Glossary 713
Glossary
ª — symbol for ‘is approximately equal to’
2-dimensional — description of a planar shape. The
dimensions are given in two directions, such as
length and width, or length and height.
3-dimensional — a shape that occupies space (a
solid); that is, one which has dimensions in three
directions — length, width and height
Absolute relative error —
estimated value – actual value
------------------------------------------------------------------------
actual value
Absolute value (modulus) — a non-negative number
Acute-angled triangle — a triangle where each
angle is acute; that is, less than 90˚
Algebra — the branch of mathematics that deals with
solving mathematical problems involving an
unknown
Alternate angles — angles on opposite sides of the
transversal positioned between the parallel lines.
These angles are equal in size.
Analyse — to examine data to understand what they
mean, and perhaps to draw conclusions
Annulus — the shape formed between two circles
with a common centre (called concentric circles)
Area — the amount of flat surface enclosed by a
shape; measured in square units, such as square
metres, m2, and square kilometres, km2
Associative Law — a number law that refers to the
order in which three numbers may be added, sub-
tracted, multiplied or divided, taking two at a time
Assumptions — statements that we accept as being
correct
Backtracking — a process of working backwards
through a flow chart. Each step is the inverse oper-
ation of the corresponding step in the flow chart.
Bar graphs — graphs drawn with horizontal bars
instead of vertical columns (see column graph).
Categories are graphed on the vertical axis, and
the frequencies (numbers) are graphed on the hori-
zontal axis.
BEDMAS — the order in which calculations are per-
formed if exponents are present. The order is:
Brackets, Exponents (then Of), Division and Mul-
tiplication, followed by Addition and Subtraction.
Binary number — a number expressed in the binary
number system, which uses only the digits 1 and 0
BODMAS — the order in which calculations are
performed. The order is: Brackets, (then Of), Div-
ision, Multiplication from left to right, Addition
and Subtraction from left to right.
Boolean algebra — rules and procedures applied to
sets and logic; a form of algebra named after the
English mathematician George Boole
Braces {} — curly brackets that enclose the elements
of a set. They represent the words the set of.
Cardinal number — the number of elements in a
set. It is given the symbol n.
Cartesian plane — the area formed by a horizontal
line with a scale (x-axis) joined to a vertical line
with a scale (y-axis). The point of intersection of
the lines is called the origin.
Census — the collection of data in which every
member of a target population is surveyed
Circuit — in networks, a sequence of edges and ver-
tices that begins and ends at the same vertex
Circumference — the distance around the outside of
a circle. It is equal to 2πr or πD, where r = radius
and D = diameter of the circle.
Class interval — an equal-sized group of scores
Closed (shaded) circle — the symbol used to indi-
cate that a number is included on the number line
Co-interior (allied) angles — angles on the same
side of the transversal positioned between the
parallel lines. These angles are supplementary.
Column graphs — graphs in which equal-width
columns are used to represent the frequencies
(numbers) of different categories
Commission — a percentage or amount of sales that
the employee makes
Common factors — factors common to more than
one number or expression
Commutative Law — a number law that refers to
the order in which two numbers may be added,
subtracted, multiplied or divided
Complementary angles — angles that add up to 90˚
Complement set — the complement set of set A con-
tains all the elements that are not in set A itself. It
is written as A′ (and read as ‘A dash’).
Composite number — a number that has more than
two factors
714 Glossary
Composite shapes — figures made up of more than
one basic shape
Conclusion — in logic, a final statement made based
on the premises given
Congruent figures — refers to figures that have
exactly the same shape and size
Consecutive numbers — numbers that are written in
order without any missing. For example, the con-
secutive numbers between 2 and 10 are 3, 4, 5, 6,
7, 8 and 9.
Coordinates (x, y) — two numbers that give the pos-
ition of a point on the Cartesian plane. The first
number is the x-coordinate and the second number
is the y-coordinate.
Corresponding angles — angles on the same side of
the transversal that are both either above or below
the parallel lines. These angles are equal in size.
Cross-multiplication — the process of finding the
products of the numbers diagonally across from
each other in a proportion
Cross-section — an identical ‘slice’ produced when
cuts are made across a prism, parallel to its ends
Cute number — a number that has exactly four
factors including the number itself. For example,
10 is a cute number because it has the factors 1, 2,
5 and 10.
Data — various forms of information
Decagon — a 10-sided polygon. It has 10 angles.
Degree — in networks, the total number of edges to
which the vertex is connected
Denominator — the bottom term of a fraction. It
shows the total number of parts the whole has
been divided into.
Dependent variable — y-axis (or vertical) variable
Described set — a set in which the elements can be
described rather than listed; for example, {12-
year-old boys in the canteen at lunchtime}
Diameter — the straight-line distance across a circle
through its centre
Dilations — non-isometric transformations, also
known as stretching or compressing
Dilation factor — the number of times each side
length of an object has to be increased or
decreased during a dilation
Dimension — the actual size of a solid object or
plane shape measured in a particular direction;
that is, its length, width or height
Directed number — a number that has both size and
direction; for example, +3 and –7
Disjoint sets — sets that have no common elements.
This means that, if represented by a Venn diagram,
the circles would not overlap.
Distributive Law — a rule which states that each
term inside a pair of brackets is to be multiplied by
the term outside the brackets
Edge — in networks, the connection between objects
in a network
Elements — members of a set, denoted by the symbol ∈
Empty (or null) set — a set containing no elements
and denoted by the symbols {} or ∅
Equal sets — sets containing the same elements as
another set
Equations — mathematical statements containing a
left-hand side, a right-hand side and an equals sign
between them
Equilateral triangle — a triangle with all sides equal
in length. All angles will be equal too.
Equivalent — having the same value
Equivalent fractions — fractions that are equal in
value; for example, 1--2- = 3--6-
Equivalent sets — sets containing the same number
of elements, but not necessarily the same kind of
elements, as another set. Equivalency is denoted
by the symbol ↔.
Error — the difference between the measurement
and the actual value
Estimation — an approximate answer obtained to a
question based on information given
Euler — Leonhard Euler was a Swiss mathematician
who lived during the 18th century.
Euler circuit — an Euler path that begins and ends at
the same vertex
Euler path — the path that uses each edge exactly once
Euler’s formula — the rule that links the number of
faces, F, the number of vertices, V, and the number
of edges, E, of a polyhedron: F + V – E = 2
Evaluate — to obtain an answer
Even number — a number divisible by 2. Numbers
that end in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8 are even.
Event — a set of favourable outcomes in each trial of
a probability experiment
Expanding — in algebra, the process of removing
brackets from an expression
Experiment — the process of performing repeated
trials of an activity in probability for the purpose
of obtaining data in order to be able to predict the
chances of certain things happening

Exponent (power or index) — indicates the number
of times a base is to be multiplied when written in
index form
Exponential graph — the curve generated when a
number is raised to a power of x; for example,
y = 2x
Expressions — mathematical statements made up of
pronumerals (letters) and numbers. Expressions do
not contain an equals sign.
Exterior angles — angles formed when any side of a
closed shape is extended outwards
Faces — in networks, separate regions created by the
edges in a planar network
Factor — a whole number that divides exactly into
another whole number, without any remainder
Factor pairs — two factors of a number that multiply
together to give that number. For example, the
factors of 20 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, and 20; the factor
pairs are 1 and 20, 2 and 10, and 4 and 5.
Factorise — to break down a number or expression
into smaller factors
Favourable outcome — the desired result in a prob-
ability experiment
Finite — a definite number
Finite set — a set that contains a definite or count-
able number of elements
Flow chart — diagrams that illustrate the process by
which an input number becomes an output number
in an equation or formula
Frequency — the number of times a score occurs
Frequency polygon — the line graph created when
the midpoints of the tops of the columns of a his-
togram are joined by straight lines. The polygon is
closed by drawing lines at each end down to the
x-axis (score).
Geometry — the branch of mathematics that looks at
angles, shapes and solids, and investigates their
properties and relationships
Gradient (m) — a measure of how steep something
is; that is, its slope. The gradient of a straight line
vertical distance
is given by: m = --------------------------------------------- .
horizontal distance
Greater than (>) — the symbol used to represent
one number being greater than another number;
for example, 5 > 3
Greater than or equal to (≥) — the symbol used to
represent one number being greater than or equal
to another number; for example, 4 ≥ 3, 3 ≥ 3
Glossary 715
Hamiltonian circuit — a Hamiltonian path that
begins and ends at the same vertex
Hamiltonian path — a path that goes through each
vertex exactly once
Heptagon — a 7-sided polygon. It has 7 angles.
Hexagon — a 6-sided polygon. It has 6 angles.
Highest common factor — the largest factor that is
common to all the numbers or expressions given
Histogram — a type of column graph in which no
gaps are left between columns and each column
‘straddles’ an x-axis score, such that the column
starts and finishes halfway between scores. The
x-axis scale is continuous and usually a half-
interval is left before the first column and after
the last column.
Hyperbola — the curve created by a function in
which the independent variable is part of the
denominator of a fraction, for example, when
1
y = --- is graphed
x
Improper fraction — a fraction whose numerator is
5
larger than its denominator; for example, ---
4
Independent variable — x-axis (or horizontal) variable
Index (power or exponent) — indicates the number
of times a base is to be multiplied when written in
index form
Inequality sign — a symbol that enables us to com-
pare the sizes of numbers and expressions. The
four inequality symbols are <, >, ≥ and ≤.
Inequation — a mathematical statement containing a
left-hand side, a right-hand side and an inequality
sign between them
Infinite — not finite; never ending; unlimited
Infinite set — contains an unlimited number of
elements; that is, all of the elements can’t be listed
Integers — positive whole numbers, negative whole
numbers and zero
Interpret — to understand or give meaning to; for
example, ‘to interpret a graph’ means ‘to under-
stand what the graph is telling us’
Intersection — (of sets) the common elements of
two or more sets. A ∩ B denotes the intersection of
sets A and B.
Invalid — not valid; incorrect
Inverse operations — operations that ‘undo’ pre-
vious operations. Addition and subtraction are
inverse operations; multiplication and division are
inverse operations of each other.
716 Glossary
Irregular quadrilateral — a quadrilateral that does
not have any special properties
Isometric — a transformation that does not alter the
size or shape of the original object
Isometric drawing — a 2-dimensional drawing of a
3-dimensional object
Isosceles triangle — a triangle that has two sides of
equal length. The two angles opposite the equal
sides will also be equal.
Karnaugh maps — tables that summarise all poss-
ible combinations of two events, say A and B, and
their complements, A′ and B′. This is a useful way
of storing data from surveys.
Kite — a quadrilateral in which two pairs of adjacent
sides are equal in length and one pair of opposite
angles (those between the sides of unequal length)
are equal
Less than (<) — the symbol used to represent one
number being less than another number; for
example, 1 < 3
Less than or equal to (≤) — the symbol used to rep-
resent one number being less than or equal to
another number; for example, 2 ≤ 3, 2 ≤ 2
Like terms — terms that contain exactly the same
pronumerals (letters); for example, 3ab and 7ab
are like terms, but 5a and 6ab are not
Line graph — a graph containing points joined with
line segments
Linear equation — an equation in which the
dependent variable has an index (power) of 1
Linear graph — a straight-line graph
Listed set — a set in which all the different elements
of that set are written down, separated by commas.
The order is not important.
Logic — the study of methods and principles used to
distinguish valid arguments and reasoning from
invalid ones
Logic gates — consist of wires that carry an input
signal to the gate and a single wire that carries the
output wire from the gate. Logic gates enable
computers to undertake complex calculations.
Logic statement — a statement that consists of two
premises and a conclusion
Long run — in probability, the trend observed for
results from a very large number of trials. This
trend tends to match the results of theoretical
probability.
Loss — when the money coming in (income) is less
than money going out (costs), the loss is the differ-
ence between the two
Lowest common multiple — the lowest multiple
that two or more numbers have in common
Many-to-one function — a function for which two
or more x-values have the same y-value
Mathematical operations — the processes used in
calculations. The four basic operations are
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Maximum error — in measurement, this is half of
the degree of accuracy
Mean — in summary statistics, the sum of all the
scores divided by the number of scores. It is also
called the average.
Mean absolute difference — the average spread of
data from the mean of the data
Median — in summary statistics, the middle value if
the number of data is odd, or the average of the
two middle values if the number of data is even.
Data must first be arranged in numerical order.
Midpoint — the point halfway between two points
Minimal spanning tree — in networks, the tree that
has the shortest total overall length
Mixed number — a number made up of a whole
number and a fraction, for example, 2 3---
4
Mode — in summary statistics, the most common
value (score) or values in a set of data.
Multiple — the number obtained when a number is
multiplied by another whole number; for example,
4, 8, 12, 16 are multiples of 4
Negative numbers — numbers less than zero. The
negative sign (–) is placed in front of negative
numbers.
Nets — 2-dimensional plans of solids that can be cut
out and folded to form that solid
Network — a collection of objects connected to each
other in some specific way. The objects are called
vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called
edges.
Nude number — a positive, whole number whose
digits are factors of the number; for example, 36 is
a nude number because 3 and 6 are factors of 36.
The number 1 is excluded from this definition.
Number line — a straight line showing the relative
positions of zero, positive numbers and negative
numbers
Number plane (also Cartesian plane) — the area
formed by a horizontal line with a scale (x-axis)
joined to a vertical line with a scale (y-axis). The
point of intersection of the lines is called the
origin.

Numerator — the top term of a fraction. It shows
how many parts there are.
Obtuse-angled triangle — a triangle that has one
angle greater than 90˚
Octagon — an 8-sided polygon. It has 8 angles.
Odd number — a number not divisible by 2. Num-
bers that end in 1, 3, 5, 7 or 9 are odd.
One-to-one function — a function for which every
individual x-value has a unique y-value and vice
versa
Open (unshaded) circle — the symbol used to indi-
cate that a number is not included on the number
line
Ordered pair (x, y) — two numbers that give the
position of a point on the Cartesian plane. The first
number is the x-coordinate and the second number
is the y-coordinate.
Outcome — the particular result of a trial in a prob-
ability experiment
Overlapping sets — sets that contain common
elements. This means that, if represented by a
Venn diagram, the circles representing the sets
would overlap.
Parabola — the curve generated when a quadratic
function; for example, y = x2, is graphed
Parallelogram — a quadrilateral with both pairs of
opposite sides parallel to each other. Rectangles,
squares and rhombuses are parallelograms.
Path — in networks, the sequence of edges and ver-
tices that begins at one vertex and ends at another
Percentage — an amount out of 100 or per hundred;
50
for example, 50% means 50 out of 100 or --------
- . It is
100
used to represent part of a quantity.
Pentagon — a 5-sided polygon. It has 5 angles.
Perfect cubes — numbers that have three equal
factors; for example, 27 = 3 × 3 × 3, 64 = 4 × 4 × 4
Perimeter — the distance around the outside
(border) of a shape
Perpendicular lines — lines that are at right angles
to each other
Pictographs — picture graphs in which data are rep-
resented by simple eye-catching pictures
Planar graph — a network in which the edges do
not cross each other. It is also called a planar net-
work.
Planar network — a network in which the edges do
not cross each other. It is also called a planar
graph.
Glossary 717
Polygon — a 2-dimensional, closed shape with 3 or
more sides, each of which is a straight line
Polyhedron — a 3-dimensional shape in which each
flat surface (face) is a polygon. The plural is poly-
hedra.
Positive numbers — numbers greater than zero
Power set — a set that contains all possible subsets
of a given finite set, including both the null set and
the given set. It is denoted by the symbol P.
Premises — assumptions made at the beginning of a
logic argument. A starting point from which to
develop an argument.
Prime number — a number that has exactly two
factors: 1 and itself. 1 is excluded from this defi-
nition. 2 is the only even prime number.
Prisms — solid shapes with identical opposite ends
joined by straight edges. They are 3-dimensional
objects, which can be cut into identical ‘slices’,
called cross-sections.
Probability — the likelihood or chance of a
particular event (result) occurring.
number of favourable outcomes
Pr(event) = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
number of possible outcomes
The probability of an event occurring ranges from
0 (impossible — will not occur) to 1 (certain —
will definitely occur).
Profit — when money going out (costs) is less than
money coming in (income), the profit is the differ-
ence between the two
Pronumeral — a letter used in place of a number
Proper fraction — a fraction whose numerator is
smaller than its denominator, for example, 3--4-
Proportion — equality of two or more ratios
Quadrilateral — a 2-dimensional, closed shape
formed by four straight sides
Quantity — an amount, number of
Quotient — the result of a division
Radius — a straight line from a circle’s centre to any
point on its circumference
Random — following no particular order or pattern.
To ensure that they are free from bias, surveys
should be as random as possible.
Range — in summary statistics, the difference
between the highest and lowest values (scores)
Rates — measurements used to describe how quickly
one quantity changes in relation to another
distance
quantity; for example, speed = -------------------
time
718 Glossary
Ratios — comparison of two or more quantities of
the same kind
Reciprocal — the reciprocal of a number is obtained
by first expressing it as a fraction and then ‘tip-
ping’ the fraction upside down; for example, --3- is
4
the reciprocal of 4---
3 Solid — a 3-dimensional shape
Rectangle — a parallelogram in which the opposite
sides are equal in length and all angles are equal to
90˚
Reflections — the exact images of objects as seen in
the mirror, as far behind the mirror as the objects
are in front of it. Reflections have reversed orien-
tations: left appears right, right appears left.
Regions — in networks, the separate areas formed by
the edges of a planar network. These are also
called faces.
Regular polygon — a polygon in which all sides are
equal in length and all angles are equal in size
Relative frequency — chance of an event happening
expressed as a fraction or decimal.
frequency of an event
Relative frequency = ----------------------------------------------------
total number of trials
Rhombus — a parallelogram in which all sides are
equal and opposite angles are equal
Right-angled triangle — a triangle that has one of
its angles equal to 90˚ (a right angle)
Rotations — the turning of objects about a certain
point (the centre of rotation). This centre needs to
be identified, along with the size of the angle of
rotation and whether the object is to be turned
clockwise or anticlockwise.
Sales — events at a retail outlet in which items are
sold at reduced prices
Sample — part of a whole population
Sample space — in probability, the complete set of
outcomes or results obtained from an experiment.
It is shown as a list enclosed in a pair of braces,
{}.
Scalene triangle — a triangle that has no equal sides.
The angles will all be unequal too.
Set — a collection of things or numbers that belong
to a well-defined category
Set builder — a form of set notation in which a pro-
numeral represents any particular element; for
example, the set A = {x: x is a day of the week}
Set notation — symbols used when writing about
sets; for example, 4 ∈ {2, 4, 6, 8} means ‘4 is an
element of (belongs to) the set of even numbers
between 0 and 10’
Similar figures — have exactly the same shape but
are different in size
Simulation — in probability, an experiment that uses
simple devices such as coins, dice, a pack of cards,
and spinners to model or mimic a real-life situation
Speed — the rate that compares distance travelled to
time taken
distance
Speed = -------------------
time
Square — a parallelogram in which all sides are
equal and all angles are equal to 90˚
Square number — a number that has two equal
factors; for example, 9 = 3 × 3, 36 = 6 × 6
Square root, ( ) — one of two equal factors of a
particular number; for example, 49 = 7, 72 = 49.
Statistics — the branch of mathematics that deals
with the collection, organisation, display, analysis
and interpretation of data, which are usually pre-
sented in numerical form
Stem-and-leaf plot — a histogram-like display of
numerical data
Subset — a smaller set within another set. This
relationship is denoted by the symbol ⊂; that is,
A ⊂ B means ‘A is a subset of B’.
Substitution — the process by which a number
replaces a pronumeral in a formula
Superset — a set that contains smaller sets. This
relationship is denoted by the symbol ⊃; that is,
A ⊃ B means ‘A is a superset of B’.
Supplementary angles — angles that add to 180°
Syllogism — in logic, the combination of premises
and the conclusion in an argument
Tolerance — in measurement, this is the amount by
which a quantity may vary from its normal value
Total surface area (TSA) — the area of all outside
faces of a 3-dimensional object
Transformations — ordered sets of directions that
enable a shape to be moved. The transformed
shape is called the ‘image’ of the original object.
Examples of transformations are translations,
reflections and rotations.
Translations — horizontal (left/right) or vertical (up/
down) movements
Transversal — a line that intersects a pair (a set) of
parallel lines
Trapezium — quadrilateral in which one pair of
opposite sides is parallel

Tree diagram — in probability, a branching diagram
that lists all the possible outcomes of a probability
experiment
Tree diagram — in set notation and theory, a
branching diagram that lists all possible combi-
nations of two or more events and their comple-
ments
Tree — in networks, part of a network in which each
vertex is connected to at least one other vertex by
the smallest number of edges. Generally, a tree has
one less edge than the number of vertices.
Truth table — a table that displays logical operations
on statements
Two-way table — a table that displays the sample
space of 2-step experiments in a logical manner
Union — the combination of elements of two or more
sets. A ∪ B denotes the union of sets A and B.
Unit set — a set that contains only one element
Universal set — the universal set contains all the
elements specific to a particular problem. It is
denoted by the symbol ξ.
Valid — correct
Glossary 719
Variables — pronumerals in an equation or
expression that may take many different values
Venn diagrams — a series of circles, representing
sets, within a rectangle, which represents the uni-
versal set. Venn diagrams show the relationships
between the sets.
Vertex (plural vertices) — in networks, an object in
a network. Vertices are also called nodes.
Vertically opposite angles — special angles formed
when two straight lines intersect. The two non-
adjacent angles are called vertically opposite
angles. These angles are equal in size.
Vinculum — a horizontal bar separating the numer-
ator from the denominator
Volume — the amount of space a 3-dimensional
object occupies. The units used are cubic units,
such as cubic centimetres (cm3) and cubic metres
(m3).
x-intercept — the point where the graph crosses the
x-axis
y-intercept — the point where the graph crosses the
y-axis.