it as energy per unit weight of fluid) due
to friction between the moving fluid and the duct. It is also known as friction
loss. The Darcy-Weisbach method is generally considered more accurate
than the Hazen-Williams method. However, the Hazen-Williams method is
very popular, especially among civil engineers, since its friction coefficient (C)
is not a function of velocity or duct diameter. Hazen-Williams is simpler than

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Darcy-Weisbach for calculations where you are solving for flowrate, velocity,
or diameter. More Discussion and References.

Major Loss Calculation for Fluid Flow using Darcy-Weisbach

Friction Loss Equation:

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browser. Calculation should be here.

g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.174 ft/s2 = 9.806 m/s2

Major loss (hf) is the energy (or head) loss (expressed in length units - think
of it as energy per unit weight of fluid) due to friction between the moving
fluid and the duct. It is also known as friction loss. The Darcy-Weisbach
method is generally considered more accurate than the Hazen-Williams
method. Additionally, the Darcy-Weisbach method is valid for any liquid or
gas; Hazen-Williams is only valid for water at ordinary temperatures (40 to
75 oF). The Hazen-Williams method is very popular, especially among civil
engineers, since its friction coefficient (C) is not a function of velocity or duct
diameter. Hazen-Williams is simpler than Darcy-Weisbach for calculations
where you are solving for flowrate, velocity, or diameter. More Discussion and
References.

Q=VA Flowrate Calculator

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You may enter numbers in any units, so long as you are consistent. (L)
means that the variable has units of length (e.g. meters). (L3/T) means that

167
the variable has units of cubic length per time (e.g. m3/s). For further
information, see Discussion and References.

Minor Loss Calculations for Fluid Flow

Minor loss (hm) is the energy (head) loss due to fittings (valves, elbows, etc.). hm has
units of energy per unit weight of fluid which is the same as length.

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Static Pressure Calculation

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Introduction
Engineers and others often need a conversion between pressure and height
of fluid column. For instance, if a swimming pool is 4 m deep, the pressure
at the bottom can be computed. Or, if a fire hydrant must operate at a static
pressure of 40 psi, the water column equivalent to 40 psi can be
computed. Pressures can also be computed in terms of gas columns, so we
have included some built-in values for gas density.

References
All fluid mechanics textbooks discuss static pressure. A sampling of
references follows.

Mays, L. W. editor. 1999. Hydraulic design handbook. McGraw-Hill Book Co.

Munson, B.R., D. F. Young, and T. H. Okiishi. 1998. Fundamentals of Fluid

Mechanics. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 3ed.

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Streeter, V. L., E. B. Wylie, and K. W. Bedford. 1998. Fluid
Mechanics. WCB/McGraw-Hill. 9ed.

Energy Equation for Fluid Flow

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Calculation should be here.

The greek symbol "rho" is density (it is next to the g in the equation).
g = acceleration due to gravity = 32.174 ft/s2 = 9.806 m/s2
If you know discharge and diameter (or area), go to Q=VA to compute velocity.
The steady state energy equation for a fluid moving in a closed conduit is written
between two locations at a distance L apart. The loss term hL accounts for all
minor (valves, elbows, etc.) and major (pipe friction) losses. Often, one knows the
flowrate and pipe diameter (or duct area) and is interested in determining the
downstream pressure after a certain length of pipe. All of the losses would be
solved for (minor and major), then the energy equation would be used to solve for
the unknown pressure or whatever is unknown. Major losses can be computed
using either the Darcy-Weisbach method or Hazen-Williams method. See Discussion
and References for further information.

The energy equation is also valid for open channel flows.

Non-Circular Duct to Circular Pipe Conversions

Using these conversions, Design of Circular Liquid or Gas Pipes and Design of Circular
Water Pipes can be used for non-circular ducts

Cross-sections:

Equations: For both geometries: Q=VA, Q=Flowrate, V=Velocity, A=Flow Area

Rectangular: A=Area=WH. P=Perimeter=2(W+H). D=Hydraulic Diameter=4A/P
Annular: A=Area=PI(D22-D12)/4. D=Hydraulic Diameter=D2-D1 References

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 Your browser does not support Java, or Java is disabled in your browser.
Calculation should be here.

Enter all values in consistent units: If you enter diameter in inches, then width
and height will be output in inches. If you enter width in cm, then you must also
enter height in cm; and diameter will be output in cm. If velocity is entered in
cm/min, then flowrate will be cm3/min.

Using this page:

If you have a non-circular duct, the cross-sectional geometry can be converted to
an hydraulic (equivalent) diameter using this page. Then, velocity (not flowrate)
can be computed using a) Design of Circular Liquid or Gas Pipes or b) Design of
Circular Water Pipes based on the hydraulic diameter. However, (a) and (b) will not
compute the correct flowrate since they compute area based on a circular cross-
section. Therefore, you must multiply the velocity by the actual area of the
duct. The actual area is computed on this page.

If you wish to determine the cross-sectional geometry of a non-circular duct, you

can use a) Design of Circular Liquid or Gas Pipes or b) Design of Circular Water Pipes
if you know the velocity, not the flowrate (flowrate can only be converted to
velocity if the actual duct area is used, not the area based on hydraulic
diameter). From the hydraulic diameter output from either (a) or (b), this page can
be used to determine the geometry of the duct.

Manning's Equation
Calculator

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The Manning Equation is the most commonly used equation to analyze open
channel flows. It is a semi-empirical equation for simulating water flows in
channels and culverts where the water is open to the atmosphere, i.e. not flowing
under pressure, and was first presented in 1889 by Robert Manning. The channel
can be any shape - circular, rectangular, triangular, etc. The units in the Manning
equation appear to be inconsistent; however, the value k has hidden units in it to
make the equation consistent. The Manning Equation was developed for uniform
steady state flow (see Discussion and References for Open Channel Flow). S is the
slope of the energy grade line and S=hf/L where hf is energy (head) loss and L is
the length of the channel or reach. For uniform steady flows, the energy grade
line = the slope of the water surface = the slope of the bottom of the channel.

The product A/P is also known as the hydraulic radius, Rh.

Manning's n Coefficients for Open Channel Flow

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Material Manning n Material Manning n
Natural Streams Excavated Earth Channels
Clean and Straight 0.030 Clean 0.022

Major Rivers 0.035 Gravelly 0.025

Sluggish with Deep Pools 0.040 Weedy 0.030

Stony, Cobbles 0.035

Metals Floodplains
Brass 0.011 Pasture, Farmland 0.035

Cast Iron 0.013 Light Brush 0.050

Smooth Steel 0.012 Heavy Brush 0.075

Corrugated Metal 0.022 Trees 0.15

Non-Metals
Glass 0.010 Finished Concrete 0.012

Clay Tile 0.014 Unfinished Concrete 0.014

Brickwork 0.015 Gravel 0.029

Asphalt 0.016 Earth 0.025

Masonry 0.025 Planed Wood 0.012

Unplaned Wood 0.013

a,b
Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) with smooth inner walls 0.009-0.015
Corrugated Polyethylene (PE) with corrugated inner walls c 0.018-0.025
d,e
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) with smooth inner walls 0.009-0.011

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