Chap 08

eTHINKING 7
Geometry
8
Angles and shapes are all
around us.
While sightseeing in
Sydney, Chris, Nola and
Thomas travel across the
Sydney Harbour Bridge and
notice an array of shapes,
angles and solids.
What types of angles can
you identify in this picture?
What types of triangles and
quadrilaterals can you find?
Are there any parallel lines?
What do you notice about the
angles in the shapes?
This chapter looks at the
properties of various shapes,
angles and solids.
areyou 322 Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
Are you ready? READY?

Try the questions below. If you have difficulty with any of them, extra help can be
obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon
next to the question on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy.
8.1 Classifying angles

1 State the type of angle in each of the following figures.
a b c
8.2 Classifying triangles according to the lengths of their sides

2 Complete the following descriptions of different types of triangles.
a Triangles with _________ equal sides are called equilateral triangles.
b Triangles with exactly _________ equal sides are called isosceles triangles.
c Triangles with _________ equal sides are called scalene triangles.
8.4 Complementary angles

3 a Find the complement of 30°.
b Find the size of x in the figure shown at right.
x
40º
8.5 Supplementary angles

4 a Find the supplement of 60°.
b Find the size of x in the figure shown at right.
70º x
8.10 More angle relationships
5 In each of the following figures, find the size of the pronumeral.
a b
x 50º
100º 120º
x
8.12 Constructing angles with a protractor

6 Construct the following angles using a protractor.
a 20° b 77° c 122°
Chapter 8 Geometry 323
What is geometry?
The word geometry comes from the Latin words geo meaning earth and metre meaning
measure. It dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers and mathematicians such as
Plato, Euclid and Pythagoras. They considered geometry as the science of measuring
our Earth and describing its properties. It was Euclid, for example, who proved that
parallel lines never meet.
Geometry today looks at angles, shapes and solids, and investigates their relation-
ships and properties. In this chapter you will investigate triangles, quadrilaterals and
other polygons, and work with rules that the ancient Greeks discovered over 2000 years
ago. You will use angles and their properties to describe and construct shapes and
solids.
Triangles
The triangle is one of the most com-
monly used shapes in the world.
Looking around, we can see its many
practical uses, from house roofs to
pylons to tents. Triangles give strength
and rigidity to geometric shapes.
Learning about the different types of tri-
angles helps us to understand the design
of many everyday objects.
Naming triangles
Triangles are named according to the lengths of their sides, or the size of their angles.
The table below lists the six names commonly used to describe triangles.
Naming triangles according to the lengths of their sides Cabri Geom
etry
Classifying
Equilateral All three sides are equal in length. triangles
(sides)
triangle (Also, all three angles are 60°.)
Isosceles triangle Exactly two sides are equal in length.

(Also, angles opposite the equal sides
are equal in size.)
Scalene triangle No sides are equal in length.

(Also, no angles are equal in size.)
324 Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
Geometry
Naming triangles according to the size of their angles
Cabri
Classifying
triangles Acute-angled All angles less than 90°.
(angles) triangle
Right-angled Contains a right angle (90°).

triangle
Obtuse-angled Contains an obtuse angle (greater than

triangle 90°).
Note: To indicate the sides of equal length and angles of equal size, we use identical
marks. To indicate the angle is right (90°), a small square is used.
WORKED Example 1
Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a triangle that is:
a a scalene triangle
b both right-angled and isosceles.
THINK DRAW
a A scalene triangle has 3 sides of a

different size. Nothing is known about
the actual length of sides of this triangle.
Draw a triangle, making the sides of 3
different lengths.
b A right-angled triangle contains a right b

angle and an isosceles triangle has two
sides of equal length. Draw a triangle
with one angle 90° and two sides equal
in length. Place identical markings on
equal sides and use a small square to
indicate the right angle.
WORKED Example 2
multiple choice Select the most appropriate name (or names) for the triangle shown.
A Scalene
B Obtuse-angled
C Acute-angled and equilateral
D Scalene and right-angled
E Isosceles
THINK WRITE
1 There are three identical markings placed on the Side name: equilateral
sides of the triangle; therefore, all sides are the same
in length. State the side name of this triangle.
2 All angles in an equilateral triangle are 60°. State the Angle name: acute angled
angle name of this triangle.
3 Select the most appropriate answer from the choices Answer: C
given.
remember
1. Triangles can be named according to the length of their sides or the size of their
angles.
2. Angle names are:
(a) acute-angled triangle (all angles are acute)
(b) right-angled triangle (contains one right angle)
(c) obtuse-angled triangle (contains one obtuse angle).
3. Side names are:
(a) equilateral (all sides are equal in length)
(b) isosceles (exactly two sides are equal in length)
(c) scalene (all sides are different in length).
8A Triangles
WORKED 1 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, use your ruler to draw a triangle
Example
1a that is:
a isosceles b scalene c right-angled d obtuse-angled.
WORKED 2 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, use your ruler to draw a triangle
Example
1b that is:
a both obtuse-angled and isosceles b both acute-angled and equilateral
c both acute-angled and isosceles d both right-angled and scalene.
8.1 3 Copy and complete this table.

HEET Note: Allow enough space to fit in the missing figures.
SkillS
Classifying
angles Picture Name of triangle Definition
Isosceles triangle
HEET
8.2
SkillS
Classifying
triangles
according to
the lengths
of their
sides
One angle is greater than 90°.
Geometry
Cabri
Right-angled triangle
Classifying
triangles
(sides)
Geometry
Cabri
Classifying
triangles All angles are less than 90°.
(angles)
d 4 Four types of triangles are marked in
hca A
Mat
this power transmission tower. Name

Classifying each type of triangle by completing
triangles these sentences. B
Triangle:
a A is an ___________________
triangle.
b B is a ______________________
triangle.
c C is a ___________________
triangle.
d D is an ___________________
triangle.
D
WORKED 5 multiple choice
Example
2 Select the most appropriate name
(or names) for the triangles shown.
a A Right-angled
B Right-angled and acute-angled
C Right-angled and scalene
D Right-angled and isosceles
E Right-angled and obtuse-angled
b A Scalene
B Scalene and obtuse-angled
C Obtuse-angled and isosceles
D Isosceles and acute-angled
E Acute-angled and scalene
c A Isosceles
B Right-angled
C Acute-angled and isosceles
D Isosceles and right-angled
E Right-angled and equilateral
d A Right-angled
40° B Scalene and obtuse-angled
C Acute-angled and scalene
100° D Obtuse-angled and isosceles
40° E Right-angled and isosceles
6 The Israeli flag at right is made up of a blue Star of

David on a white background. Which triangles are
used in the Star of David?
7 The set of swings at right is constructed

with metal tubing that makes an acute
angle with the ground. Which type of
triangle is made with the two supports and
the ground (and marked in red)?
8 Using 12 matches, construct each of the

following triangles. Use your ruler to draw
the solutions in your workbook, clearly
showing the number of matches used on
each side.
a An equilateral triangle
b An isosceles triangle
c A scalene triangle
9 Use matches to construct each of the following structures. Use your ruler to draw the
solution in your workbook.
a Use 9 matches for 3 equilateral triangles.
b Use 8 matches for 3 equilateral triangles.
c Use 7 matches for 3 equilateral triangles.
d Use 12 matches for 6 equilateral triangles.
Note: A match can be used as a common side between two triangles.
10 Using 6 matches, construct four equilateral triangles. All triangles must have side
lengths of one match.
History of mathematics
EUCLID (c. 300 BC)
Elements was first

printed in 1482 and
was still used as a
school textbook less
than a hundred
years ago. Even
today it provides a
basis for what is
taught in high
schools. Euclid’s
proofs included
most of the
geometrical facts
that we know today.
It is not known how
much of Elements is
Euclid’s original
work and how much he collected from other
sources. For example, Elements includes
Pythagoras’ theorem of right-angled triangles.
During his life . . . Euclid worked on finding the various types of
Alexander the Great dies. regular polygons and 3-dimensional
Two of the Seven Ancient Wonders of the polyhedra. Some of the polygons he
World are built: the Colossus of Rhodes researched were triangles (equilateral),
and the Lighthouse of Alexandria. squares and nonagons (9-sided polygons), and
Rome is supplied with fresh water by polyhedra such as tetrahedrons (4 faces),
aqueducts. dodecahedrons (12 faces) and icosahedrons
(20 faces).
Very little is known about Euclid. He was a In 306 BC, as King of Egypt, Ptolemy
Greek mathematician and was probably founded a university at Alexandria where
educated at Plato’s Academy, in Athens. Euclid became the first professor of
Euclid developed an approach in which every Mathematics. King Ptolemy wanted to know
rule needed a proof. Using this method he if there was an easy way to learn geometry,
built up a set of theorems based upon but Euclid said there was no ‘Royal road’ to
self-evident rules. geometry and the King would have to learn it
Euclid’s major work is a 13-volume by hard work!
mathematical treatise spanning several topics Questions
including the properties of numbers, plane 1. What is the name of Euclid’s major
geometry and solid geometry. Elements is one work?
of the best known mathematical books ever 2. When was this work first published
written. It contains 465 different mathematical for general use?
theories and proofs and has been in use 3. Which king wanted to find an easy
for more than fifteen hundred years. method of learning geometry?
Angles in a triangle
The ancient Greek mathematician Euclid discovered that the angles in a triangle always
add up to 180°. This is true for any triangle no matter how large or small, wide or
narrow. We can use this law to find missing angles in triangles.
WORKED Example 3
Find the value of the pronumeral in the following triangle.
63° 40°
THINK WRITE
1 The sum of angles in any triangle is b + 40° + 63° = 180°

equal to 180°. Form an equation by
putting the sum of the angles on one side
and 180° on the other side of the equals
sign.
2 Solve for b; that is, subtract 103° from b + 103° = 180°
both sides of the equation. b + 103° − 103° = 180° − 103°
b = 77°
WORKED Example 4
B
h
65°
A C
THINK WRITE
1 The markings on the diagram indicate ∠BCA = 65°

that triangle ABC is isosceles with
AB = BC. The two base angles of an
isosceles are equal in size,
so ∠BCA = ∠BAC = 65°.
2 Form an equation by making the sum of h + 65° + 65° = 180°
the angles in the triangle ABC equal to
180°.
3 Solve for h; that is, subtract 130° from h + 130° = 180°
both sides of the equation. h + 130° − 130° = 180° − 130°
h = 50°
WORKED Example 5
50°
w w
THINK WRITE
1 Form an equation by making the sum of w + w + 50° = 180°

the angles in the given triangle equal to
180°.
2 Solve the equation to find the value of 2w + 50° = 180°
w. First simplify by collecting like
terms.
3 Subtract 50° from both sides of the 2w + 50° − 50° = 180° − 50°
equation. 2w = 130°
4 Divide both sides of the equation by 2. 2w 130°
------- = -----------
2 2
w = 65°
WORKED Example 6
2x
x 60°
THINK WRITE
1 The angles in a triangle add up to 180°, x + 2x + 60° = 180°

so form an appropriate equation.
2 Solve for x. First simplify by collecting 3x + 60° = 180°
like terms.
3 Subtract 60° from both sides of the 3x + 60° − 60° = 180° − 60°
equation. 3x = 120°
4 Divide both sides of the equation by 3. 3x 120°
------ = -----------
3 3
x = 40°
remember
1. The sum of the angles in any triangle is 180°.
2. The base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal.
8B Angles in a triangle
WORKED 1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles. 8.3 SkillS
Example
a b
HEET
3 t 100 °
Angles
55° w in a
triangle
60° 40°
c d c Cabri Geo
met
m
ry
Angle sum
50° 30° of a
30° triangle
e 30° g f Math
cad
80°
Angles
60° p in a
70° triangle
WORKED 2 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles. Cabri Geo
met
Example
ry
4 a b c Angles
62° x
in right-
angled
triangles
55° 50° t
q
d e f
m k
45° k k p
WORKED 3 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following triangles.
Example
5 a b c
72°
34°
t
s 96°
d e f
t t
48°
55° x
q
r
Example
a b c
6 x 3x
5x
2x 60° 4x
x x
d e f
131° 45° 2x – 7 2x
x 2x – 1
2x + 1 4x + 3
3x + 6
5 multiple choice
The values for the pronumeral angles in the following diagrams are:
a A 180° B 117° C 27°
m D 153° E 63°
63°
b A 49° B 98° C 82°

82°
D 44° E 180°
c A 90° B 30° C 60°

2x D 180° E 120°
3x x
6 In snowy regions, houses are built with steep roofs so the snow slides off. If the
sloping edges of the roof make an angle of 55° with its base, find the angle at the
apex.
7 A Christmas tree is shaped like an isosceles triangle. If the angle at the top is 36°, find
the size of each of the base angles.
8 A vertical flagpole is held up by a wire. The angle between the ground and the wire is
twice the angle between the pole and the wire. Find the angle between the pole and
the wire.
9 Maya measures the angles in a triangle, and finds that two angles are the same and
one is 15 degrees larger than the other two. What is the size of each angle?
10 The second-largest angle in a triangle is 5 degrees smaller than the largest angle and
5 degrees larger than the smallest angle. How large is each angle?
Exterior angles of a triangle
In exercise 8B you were dealing with the angles inside a triangle, called interior
angles. In this section you will look at the angles outside a triangle, called exterior
angles.
If one side of a triangle is extended, the angle between this
extension and the triangle is called an exterior angle.
e
e = exterior angle
Cabri Geo
met
Exterior angles of a triangle
ry
COMMUNICATION
Exterior
angles
of a
Open the Cabri triangle
Geometry file
‘Exterior angles of a
triangle’ on the
Maths Quest 8
CD-ROM, and
observe what happens
to the size of the
exterior and interior
angles when you
change the triangle.
Write your
conclusions. Can you
prove why this
relationship occurs?
WORKED Example 7
For the triangle shown, find the value of:
a x
b the exterior angle, e. 54°
50° x e
THINK WRITE
a 1 Form an equation by making the a x + 50° + 54° = 180°
sum of angles in the given triangle
equal to 180°.
2 Solve for x; that is, subtract 104° x + 104° = 180°
from both sides of the equation. x + 104° – 104° = 180° − 104°
x = 76°
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
b 1 Angle x, together with exterior angle b x + e = 180°
e, makes a straight angle of 180°.
Write this as an equation.
2 Substitute the value of x, found in 76° + e = 180°
part a, into the equation.
3 Solve for e; that is, subtract 76° from 76° – 76° + e = 180° − 76°
both sides of the equation. e = 104°
From the above example an important observation can be made:

An exterior angle and the interior angle adjacent to it are supplementary.
From worked example 7 we can also observe that the exterior angle, e, was equal to the
sum of the two interior angles not adjacent to it:
e = 104°
= 50° + 54°
In general,
In any triangle the exterior angle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior
angles.
a e
a+b=e
The following worked examples demonstrate the use of this rule.
WORKED Example 8
Find the size of the exterior angle in the triangle shown.
80°
30° e
THINK WRITE
1 The exterior angle equals the sum of e = 30° + 80°

the two opposite interior angles.
State this as an equation.
2 Simplify to find the value of e. e = 110°
WORKED Example 9
Find the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown.
70°
w 132°
THINK WRITE
1 The exterior angle of a triangle equals w + 70° = 132°

the sum of the two opposite interior
angles. Form an appropriate equation.
2 Subtract 70° from both sides of the w + 70° – 70° = 132° – 70°
equation to find the value of w. w = 132° − 70°
= 62°
WORKED Example 10
Find the value of the pronumeral in the triangle shown.
2x
4x 120°
THINK WRITE
1 The exterior angle of a triangle equals 4x + 2x = 120°
the sum of the two opposite interior
angles. Form an appropriate equation.
2 Solve for x. First collect like terms. 6x = 120°
6x 120
3 Divide both sides of the equation by 6 ------ = ---------
to find the value of x. 6 6
= 20°
remember
1. When one side of a triangle is extended, the angle between this extension and
the triangle is called an exterior angle of the triangle.
2. The exterior angle and the interior angle adjacent to it are supplementary (add
up to 180°).
3. In any triangle, an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles.
8C Exterior angles of a triangle

WORKED 1 For each of the triangles shown, find the value of:
HEET
8.4 Example
i angle x
7
SkillS
ii the exterior angle, e.

Complementary
angles a 20° b c
65° 60°
HEET
8.5 42° x e
SkillS
Supplementary e x 60°
angles 60° x e
2 a Copy and complete this table, showing the interior angles and the opposite
d exterior angle for the triangles in question 1.
hca
Mat
Given interior Sum of given Opposite exterior

Exterior
angles Question angles interior angles angle, e
of a
triangle 1a 20°, 60° 80°
1b
1c
b Verify the rule connecting the interior angles and the opposite exterior angle for
each triangle.
WORKED 3 Find the size of the exterior angle in these triangles.
Example
8 a b n c d 32°
72°
54°
30° t
25° 65° 83°
q
m
Example
9 a b c d
65° w 132°
110°
m k
43° 90°
t 114°
WORKED 5 Find the value of the pronumeral(s) in each triangle shown.

Example
10 a b x+4 c
3x
3x
2x 120° 60° 50° 5x
x
x
d e y
f
2x 60°
x + 30
70° y
6x x 2x
6 multiple choice
a The value of the pronumeral, e, in this triangle is:
69°
A 48° B 69° C 117° D 63° E 180°
48° e
b The value of the pronumeral, w, in this triangle is:

A 98° B 54° C 44° D 82° E 180° 54°
w 98°
c The value of the pronumeral, k, in this triangle is:

A 59° B 62° C 118° D 180° E 121°
k 59°
d The value of the pronumeral, m, in this triangle is:

2m
A 42° B 126° C 63° D 84° E 56°
m
126°
7 Find the size of the exterior angle of an equilateral triangle.

8 The roof of an A-frame house makes a 65° angle with the Roof
ground. What angle does the roof make with the balcony?
Balcony
b
65° Ground
9 In this Native American teepee, the poles meet at an

angle of 50°.
a Find the size of the acute angle that each pole
makes with the ground.
b Find the size of the obtuse angle that each pole
makes with the ground.
50°
10 The two sloping sides of a roof meet at an apex
angle of 102°. Find the obtuse angle that each of
the sloping sides makes with the horizontal.
a b
me
11 The three exterior angles of a triangle are 105°, 125° and 130°.
E ti Find the interior angles. 125°
GAM
Geometry
— 001
105°
130°
THINKING Exterior angles

1 Find the size of each of the exterior angles in the four triangles shown.
35°
110°
80° 50°
30°
65°
2 Find the sum of the exterior angles in each of the above triangles.
3 Is there any pattern that you have observed? Complete this sentence: In any
triangle the sum of the exterior angles is .
Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any closed 2-dimensional shape with four straight sides. All
quadrilaterals can be subdivided into two major groups: parallelograms and other
quadrilaterals. Parallelograms are quadrilaterals with two pairs of opposite sides being
parallel.
Note: Parallel lines are those lines that never meet. We indicate that the lines are
parallel by placing identical arrows on each line.
The table below shows quadrilaterals, which belong to either of these two groups,
and their properties.
Parallelograms Opposite sides are parallel
Square All sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo
met
All angles are 90°.
ry
Squares
Rectangle Opposite sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo
met
All angles are 90°.
ry
Rectangles
Rhombus All sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo
met
Opposite angles are equal in size.
ry
Rhombuses
Parallelogram Opposite sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo
met
Opposite angles are equal in size.
ry
Parallelograms
Other quadrilaterals Opposite sides not all parallel
Trapezium One pair of parallel sides. Cabri Geo
met
ry
Trapeziums
Kite Two pairs of adjacent (next to Cabri Geo

met
each other) sides are equal in

ry
length. Kites
Angles between unequal sides are
equal in size.
Irregular Looks like none of the above

quadrilateral (possesses no special properties).
WORKED Example 11
State whether each of the following is true or false.
a The opposite sides of any rectangle are parallel.
b Any rectangle is a square.
THINK WRITE
a All rectangles are parallelograms. By definition, a a True
parallelogram has two pairs of opposite sides parallel.
Since a rectangle is a parallelogram, it must have a
parallelogram’s properties. Therefore, opposite sides of
any rectangle are parallel and the statement is true.
b By definition, both a square and a rectangle must have b False
four right angles. However, in a square all four sides are
the same, but in a rectangle only opposite sides must be
of equal length. Therefore, the statement is false.
remember
1. A quadrilateral is any closed 2-dimensional shape with four straight sides.
2. All quadrilaterals can be subdivided into two major groups: parallelograms
(these include rectangles, squares, parallelograms and rhombuses) and other
quadrilaterals (these include trapeziums, kites and irregular quadrilaterals).
3. Parallelograms are quadrilaterals with two pairs of opposite sides parallel.
8D Quadrilaterals
omet 1 Copy and complete this table. Allow enough space to fit in the missing figures.
i Ge ry
Cabr
Types of Picture Name Definition

quadrilaterals
d
hca
Mat
Classifying
quadrilaterals Parallelogram
All sides are of equal length;

opposite angles are equal in
size.
(continued)
Picture Name Definition
Kite
Irregular quadrilateral
All sides equal; all angles are

90°.
WORKED 2 State whether each of the following is true or false.

Example
11
a All squares are rectangles.
b All squares are rhombuses.
c A trapezium could have two sides of equal length.
d A parallelogram with adjacent sides being equal is a square.
e A parallelogram with at least one right angle is a rectangle.
f A kite could have one right angle.
g A kite cannot have two right angles.
h An irregular quadrilateral cannot contain a 90° angle.
i A rectangle is a quadrilateral because it has two pairs of parallel sides.
j A rhombus is a parallelogram because it has two pairs of parallel sides.
k Not every parallelogram has opposite sides equal in length.
l Not every square is a parallelogram.
3 For each of the following, state the name of the quadrilateral that best matches the
clues.
a I am a parallelogram with all sides of equal length. What am I?
b I have two pairs of equal sides. These sides are not opposite. What am I?
c I am a rhombus with 90-degree angles. What am I?
4 Construct a trapezium that has:

a two adjacent right angles
b two sides (that are not parallel) of equal length.
5 Draw the solutions to each of the following problems in your workbook.

a With one line, divide a square into two rectangles.
b With one line, divide a square into two trapeziums.
c With one line, divide a rectangle into a square and another
rectangle.
d With one line, divide a rhombus into two parallelograms.
e With one line, divide a rhombus into two trapeziums.
f With four lines, divide a square into seven squares.
6 multiple choice
The walls of the metal shed in the foreground
of the photograph at right are:
A squares and parallelograms
T 8.1 B irregular quadrilaterals and squares
SHEE
C rhombuses and rectangles
Work
D rectangles and trapeziums

E rectangles and squares
DESIGN Forming quadrilaterals

1 Copy the kite at right onto a piece of paper. Cut it out
and then cut along the dotted lines to form four triangles.
Rearrange these four triangles to form:
a a rectangle
b a trapezium
c a parallelogram.
Hint: You may flip pieces upside down.
2 Use two sticks or cut drinking straws of length 3 cm and two of length 5 cm.
How many different types of quadrilateral can you make? List them and draw
the solutions in your workbook.
QU EST
S
M AT H
1 How many rectangles can be found

NG
in this figure?
E
CH LL
A
2 How would you cut this trapezium into four

pieces of exactly the same size and shape?
The trapezium is made up of a square and
half of a similar square divided diagonally.
1
1 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a scalene triangle.
2 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw an acute-angled isosceles
triangle.
3 Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram below.

10°
112°
x
4 Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram below.

40° 4x –7
2x +3
5 Beth was drawing a 2-dimensional diagram of a pear. She noticed that it resembled an
isosceles triangle. If the angle at the top is 42°, find the base angle.
6 True or false? The interior angle marked x in the triangle shown is x = 90°.
10° x
100°
7 The three interior angles of the triangle are 54°, 61° and 65°. Find the exterior angles
a, b and c.
54°
61°
65°
a
b
8 Joshua placed 2 playing cards on an angle to form the sides of

80°
a card house. The cards met at an angle of 80°. Find the obtuse
angle that each card makes with the surface of the table. a b
9 Draw and name a shape with 4 sides where the opposite sides are equal in length and
opposite angles are equal. (There are 2 pairs of parallel sides.)
10 multiple choice
A quadrilateral has two 5-cm-long sides and two 10-cm-long sides. If all the angles
are equal, this is best described as a:
A rhombus B square C rectangle D trapezium E parallelogram
Angles in a quadrilateral
You probably already know the following fact.
The sum of the interior angles in any quadrilateral is equal to 360°.
omet Check that this works by investigating the angles in a quadrilateral using the Cabri
i Ge ry
Geometry file supplied on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM.
Cabr
Angles This rule applies to any quadrilateral, regardless of shape or size. If you walk around
in a a quadrilateral, you will end up at your starting point.
quadrilateral
The rule can be used to find missing angles in quadrilaterals, as shown in the worked
examples that follow.
WORKED Example 12
110°
Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram at right.
b
THINK WRITE
1 The sum of angles in the quadrilateral b + 110° + 90° + 90° = 360°

must be 360°, so form an appropriate
equation. (The two angles marked with
the small square are each 90°.)
2 Solve for b; that is, subtract 290° from b + 290° = 360°
both sides of the equation. b + 290° – 290° = 360° − 290°
b = 70°
WORKED Example 13
Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram at right. 85°
t t
75°
THINK WRITE
1 Form an equation by putting the sum of t + t + 75° + 85° = 360°
angles on one side and 360° on the
other side of the equals sign.
2 Simplify by adding numbers together 2t + 160° = 360°
and collecting like terms.
3 Subtract 160° from both sides of the 2t + 160° – 160° = 360° − 160°
equation. 2t = 200°
2t 200°
4 Divide both sides of the equation by 2 ----- = -----------
to find the value of t. 2 2
t = 100°
WORKED Example 14
Find the value of x in the quadrilateral shown below.
3x + 10 110°
x
2x
THINK WRITE
1 Add the four angles and set them equal x + 2x + 3x + 10° + 110° = 360°
to 360°.
2 To solve the equation, first simplify by 6x + 120° = 360°
collecting like terms.
3 Subtract 120° from both sides of the 6x + 120° – 120° = 360° − 120°
equation. 6x = 240°
6x 240°
4 To find the value of x, divide both sides ------ = -----------
of the equation by 6. 6 6
x = 40°
remember
The sum of the interior angles in any quadrilateral is equal to 360°.
8.6
8E
SkillS
Angles in a quadrilateral
HEET
Angle sum
of a
quadrilateral
WORKED 1 Find the value of the pronumeral in each of the following diagrams.
Example
Math
12 a b c t 100°
cad
85°
Angles in a
x quadrilateral
95° 45° 50°
50°
x Cabri Geo
met
ry
d 112° m e k
f 95°
Angle sum
120° of a
95° 95° q quadrilateral
68° 112°
60° Cabri Geo
met
ry
50° Angles in a
quadrilateral
2 multiple choice
a In this square, the equal angles are:
d c
A a and b only
B a and c only
C a and b are equal, c and d are equal a b
D all angles
E a and c are equal, b and d are equal
b In this kite, the pairs of equal angles are: c

A a and c only d b
B a and c are equal, b and c are equal
C a and c are equal, b and d are equal
D b and d only
E all angles are equal a
c In this parallelogram, the pairs of equal angles are:

A a and c only
B a and d are equal, b and c are equal d c
C a and c are equal, b and d are equal
a b
D b and d only
E all angles are equal
d In this trapezium, the pairs of equal angles are:

A b and c only
B a and d are equal, b and c are equal d c
C a and c are equal, b and d are equal b

a
D a and d only
E all angles are equal
WORKED 3 Find the value of the pronumeral(s) in each of the following diagrams.
Example
13
a m b c 115° 115°
74° 98°
74° t t
m k k
42°
d e t 105° f q r
85°
122° q
m m p 116°
s
WORKED 4 Find the value of x in each of the following quadrilaterals.
Example
14 a 2x b 2x c x + 10 110°
3x
x 2x x x – 10
d 2x 4x e 2x + 6 f 4x + 30
4x 2x 98° 2x + 40
2x + 40
x+8 2x – 20
g x x + 22 h 2x + 9 3x – 27
2x – 15 x + 28 x – 22 2x – 32
i
3x – 12
4x – 3
3x + 3
2x + 12
5 The swing at the local

park is in the shape of a
trapezium. If the angle
that the pole makes with
the ground is 70°, then
find the angle, x,
between the pole and the
top crossbar.
6 Jennifer built a kite. If the angle at the top of the kite is three times 3x
more than the angle at the tail, and the angles on the side are 80°, find 80° 80°
the angle at the tail.
x
7 One angle in a parallelogram is double the other angle. Find all
angles.
8 One angle in a rhombus is 40°. Find all other angles.
9 A certain quadrilateral has each angle 10° greater than the previous one, except the
smallest angle. How large is the smallest angle?
What did the pencil say to the eraser?

The size of the lettered angles
gives the puzzle answer code.
57o D 98o
A
52o
E
59o 83o
J 71o
63 o 41o
39o
K 56o L
112o 28o
37o
46o R
Q 72o
N
105o
S
O
126o 47o
Z
56o
45o X
56o
T
64o 108o 108o 64o 252o 38o 124o 124o 38o 18o 124o 54o
75o 34o 27o 108o 252o 108o 75o 134o
45o 134o 124o 96o 96o 124o 12o 108o 96o

Angles in polygons c d c
In the previous exercises you saw that the sum a b a b
of the angles in a triangle is 180° and the sum
a + b + c = 180° a + b + c + d = 360°
of the angles in a quadrilateral is 360°.
In this section you will learn a method of finding the sum of the angles in any polygon.
THINKING Sum of angles in a polygon

1 For every polygon shown in the table below, draw as many diagonals, as
possible from the vertex, marked X. (This will divide each polygon into a
number of triangles.)
2 Copy and complete this table:
Number of Number of Sum of
Polygon Name sides triangles angles
Triangle 3 1 180o
X
X Quadrilateral 4 2 2 × 180°
= 360o
Pentagon 5 3 3 × 180o
X = 540o
Hexagon 6 4
X
X Heptagon 7
X
Octagon 8
X Decagon 10
3 Can you see a pattern? What would be the sum of the angles in a dodecagon (12
sides)? Can you predict the angle sum of an icosagon (20 sides)? What about a
polygon with 100 sides?
The patterns that you have observed in the previous investigation can be generalised as
follows: For any polygon the sum of interior angles = 180° × (number of triangles).
Furthermore, the number of triangles = the number of sides − 2.
Therefore,
The sum of the interior angles in any polygon = 180° × (n − 2 ), where n is the
number of sides of the polygon.
We can use this formula for finding the size of unknown angles in various polygons,
as shown in the following worked examples.
WORKED Example 15
Find the sum of the interior angles of the polygon shown.
THINK WRITE
1 Write the general formula for the angle Sum of angles = 180° × (n − 2)
sum of a polygon.
2 Count the number of sides in the given n = 11
polygon to identify the value of n.
3 Substitute the value of n into the Sum of angles = 180° × (11 − 2)
formula and evaluate. = 180° × 9
= 1620°
WORKED Example 16
For the polygon shown at right find: 120°
a the sum of its interior angles p
b the value of the pronumeral. 130°
50°
THINK WRITE 70°
a 1 Write the general formula for the a Sum of angles = 180° × (n − 2)

angle sum of a polygon.
2 The shape has five sides, so state the n=5
value of n.
3 Substitute the value of n into the Sum of angles = 180° × (5 − 2)
formula and evaluate. = 180° × 3
= 540°
b 1 Form an equation by making the b p + 120° + 130° + 50° + 70° = 540°

sum of interior angles equal to 540°.
2 Solve for p; that is, subtract 370° p + 370° = 540°
from both sides of the equation. p + 370° – 370° = 540° − 370°
= 170°
Regular polygons
A regular polygon is the one in which all sides are equal in length and all angles
are equal in size.
If a polygon is regular, we can find the size of each of its angles by first finding the sum
of the interior angles of the polygon and then dividing it by the number of angles.
Consider the following example.
WORKED Example 17
Find the value of the pronumeral in this regular polygon.
a
THINK WRITE
1 Write the general formula for the sum of angles Sum of angles = 180° × (n − 2)
in a polygon.
2 The shape has five sides, so state the value of n. n=5
3 Substitute the value of n into the formula and Sum of angles = 180° × (5 − 2)
evaluate. = 180° × 3
4 Since the polygon is regular, all of its angles are = 540°
equal in size. So, to find the size of each angle, a = 540° ÷ 5
divide the sum of angles by the number of = 108°
angles.
Note: The number of angles corresponds to the
number of sides, n.
remember
1. The sum of the interior angles in any polygon equals 180° × (n − 2), where n is
the number of sides of the polygon.
2. A regular polygon has all sides equal in length and all angles equal in size.
3. To find the size of the angles in a regular polygon, find the sum of its angles
first and then divide it by the number of angles in the polygon.
THINKING Angles in a regular polygon

1 What is the sum of the interior
angles of a stop sign?
2 What is the size of each angle?
3 What is the size of each exterior
angle?
4 What is the angle sum and size of
each angle for a give-way sign?
8F Angles in polygons
WORKED 1 Find the sum of the interior angles of each of the polygons shown.
HEET
8.7 Example
a b c
15
SkillS
Angle sum
of a
polygon
d
hca
Mat
Angles in
polygons WORKED 2 For each of the polygons shown, find:
Example
16
i the sum of its interior angles
omet ii the value of the pronumeral.
i Ge ry
a b c
Cabr
b c 110°
Star d
polygons 120° 120° 150° 150°
240°
55°
omet
260° 170°
i Ge ry
55°
Cabr
Exterior d e f 6x – 25
angles of h 3x 3x + 3
a polygon –6
150° 150° 6x +
6
omet
i Ge ry 250° 7x + 2
Cabr
45° 45° 15x – 25

Angle 8x + 10
sum of a 6x – 10
polygon 14x + 2
4x – 14 5x – 9
5x 3x + 11
3 State whether each of the following polygons is regular, or not. Give reasons.
a b c
d e f
WORKED 4 Find the value of the pronumeral in these regular polygons.
Example
17 a b c d
t t
p
a
5 Some regular shapes have special names. Draw each of these shapes, marking all
equal sides and angles, and write down their common name:
a a regular quadrilateral b a regular triangle.
6 Two angles of a pentagon are right angles. The other three angles are all equal. Find
the size of these angles.
7 Two angles of a hexagon are right angles. The other four angles are all equal. Find the
size of these angles.
8 A cross as shown in the diagram at right is a polygon.
a What is the name of this polygon?
b What is the sum of its angles?
9 Yvette draws a regular 15-sided polygon. How large is each angle?
10 Sam draws a regular 30-sided polygon. How large is each angle?
Cabri Geo
COMMUNICATION Regular polygons
met
ry
Regular
polygons
The diagram at right shows a regular triangle,
quadrilateral, pentagon and hexagon, constructed on a
common base 2 cm long. Using a ruler and a
protractor, construct, on a common base 5 cm long,
each of the following polygons:
a a regular triangle
b a regular quadrilateral
c a regular pentagon
d a regular hexagon
e a regular octagon 2 cm
f a regular decagon
g a regular dodecagon.
Hint: Calculate the size of each angle first.
Angles and parallel lines

Transversal
In previous exercises we have discussed angles in triangles,
quadrilaterals and other polygons. In this section we will
investigate different angles associated with parallel lines.
Parallel lines
A line, intersecting a pair (or a set) of parallel lines, is
called a transversal.
Cutting parallel lines by a transversal creates a number of angles. These angles are
related in a number of ways, as we will now see.
omet
i Ge ry
Vertically opposite angles
Cabr
The diagram at right shows two vertically opposite angles. a b

Vertically
opposite Vertically opposite angles are equal in size.
angles
Thus, in the diagram at right ∠a = ∠b.
Vertically opposite angles are often associated with an
a
X shape.
omet
i Ge ry
Corresponding angles
Cabr
The diagram at right shows two angles, a and b, positioned a

Corresponding below the parallel lines to the right of a transversal.
angles
When both angles are on the same side of the transversal b
(both to the left or both to the right of it) and are either both
above or both below the parallel lines, such angles are called
corresponding angles.
Corresponding angles are equal in size.
Thus, in the above diagram ∠a = ∠b. a
The position of corresponding angles is easy to remember
by thinking of it as F-shaped. b
omet
i Ge ry
Co-interior (or allied) angles
a
Cabr
The diagram at right shows two angles, a and b, positioned

Co-interior ‘inside’ the parallel lines, on the same side (to the right) of b
angles
the transversal. Such angles are called co-interior or allied
angles.
Co-interior angles are supplementary; that is, they add up
to 180°.
a
Thus, in the diagram at right ∠a + ∠b = 180°. b
The position of the co-interior angles is easy to remember
by thinking of it as C-shaped.
omet
i Ge ry
Alternate angles a
Cabr
The diagram at right shows two angles, a and b, positioned

Alternate ‘inside’ the parallel lines on alternate sides of the transversal. b
angles
Such angles are called alternate angles.
Alternate angles are equal in size
Thus, in the above diagram ∠a = ∠b. a
The position of alternate angles is easy to remember by
thinking of it as Z-shaped. b
Cabri Geo
THINKING Angle relationships with parallel
met
ry
Parallel
lines lines
Open the Cabri Geometry file ‘Parallel lines’ on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM.
Follow the instructions on the screen to vary the position of the transversal and
observe the change in the angles. Identify the different angle relationships.
Calculating angles associated with parallel lines

Angle relationships associated with parallel lines can be used to find the size of missing
angles, as shown in the following worked examples.
WORKED Example 18
For the diagram at right:
100º
a state the type of angle relationship
b find the value of the pronumeral. m
THINK WRITE
a 1 Study the diagram: which shape — a
X, Z, F or C — would include both
angles that are shown? Copy the
100º
diagram into your workbook and
highlight the appropriate shape. m
2 State the name of the angles Shown angles are co-interior.

suggested by the C shape.
b 1 Co-interior angles add to 180°. b m + 100° = 180°

Write this as an equation.
2 Solve for m; that is, subtract 100° m + 100° – 100° = 180° − 100°
from both sides of the equation. m = 80°
WORKED Example 19 a 58º d e f

Find the value of the pronumerals in the diagram shown at
right. Provide reasons for your answers. 77º
b c 65º g
THINK WRITE
1 Identify the relationship between angle a + 58° = 180° (straight line)
a and 58° and form an equation.
2 Solve for a; that is, subtract 58° from a + 58° − 58° = 180° − 58°
both sides of the equation. a = 122°
Continued over page
THINK WRITE
3 Identify the relationship between angle b = 58° (alternate angles)

b and 58° and state the value of b.
4 Identify the relationship between angle b + 77° + c = 180° (straight line)
b, 77°, and angle c, and then form an 58° + 77° + c = 180°
equation.
5 Solve for c; that is, subtract 135° from 135° − 135° + c = 180° − 135°
both sides of the equation. c = 45°
6 Identify the relationship between 58°, 58° + 77° + d = 180° (angle sum of
77°, and angle d, and then form an 58° + 77° + d = 180° triangle)
equation.
7 Solve for d; that is, subtract 135° from 135° − 135° + d = 180° − 135°
both sides of the equation. d = 45°
Note: Angles c and d are alternate and
therefore equal.
8 Identify the relationship between angle g + 65° = 180° (straight line)
g and 65° and form an equation.
9 Solve for g; that is, subtract 65° from g + 65° − 65° = 180° − 65°
both sides of the equation. g = 115°
10 Identify the relationship between angles g + f = 180° (co-interior angles)
f and g and form an equation. 115° + f = 180°
11 Solve for f; that is, subtract 115° from 115° − 115° + f = 180° − 115°
both sides of the equation. f = 65°
Note: Angle f and 65° are alternate and
therefore equal.
12 Identify the relationship between angles d + e + f = 180° (straight line)
d, e and f, and then form an equation. 45° + e + 65° = 180°
110° + e = 180°
13 Solve for e; that is, subtract 110° from 110° − 110° + e = 180° − 110°
both sides of the equation. e = 70°
remember
1. Vertically opposite (X) angles are equal in size.
2. Corresponding (F) angles are equal in size.
3. Co-interior (C) angles add to 180°.
4. Alternate (Z) angles are equal in size.
5. Supplementary angles add to 180°.
6. Complementary angles add to 90°.
7. If the given angles are in none of the above relations, we might need to
find some other angle first. This other angle must be related to both given
angles.
8G Angles and parallel lines

1 a Copy the diagram into your workbook. Clearly draw the F shape 8.8 SkillS
on your diagram and label the angle corresponding to the one
HEET
that is marked. Angles
and
parallel
lines
b Copy the diagram into your workbook. Clearly draw the Z shape
on your diagram and label the angle alternate to the marked
angle.
c Copy the diagram and label the angle vertically opposite to the
marked angle. Clearly draw the X shape on your diagram.
d Copy the diagram and label the angle co-interior to the marked
angle. Clearly draw the C shape on your diagram.
2 Match each diagram with the appropriate name from the five options
listed below.
Diagram Name
a A Vertically opposite angles (X)
b B Co-interior angles (C)
c C Corresponding angles (F)
d D Alternate angles (Z)

e E None of the above
3 multiple choice
In the diagram at right,
a which angle is vertically opposite to angle p?
Aj B k Cm Dr E q
r t
b which angle is corresponding to angle p? n p
Aj B k Cm Dr E q k m
c which angle is co-interior to angle p? j q
Aj B k Cm Dr E q
d which angle is alternate to angle p?
Aj B k Cm Dr E q
4 In the diagram at right, list all pairs of:

a vertically opposite angles a b
b corresponding angles c d
c co-interior angles
e f
d alternate angles. g h
8.9 WORKED 5 For each of the following diagrams:

HEET Example
i state the type of angle relationship
SkillS
18
Angle ii find the value of the pronumeral.
relationships
a b c
p
45°
s
q
60°
65°
d e f
132°
72°
t m 70°
n
6 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following diagrams.

a b c
116° 64° 62°
38° b
z 44°
y 44°
d e f
68° 135°
72° g
h k
120° 110°
WORKED 7 Find the value of the pronumerals, stating the type of angle relationship, in each of the 8.10 SkillS
Example
19
following diagrams.
HEET
a p q 48º b x More
z y 42º angle
relationships
59º r s
73º w
c d d 64º
e 42º e
ca b
c
126º
a
d 47º
b
8 Find the value of the pronumerals in each of the following diagrams.

a b c
x
123° y
137°
b
62°
d e f
80°
p
q
z z q
160°
9 If the angle co-interior to x is 135°, find the size of angle x.

10 If the angle corresponding to y is 55°, find the size of angle y.
11 A hill is at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. A fence is put in,
p
consisting of a railing parallel to the ground and vertical fence
posts. Find the angle between the top of the fence post and the
rail.
30°
12 Two gates consist of vertical posts, horizontal struts and diagonal beams. Find the
angle, a, as shown in the gates below.
a a b
40°
13 Two transversal lines cross a pair of parallel lines at 120° t

me and 135°. Find the angle between the transversals.
E ti
GAM
Geometry
— 002 120° 135°
14 Find the angles w, x, y, z in the diagram shown.

SHEE
T 8.2
Work
45°
w
60°
x y
z
QUEST
S
A B
M AT H
48°
E
1 Is the line AB parallel to line CD? 84°

NG
Explain your answer. 133°

E
CH LL
A C D
2 This figure has 8 unit triangles. Remove 4

matches so that 4 unit triangles are left
behind.
3 Move 4 matches so that there are 4 unit

squares instead of 5.
2
1 Using side and angle markings where appropriate, draw a right-angled scalene
triangle.
2 a True or false? The name of the quadrilateral shown is
a trapezium.
b True or false? The complement of 25° is 75°.
3 Name the following pair of angles in this diagram.
For questions 4 to 9, find the value of the pronumerals.

4
70° x
5 y
6
y 172°
x 53° u
7 15°
y 8 m
9
xv
w 80°
140º 140º
120°
35°
z y
v
37º
10 Find the angles v, w, x, y, z in the diagram shown. w x y z
58º
Constructing triangles
Using a ruler, protractor and a pair of compasses, you can
construct any triangle if you are given three side lengths,
two side lengths and the angle between them, or two
angles and the length of the side between them.
Constructing a triangle given

three side lengths
If the lengths of the three sides of a triangle are known,
it can be constructed with the help of a ruler and a pair
of compasses, as shown in the following worked
example.
WORKED Example 20
Using a ruler and a pair of compasses, construct a triangle with side lengths 15 mm,
20 mm and 21 mm.
THINK DRAW
1 Rule a line representing the longest side

21 mm
(21 mm).
2 Open the pair of compasses to the
shortest side length (15 mm).
3 Draw an arc from one end of the
21 mm side.
15 mm
21 mm
4 Open the pair of compasses to the

length of the third side (20 mm) and 15 mm
draw an arc from the other end of the 20 mm
21 mm side.
21 mm
5 Join the point of intersection of the two

arcs and the end points of the 21 mm 15 mm 20 mm
side with lines. Erase the arcs.
21 mm
Constructing a triangle given two angles and the side

between them
If the size of any two angles of a triangle and the length of the side between these two
angles are known, the triangle can be constructed with the aid of a ruler and a
protractor. The following worked example shows how this is done.
WORKED Example 21
Use a ruler and protractor to construct a triangle with angles 40° and 65° and the side
between them of length 2 cm.
THINK DRAW
1 Rule a line of length 2 cm.
2 Place the centre of the protractor on one
endpoint of the line and measure out a
40° angle. Draw a line so that it makes 40°
an angle of 40° with the 2 cm line. 2 cm
3 Place the centre of the protractor on the
other endpoint of the 2 cm line and
measure an angle of 65°. Draw a line so
that it makes a 65° angle with the 2 cm line. 40° 65°
2 cm
4 If necessary, continue the lines until they
intersect each other to form a triangle.
Erase any extra length. 40° 65°
2 cm
Constructing a triangle given two sides and the angle

between them
A triangle can be constructed using a protractor and a ruler, if the lengths of two sides
and the size of the angle between them (called an included angle) are given. The
following worked example shows how this can be done.
WORKED Example 22
Use a ruler and protractor to construct a triangle with sides 6 cm and 10 cm long and an
angle between them of 60°.
THINK DRAW
1 Rule a line of length 10 cm.
2 Place the centre of the protractor on one
endpoint of the line and mark an angle
of 60°.
60°
Note: These figures have been reduced.
10 cm
3 Join the 60° mark and the endpoint of
6 cm
the 10 cm side with the straight line.
Extend the line until it is 6 cm long.
60°
10 cm
4 Join the endpoints of the two lines to
6 cm
complete the triangle.
60°
10 cm
remember
1. A triangle can be constructed using a ruler and a pair of compasses if the three
sides are known.
2. If two angles of a triangle and the side between them, or two sides and an angle
between them are known, the triangle can be constructed using a protractor and
a ruler.
3. When using a protractor:
(a) make sure that the baseline of the protractor is exactly on the line, and the
centre of the protractor’s baseline (that is, where the vertical (90°) line
intersects with the horizontal base line) is exactly on the point from which
you are measuring the angle.
(b) use the scale that begins from 0° (not 180°).
8H Constructing triangles
8.11 WORKED 1 Using a ruler and pair of compasses, construct triangles with the following side lengths:
HEET Example
a 7 cm, 6 cm, 4 cm b 5 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm
SkillS
20
Measuring c 6 cm, 5 cm, 3 cm d 6 cm, 6 cm, 6 cm
and e 7.5 cm, 4.5 cm, 6 cm f 2 cm, 6.5 cm, 5 cm
drawing g an equilateral triangle of side 3 cm h an equilateral triangle of side 4.5 cm.
lines
WORKED 2 Use a ruler and protractor to construct these triangles:
HEET
8.12 Example
a angles 60° and 60° with the side between them 5 cm long
21
SkillS
b angles 50° and 50° with the side between them 6 cm long
Constructing c angles 30° and 40° with the side between them 4 cm long
angles with
a protractor d angles 60° and 45° with the side between them 3 cm long
e angles 30° and 60° with the side between them 4 cm long
omet
i Ge ry f angles 65° and 60° with the side between them 3.5 cm long
Cabr
g angles 60° and 90° with the side between them 5 cm long
Three h angles 60° and 36° with the side between them 4.5 cm long.
sides
WORKED 3 Use a ruler and protractor to construct the following triangles:
Example
omet
i Ge ry 22
a two sides 10 cm and 5 cm long, angle of 30° between them
b two sides 8 cm and 3 cm long, angle of 45° between them
Cabr
Two angles c two sides 6 cm and 6 cm long, angle of 60° between them
and a side
d two sides 4 cm and 5 cm long, angle of 90° between them
e two sides 7 cm and 6 cm long, angle of 80° between them
omet
i Ge ry
f two sides 9 cm and 3 cm long, angle of 110° between them
g two sides 6 cm and 6 cm long, angle of 50° between them
Cabr
Two sides h two sides 5 cm and 4 cm long, angle of 120° between them.
and an
angle 4 a Use a ruler and a pair of compasses to draw an isosceles triangle with two sides
between
5 cm long and one side 7 cm.
b Use your protractor to measure the size of the largest angle.
c Complete this sentence using one of the words below: This triangle is an
-angled triangle.
i acute ii right iii obtuse
5 a Use a ruler and a pair of compasses to draw a scalene triangle with sides 8 cm,
10 cm and 13 cm.
b Use your protractor to measure the size of the largest angle.
c Complete this sentence using one of the words below: This triangle is a
-angled triangle.
i acute ii right iii obtuse
6 Imagine that you were to copy a given triangle, using any tool(s) from your set of a
ruler, a protractor and a pair of compasses. What is the minimum information you
would need to accomplish the task? (There is more than one possible answer.)
Isometric drawing
When working with 3-dimensional
models and designs, it is often
useful to have the design or model
drawn on paper (that is, in 2 dimen-
sions).
An isometric drawing is a
2-dimensional drawing of a
3-dimensional object.
This picture shows an architect’s

drawing of a beach hut and environs
in isometric view superimposed on
the actual hut. Architects and drafts-
persons often use isometric
drawings to give their clients a
clear picture of the proposed design.
WORKED Example 23
First copy the incomplete figure at far right onto
isometric dot paper. Complete the isometric
drawing of the object shown at near right.
THINK DRAW
Study the object and identify the lines that
have already been drawn. Fill in the
missing lines on your isometric drawing to
match the object.
WORKED Example 24
Draw the following object on isometric dot paper.
(You could construct it first from a set of cubes.)
THINK DRAW
1 Use cubes to make the object shown
(optional). Draw the front face of the
object. The vertical edges of the
3-dimensional object are shown with
vertical lines on the isometric drawing;
the horizontal edges are shown with the
lines at an angle (by following the dots
on the grid paper).
2 Draw the left face of the object.
3 Add the top face to complete the

isometric drawing of the object.
remember
1. An isometric drawing is a 2-dimensional drawing of a 3-dimensional object.
2. If possible, construct the solid from the set of cubes prior to drawing its
isometric view.
3. Draw the front face first.
4. In isometric drawings, vertical edges of a 3-dimensional object are shown with
vertical lines, while horizontal edges are shown with the lines drawn at an
angle.
8I Isometric drawing
WORKED 1 Copy the following figures onto isometric dot paper and complete the isometric
Example
23
drawing of the objects shown.
a b
c d
WORKED 2 Draw each of the following objects on isometric dot paper. (You might wish to make
Example
24
them first from a set of cubes.)
a b
c d
3 Construct the following letters using cubes, and then draw the solids on isometric dot
paper:
a the letter T with 5 cubes b the letter L with 7 cubes
c the letter E with 10 cubes d the letter H with 7 cubes.
4 Draw these objects, whose front (F), right (R) and top (T) views are given, on isometric
dot paper.
a b
F R
F R T
T
c d
F
R T F R T
5 Draw the front, right and top views of these objects.

a b c d
6 Draw the following figure on isometric dot paper.
7 Draw a selection of buildings from this photograph of the Melbourne skyline on iso-
metric dot paper.
Geometric constructions
Using your imagination, a sharp pencil and eraser, a ruler, protractor and a pair of
compasses you can create some interesting geometric designs.
WORKED Example 25
Use the following steps to construct a pentagonal star.
Step 1. Draw a circle of radius 1 cm.
Step 2. Draw a pentagon in the circle. (Mark off every 72°.)
Step 3. Join all vertices of the pentagon to every other vertex.
Step 4. Draw a line from each vertex of the large pentagon to the opposite vertex of the
small pentagon.
Step 5. Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
Step 6. Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
THINK DRAW
1 Using a pair of compasses, draw a circle with

a 1 cm radius in the middle of your page.
Mark the centre of the circle.
2 To draw a pentagon in the circle, place the
centre of the protractor at the centre of the
circle and mark off every 72o along the
circumference. Join your markings with
straight-line segments.
3 Join each vertex of the pentagon to every
other vertex with straight lines.
4 Join each vertex of the large pentagon to the

opposite vertex of the small pentagon with
straight lines. Using a pen, highlight the lines
to be kept, so that the star is formed.
5 Erase the original circle and all the pencil

lines that have not been highlighted. Colour
in your finished design.
remember
Always work with a pencil first. When the constructions are done, use a pen to
highlight the lines to be kept and erase the remaining pencil lines.
8J Geometric constructions
8.13 WORKED 1 Use the steps outlined below to construct a larger version of this hexagonal pattern.
HEET .
Example
SkillS
25
Using a
pair of
compasses
to draw
circles Guidelines for step e Completed pattern, step g
a Draw a circle of radius 10 cm.

b Draw a hexagon (mark off every 60° on the circle first).
c Mark the midpoint of each side of the hexagon.
d Join each midpoint to all other midpoints.
e Draw lines joining all vertices of the larger hexagon to each other (see the guide-
lines above).
f Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
g Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
2 Use the steps outlined below to construct the optical illusion as shown here in miniature.
Guidelines, Completed illusion,

step d step f

c Join all vertices of the hexagon to each other.
d Draw a small hexagon in the middle of the diagram (see the guidelines above).
e Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
f Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
3 Construct the design, called Cubes using the steps outlined. Try different colouring
patterns.
Guidelines Final pattern

c Mark the midpoint of each side of the hexagon.
d Draw in the gridlines as shown in the guidelines above.
e Using a pen, highlight the lines to be kept.
f Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your finished design.
4 By following the steps outlined below, construct the Olympic rings.
Guidelines
a Draw a line 16 cm long in the centre of a page.

b Mark three points at 0 cm, 8 cm and 16 cm on this line. Rub out the line.
c Using each of these points as a centre, draw three circles of radius 5 cm.
d Taking the bottom points of intersection of these circles, draw another two circles of
radius 5 cm using the points of intersection as the centres as shown in the guidelines
above.
e Using the same five points as centres, draw five circles of radius 3 cm.
f Colour to create overlapping Olympic rings.
Nets and solids

A net of a solid is a 2-dimensional plan that can be cut out and folded to form that
solid.
Most packaging boxes are constructed from nets. This box which contained paperclips
can be unfolded to form a net as shown below.
WORKED Example 26
a Make a net for a cube of side length 5 cm. Include flaps or tabs to hold the cube
securely together.
b Construct the box from your net.
THINK DRAW/CONSTRUCT
a 1 A cube has six faces, each of which a
is a square. Arrange six squares of
side 5 cm into a net.
Note: These figures have been
reduced to fit.
2 Add tabs to hold the cube together.
(This may take some trial and error.)
b 1 Cut out the net and fold to crease all b

the lines.
2 Fold into shape and stick down the
tabs with tape or glue.
Technology and polyhedra

A demonstration version of the program Poly is available on the Maths Quest 8
CD-ROM. This program allows you to visualise polyhedra and their nets.
Click here on the CD-ROM for further instructions on how to install Poly.
Poly
remember
1. A net is a 2-dimensional plan that can be folded to create a 3-dimensional
object.
2. When designing nets, think carefully about placing tabs to give strength to your
solid.
3. When cutting out nets, accuracy is important.
8K Nets and solids
1 Draw and cut out the net shown and then

fold it into a tetrahedron.
2 Cut out the net shown and
fold it into an octahedron.
Stick down the tabs to make
your figure more stable.
WORKED 3 a A cereal box measures 24 cm × 16 cm × 6 cm. Make a

Example
26
net for this box. Include flaps or tabs to hold the box
securely together.
4 a Use cardboard to make a net for this chocolate box below.
Include flaps or tabs to hold the box securely together.
5 a Many people store pamphlets or magazines in pamphlet boxes

like the one shown. Use cardboard to make a net for this box. SHEE
T 8.3
Work
Include flaps or tabs to hold the box securely together.
DESIGN Box it!

1 Find two different boxes at home (such as a milk carton, pizza box or other
packaging). Open up all the tabs and lay the boxes flat to make nets.
a Look at the way that the tabs are used to hold the boxes together. How strong
are the boxes?
b The net of each box was probably cut from a rectangle. Was much cardboard
wasted to make this net? Estimate the amount wasted and explain how you
have arrived at this estimation.
2 Make a net for a box with a 7 cm square base and height
10 cm. It should hold together without any tape or glue,
10 cm
and have a closeable lid. Construct the box from
cardboard to check that it works.
7 cm
7 cm
THINKING Geometry and

the Sydney Harbour Bridge
1 What types of angles can you identify in this
picture?
2 What types of triangles can you identify in this
picture?
3 What types of quadrilaterals can you identify in this
picture?
4 What other 2-dimensional shapes can you identify
in this picture?
5 Where are there any parallel lines in the picture?
6 Find two alternate angles in the diagram and
measure their sizes with a protractor. Are they
equal?
7 Find two corresponding angles in the diagram and
equal?
8 Find two co-interior angles in the diagram and
supplementary?
9 Does the Harbour Bridge have any axes of
symmetry?
Internet research
Use the Internet to see if you can answer the following
questions about the Sydney Harbour Bridge.
1 How long did it take to build the Sydney Harbour
Bridge? In what year was the Sydney Harbour
Bridge opened?
2 How tall are the pylons at either end?
3 How many rivets were used in the construction of
the bridge?
4 What is the average gap between the sea level and
the bottom of the bridge?
5 How high is the top of the arch above sea level?
6 The bridge is made of steel, which means that it
will expand and contract as the weather gets hotter
or colder. The builders made allowances for this.
How far can the archway expand? How far can the
deck of the bridge expand?
summary
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or
expression from the word list that follows.
1 An triangle has all 3 sides of equal length and all 3 angles equal.
2 An isosceles triangle has of equal length and 2 base angles equal.
3 All sides and all angles are different in triangles.
4 An acute-angled triangle has all angles 90°.
5 An obtuse-angled triangle contains one angle.
6 A triangle contains one 90° angle.
7 The sum of the angles in any triangle is 180°.
8 An of a triangle is equal to the sum of the 2 interior angles

not adjacent to it.
9 All can be divided into 2 groups: parallelograms and others.
10 Parallelograms have 2 pairs of and include rectangles,

squares, parallelograms and rhombuses.
11 A rectangle has 2 pairs of opposite sides equal and all 4 angles are
angles.
12 A has all 4 sides of equal length and four right angles.
13 A parallelogram has two pairs of of equal length and oppo-

site angles of equal size.
14 A rhombus has sides of equal length and opposite angles of equal

size.
15 Other quadrilaterals include kites, and irregular quadrilaterals.
16 The of a kite are equal in length and the angles between the
unequal sides are equal in size.
17 A trapezium is a quadrilateral with of parallel sides.

18 An quadrilateral does not have any special features.
19 The sum of the interior angles in any quadrilateral is .
20 The sum of the interior angles in any polygon equals 180° × (n − 2), where
n is the in the polygon.
21 A polygon has all sides of equal length and all angles of equal size.
22 A is a line that intersects a pair (or a set) of parallel lines.
23 Corresponding angles (F-shaped), angles (Z-shaped) and

angles (X-shaped) are equal in size.
24 Co-interior angles are (that is, they add to 180°).
25 If the length of each of the 3 sides of a triangle is known, it can be con-

structed using a and a ruler.
26 If the length of 2 sides of a triangle and the size of the included angle, or
the size of the 2 angles and the length of the side between them are
known, a triangle can be constructed with the aid of a ruler and a .
27 A 2-dimensional picture of a 3-dimensional object is called an

of that object.
28 In isometric drawings, vertical edges of an object are shown with vertical

lines, and the lines represent horizontal edges of an object.
29 A is a 2-dimensional plan, which can be cut and folded to form an

object.
WORD LIST
trapeziums scalene transversal vertically
regular 360° supplementary opposite
isometric view smaller than interior opposite sides
equilateral square adjacent sides one pair
parallel sides obtuse right irregular
protractor right-angled exterior angle number of sides
alternate all four quadrilaterals pair of
two sides net of an object at an angle compasses
CHAPTER
review
1 Give: i the side name and ii the angle name for each of these triangles.
8A
a b c
2 Using side and angle markings, draw a triangle that is:

8A
a equilateral b right-angled and isosceles c obtuse-angled and scalene.
3 Find the values of the pronumerals in these triangles.

8B
a b c d e
m 2x
65° 40°
30°
t 50°
42° 3x x
w
2x + 10
4 A ladder meets with the wall at a 30° angle. Find the angle that the ladder makes with the
ground. 8B
5 Maya measures the angles in a triangle and finds that two angles are the same and one is 30°
larger than the other two. What is the size of each angle?
6 Calculate the value of the pronumeral in each diagram below.

8C
a b c d
2x
50 t 50°
62° x
y 120° 80° 6x
7 The slice of watermelon at right is to be cut into an isosceles d

triangle. Find the size of each of the unknown angles. 8C
8 Draw these quadrilaterals, showing all parallel sides, sides of
equal length and angles of equal sides, using appropriate 65º 8D
markings: e
a a rectangle b a trapezium f
c a kite d a rhombus.
9 Find the value of the pronumeral in each diagram below.

8E
a 125° 125° b x c 2x d 2x x + 50°
110°
x x + 10°
55° g x
50°
120°
10 A kite has a bottom angle of 50° and a top angle of 120°.

8E Find the size of the other two angles of the kite.
50°
11 Find the angle sum of:

8F
a a pentagon b an octagon c a decagon.
12 Calculate the value of the pronumeral in each diagram below.

8F
a b m c
120° 75º
x m
210º
130°
4m
210º 3m
2m
75º
2m
13 Calculate the size of each angle (labelled p) in this

8G regular pentagon.
p
p p
p p
14 multiple choice
8G
a In the following diagrams, angles a and b are:
A vertically opposite
B corresponding
C co-interior a
D alternate
E supplementary b
b A vertically opposite
B corresponding
C co-interior
D alternate a
b
E supplementary
c A vertically opposite
B corresponding a
C co-interior
D alternate b
E supplementary
d A vertically opposite
a
B corresponding
C co-interior
D alternate b
E supplementary
15 For each diagram, calculate the value of the pronumeral and state the type of angle relation
that you used. 8G
a b y
60° 135°
45°
x
c d a
130°
68º c b
t
e d 130º
16 Use a pair of compasses, protractor and ruler to construct these triangles:

a a triangle with the side lengths 4 cm, 5 cm and 6 cm 8H
b a triangle with two of the sides 4 cm and 5 cm long, and an angle between them of 75°.
17 Draw the front, right and top views of these objects.

a b 8I
18 Draw isometric views of the objects, whose front, right and top views are given below.
a b
8I
R
F R T
F T
19 A rectangular prism, constructed from the set of cubes, is 3 cubes long, 2 cubes wide and
8I 4 cubes high. Draw an isometric view of the prism.
20 Construct a decagonal star based on the

8J figures at right and using these steps.
b Mark the vertices of a decagon
(36° apart) on the circle. Also
mark the centre of the circle.
c Draw the lines shown in the guide at
right.
d Using a pen, highlight the lines to be Guidelines
kept.
e Erase the remaining pencil lines and colour in your design.
21 Draw a net of the milk carton shown below.

8K
22 This chocolate box has a 100 cm2 square base.

8K The height is 2.5 cm. Construct a possible net.
test
yourself
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eTHINKING 7

Are you ready? READY?

8.1 Classifying angles

8.2 Classifying triangles according to the lengths of their sides

8.4 Complementary angles

8.5 Supplementary angles

8.12 Constructing angles with a protractor

Naming triangles according to the lengths of their sides Cabri Geom

Isosceles triangle Exactly two sides are equal in length.

Scalene triangle No sides are equal in length.

Right-angled Contains a right angle (90°).

Obtuse-angled Contains an obtuse angle (greater than

a A scalene triangle has 3 sides of a

b A right-angled triangle contains a right b

8.1 3 Copy and complete this table.

this power transmission tower. Name

6 The Israeli flag at right is made up of a blue Star of

7 The set of swings at right is constructed

8 Using 12 matches, construct each of the

Elements was first

1 The sum of angles in any triangle is b + 40° + 63° = 180°

1 The markings on the diagram indicate ∠BCA = 65°

1 Form an equation by making the sum of w + w + 50° = 180°

1 The angles in a triangle add up to 180°, x + 2x + 60° = 180°

b A 49° B 98° C 82°

c A 90° B 30° C 60°

From the above example an important observation can be made:

1 The exterior angle equals the sum of e = 30° + 80°

1 The exterior angle of a triangle equals w + 70° = 132°

8C Exterior angles of a triangle

ii the exterior angle, e.

Given interior Sum of given Opposite exterior

WORKED 5 Find the value of the pronumeral(s) in each triangle shown.

b The value of the pronumeral, w, in this triangle is:

c The value of the pronumeral, k, in this triangle is:

d The value of the pronumeral, m, in this triangle is:

7 Find the size of the exterior angle of an equilateral triangle.

9 In this Native American teepee, the poles meet at an

THINKING Exterior angles

Parallelograms Opposite sides are parallel

Square All sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo

Rectangle Opposite sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo

Rhombus All sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo

Parallelogram Opposite sides are equal in length. Cabri Geo

Other quadrilaterals Opposite sides not all parallel

Trapezium One pair of parallel sides. Cabri Geo

Kite Two pairs of adjacent (next to Cabri Geo

each other) sides are equal in

Irregular Looks like none of the above

Types of Picture Name Definition

All sides are of equal length;

All sides equal; all angles are

WORKED 2 State whether each of the following is true or false.

4 Construct a trapezium that has:

5 Draw the solutions to each of the following problems in your workbook.

D rectangles and trapeziums

DESIGN Forming quadrilaterals

1 How many rectangles can be found

2 How would you cut this trapezium into four

3 Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram below.

4 Find the value of the pronumeral in the diagram below.

8 Joshua placed 2 playing cards on an angle to form the sides of

1 The sum of angles in the quadrilateral b + 110° + 90° + 90° = 360°