Ground Penetrating

Radar - 2nd Edition

Edited by
David J. Daniels

The Institution of Electrical Engineers

 Contents

Preface to the second edition xv

Acknowledgments xix

Contributors xxi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 History 2
1.3 Applications 3
1.4 Development 7
1.5 Further information sources 9
1.5.1 Individual Websites 9
1.5.2 GPR Conferences 9
1.5.3 International Workshops on advanced GPR 10
1.5.4 Institution of Electrical Engineers (UK) 10
1.5.5 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(USA) 10
1.5.6 SPIE Conferences 10
1.5.7 Geophysics 11
1.5.8 Sub-surface sensing technologies and applications 11
1.6 References 11

2 System desig n 13
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Range 14
2.2.1 Introduction 14
2.2.2 Antenna loss 17
2.2.3 Antenna mismatch loss 17
2.2.4 Transmission coupling loss 17
2.2.5 Retransmission coupling loss 18
VI Contents

2.2.6 Spreading loss 18

2.2.7 Target scattering loss 19
2.2.8 Material attenuation loss 20
2.2.9 Total losses 21
2.3 Velocity of propagation 24
2.4 Clutter 27
2.5 Depth resolution 28
2.6 Plan resolution 32
2.7 System considerations 35
2.8 References 36

Modelling techniques 37
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Received signal levels and probability of detection 38
3.3 Basic transmission line time domain model 41
3.4 Model of antenna radiation and buried target interaction 44
3.4.1 Modeidescription 44
3.4.2 Discretisation of the structures 44
3.4.3 Time domain field plots 45
3.5 Application of numerical modelling for the interpretation of
near-surface ground penetrating radar 47
Dr Nigel Cassidy
3.5.1 Practical modelling schemes 48
3.5.2 Modelling applications 49
3.5.3 Material property descriptions 50
3.5.4 Antenna design 50
3.5.5 Outer absorbing boundary conditions (ABC) 50
3.5.6 Example applications 51
3.5.7 Modelling the response from defects in roadway
construction 56
3.5.8 Summary 57
3.6 Modelling GPR surface roughness clutter effects for mine
detection 58
Prof. Carey Rappaport
3.6.1 Introduction 58
3.6.2 Target shape scattering characteristics 60
3.6.3 Rough surface modelling results 62
3.6.4 Summary 66
3.6.5 Acknowledgments 67
3.7 Summary 67
3.8 References 67

Properties of materials 73
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 Propagation of electromagnetic waves in dielectric materials 75
 Contents vii

4.3 Properties oflossy dielectric materials 84

4.4 Water, ice and permafrost 91
4.5 Dielectric properties of soils and rocks 94
4.6 Suitability of soils for GPR investigations 97
Dr James A. Doolittle and Dr Mary E. Collins
4.6.1 Introduction 97
4.6.2 GPR: a quality control tool for soil mapping and
investigation 98
4.6.3 Suitability of soil properties for GPR investigations 98
4.6.4 Soil suitability maps for GPR investigations 99
4.6.5 Determining the depth to soil horizons 101
4.6.6 Determining the depth to bedrock 102
4.6.7 Determining the depth to soil water tables 104
4.6.8 Measuring soil moisture contents and
the movement of water through
sandy soils 105
4.6.9 Determining the thickness ofpeat deposits 105
4.6.10 Improving soil-landscape modeis 107
4.7 Dielectric properties of man-made materials 108
4.8 Laboratory measurements of dielectric materials 110
Dr Yi Huang
4.8.1 Introduction 110
4.8.2 Measurement techniques 111
4.9 Field measurements of soil prope ; 117
4.10 Summary 119
4.11 References 120
4.12 Bibliography 128

Antennas 131
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Element antennas 140
5.3 Travelling wave antennas 147
5.4 Impulse radiating antennas 152
5.5 Frequency independent antennas 155
5.6 Hörn antennas 159
5.7 Array antennas 164
5.8 Polarisation 169
5.9 Dielectric antennas 172
Dr Chi-Chih Chen
5.9.1 Introduction 173
5.9.2 Summary 176
5.10 Summary 177
5.11 References 178
5.12 Bibliography 182
Vlll Contents

Modulation techniques 185

6.1 Introduction 185
6.2 Resolution of ultra-wideband Signals 187
6.2.1 Introduction 187
6.2.2 Consideration of waveform characteristics 190
6.2.3 Definition of the waveforms 191
6.2.4 Time domain wavelet signals 192
6.2.5 Noise signals 194
6.2.6 Comparison of signals 194
6.2.7 Comparison of spectra 194
6.2.8 Comparison of signal envelopes 194
6.2.9 Comparison ofenvelope sidelobe Performance 197
6.2.10 Summary 197
6.3 Amplitude modulation 199
6.4 Frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) 211
6.5 Synthesised or stepped frequency radar 220
6.6 Noise modulated radar 224
6.6.1 Introduction 224
6.6.2 M-sequence radar 225
Dr Juergen Sachs
6.7 Single frequency methods 237
6.8 Polarisation modulation 239
6.9 Summary 242
6.10 References 243
6.11 Bibliography 246

Signal processing 247

7.1 Introduction 247
7.2 A-scan processing 251
7.2.1 Zero offset removal 252
7.2.2 Noise reduction 253
7.2.3 Clutter reduction 254
7.2.4 Time varying gain 255
7.2.5 Frequency filtering 255
7.2.6 Wavelet optimisation or deconvolution techniques 256
7.2.7 Target resonances 264
7.2.8 Spectral-analysis methods 266
7.2.9 Examples of processing techniques 272
7.3 B-scan processing 276
7.4 C-scan processing 277
7.5 Migration 278
7.5.1 Migration technique based on deconvolution 283
Dr Bart Scheers, Marc Acheroy and Andre Vander Vorst
7.5.2 Synthetic aperture processing 293
7.6 Image processing 295
 Contents ix

7.7 Deconvolution techniques 298

Dr Timofei Savelyev, Luc Van Kempen and Prof. Hichem Sahli
7.7.1 Linear and circular deconvolution 298
7.7.2 Deconvolution in UWB GPR processing as
an ill-posed inverse problem 300
7.7.3 Regularisation methods and deconvolution
algorithms 301
7.8 Multi-fold, multi-component and multi-azimuth
GPR for sub-surface imaging and material
characterisation 310
Prof. Michele Pipan, Emanuele Forte, Giancarlo Dal Moro,
Monica Sugan and Icilio Finetti
7.8.1 Introduction 310
7.8.2 Data acquisition 311
7.8.3 Data processing 311
7.8.4 Results 313
7.8.5 Discussion 320
7.9 Microwave tomography 323
Prof. Rocco Pierri, Angelo Liseno and Raffaele Solimene
7.9.1 Introduction 323
7.9.2 Formulation of the tomographic approach 323
7.9.3 Key point of imaging: spatial filtering 326
7.9.4 Key point of imaging: resolution limits 330
7.10 Minimising clutter 333
7.10.1 Reduction of unwanted diffractions and reflections
from above-surface objects 333
Dr Jan van der Kruk
7.10.2 Clutter in radar data caused by reflections from
external anomalies 335
Dr Vega Perez Gracia
7.11 Summary 342
7.12 References 343
7.13 Bibliography 349

Archaeology 353
8.1 Introduction 353
John Fidler
8.2 Fountains Abbey, UK 354
David J. Daniels
8.3 Saqqara, Egypt 357
Dr Jon Dittmer
8.4 The Cryptof the Cathedral of Valencia 362
Dr Vega Perez Gracia, Dr Lluis G. Pujades and Dr Jose A. Canas
8.5 Historie masonry struetures 366
Dr Christiane Maierhofer
8.5.1 ChurchofS. Maria Rossa, Milan, Italy 367
x Contents

8.5.2 Altes Museum, Berlin, Germany 370

8.5.3 Location of metallic anchors and clamps fixing the
facade of a Gothic cathedral 374
8.6 Summary 376
8.7 References 376
8.8 Bibliography 379
Civil engineering 381
9.1 Introduction 381
9.2 Roads and pavements 381
9.2.1 Roads in the UK 383
D. L. Wilkinson
9.2.2 Step-frequency radar technique applied on very-thin
layer pavements 386
Dr Xavier Derobert
9.2.3 High resolution GPR testing of conduits and
pavements 394
Dr Bob Whiteley
9.3 Concrete 402
Dr John Bungey
9.4 Concrete structures 404
Dr Christiane Maierhofer
9.4.1 Location of reinforcement and tendon ducts 406
9.4.2 Location of dowels and anchors in concrete
highways 408
9.5 Buildings 410
Dr R. de Vekey
9.5.1 Introduction 410
9.5.2 Masonry 411
9.5.3 Concrete System walls and floors 411
9.5.4 Joints in concrete System buildings 411
9.6 Tunnels 412
David J. Daniels
9.7 Summary 417
9.8 References 417
9.9 Bibliography 422
10 Forensic applications 423
10.1 Introduction 423
10.2 Principles of GPR forensic search 425
Dr Jon Dittmer
10.2.1 Method 425
10.2.2 Graves 426
10.2.3 Remains 426
10.2.4 Excavation 427
10.2.5 Test grave sites 427
 Contents XI

10.3 Case histories 429

10.3.1 Frederick West 429
ERA Technology
10.3.2 MarcDutroux 431
ERA Technology
10.3.3 Victims of the 1918 Spanish flu epidemic 433
Les Davis
10.3.4 Investigation of potential mass grave locations for
the Tulsa Race Riot 434
10.4 Summary 436
10.5 References 436

Geophysical applications 437

11.1 Introduction 437
11.2 Applications relating to frozen materials 438
11.3 Snow and ice research with ground penetrating radar 439
Steven A. Arcone
11.3.1 Introduction 439
11.3.2 Transient short-pulse and FMCW radar 441
11.3.3 Firn layering and isochrones 444
11.3.4 Crevasse detection 449
11.3.5 Hydraulic pathways 449
11.3.6 Bed topography 450
11.3.7 Lake ice 452
11.3.8 Future directions 453
11.4 GPR sounding of polythermal glaciers 455
Prof. Svein-Erik Hamran
11.4.1 Introduction 455
11.4.2 Polythermal glacier 455
11.4.3 Radar System 457
11.4.4 Bottom topography 458
11.4.5 Internal structure 458
11.4.6 Snow cover 459
11.4.7 Summary 459
11.5 The Prestige oil spill 460
Dr Henrique Lorenzo
11.6 Peatland investigations 464
Dr Paul Hanninen
11.7 Soil contamination 465
Dr Jan K. van Deen
11.8 Geological structures 466
Dr van Overmeeren
11.9 Soilerosion 467
Dr Jan K. van Deen
11.10 Coalandsalt 469
xii Contents

11.11 Rocks 471

Dr Sylvie Tillard
11.12 Borehole radar 475
Dr Declan Vogt
11.12.1 Borehole radar for long-distance GPR imaging
in-mine 475
11.12.2 Borehole radar design 476
11.12.3 Example borehole radar data 478
11.13 Polarimetrie borehole radar for eharacterisation of
sub-surface fractures 483
Prof. Motoyuki Sato
11.13.1 Sub-surface fracture eharacterisation 483
11.13.2 Radar polarimetry 485
11.13.3 Field experiment 486
11.14 VHF band slimline borehole radar experiences in the
South African mining industry 489
Ian M. Mason and J. H. Cloete
11.14.1 Introduction 489
11.14.2 BHR speeifications 490
11.14.3 Digital data acquisition 490
11.14.4 Typical problem 491
11.14.5 Signal and image processing 492
11.14.6 Electromagnetic modelling 493
11.14.7 Summary 493
11.15 Summary 493
11.16 References 494
11.17 Bibliog;raphy 499

12 Mine detection 501

12.1 Introduction 501
12.2 Humanitarian and military national programmes 506
12.2.1 Australia 507
Dr Alan Rye
12.2.2 Belgium 508
Prof. Marc Acheroy
12.2.3 Canada 509
12.2.4 European Commission programmes 510
12.2.5 France 511
12.2.6 Germany 512
12.2.7 Netherlands 512
Prof. Alex Yarovoy
12.2.8 Russia 513
12.2.9 Sweden 513
12.2.10 United Kingdom 514
12.2.11 US Army military programme 514
12.3 Performance and test assessment 515
12.4 Mine detection with GPR 520
 Contents xiii

12.5 Hand-held mine detection 525

12.6 Vehicle mounted 526
12.7 Airborne 534
12.7.1 Introduction 534
12.7.2 The Mineseeker airship project 534
Mineseeker Foundation
12.8 Casestudies 540
12.8.1 Introduction 540
12.8.2 Detection of buriedlandmines with GPR 540
Dr Martin Fritzsche
12.8.3 MINETECT 557
David J.Daniels
12.8.4 TU Delft research activities in the area of advanced GPR
technology 569
Prof. Alex Yarovoy, Prof. Piet van Genderen,
Prof. Peter van der Berg and Prof. Leo Ligthart
12.8.5 LOTUS project 578
Dr Richard Chignell
12.8.6 Data processing for clutter characterisation and
removal 581
Prof. Hichem Sahli, Luc van Kempen and John W. Brooks
12.9 Summary 609
12.10 References 610
12.11 Bibliography 621
Utilities 625
13.1 Introduction 625
13.2 Technology 627
13.2.1 Pipes and cables 627
Howard F. Scott
13.2.2 PipeHawk 631
Dr Richard Chignell
13.3 Array based Utility mapping 634
Witten Technologies
13.4 Case histories 636
13.4.1 Drainage of a football pitch 636
Dr Jon Dittmer
13.4.2 Services on a proposed building site 637
Dr Jon Dittmer
13.4.3 GPR surveying in central London 640
Dr Jon Dittmer
13.5 Surveying a car park 640
Dr Jon Dittmer
13.6 Internal inspection of pipes 644
David J. Daniels
13.7 Summary 646
13.8 References 646
xiv Contents

14 Remote sensing 649

14.1 Introduction 649
14.2 Airborne SAR Systems for earth sensing 650
14.3 Satellite based Systems for earth sensing 651
Dr Gerald Schaber
14.4 Planetary exploration 657
14.4.1 Mars 96 mission 657
Prof. Tor Hagfors
14.4.2 Mars 96 project 659
Florence Nicollin
14.5 Radar for measuring interplanetary bodies 663
Prof. Giovanni Picardi
14.5.1 Introduction 663
14.5.2 Scientific objectives 665
14.5.3 Reference modeis 665
14.5.4 Surface and sub-surface scattering modeis 669
14.5.5 Sub-surface interface detection Performance 683
14.5.6 Summary 686
14.6 Summary 686
14.7 References 687
14.8 Bibliography 690

15 Equipment 693
15.1 Introduction 693
15.1.1 Survey methods 696
15.1.2 Site characteristics 698
15.1.3 Surface characteristics 699
15.1.4 Material characteristics 699
15.1.5 Target characteristics 699
15.2 List of companies offering GPR technology 701

16 Regulation, radiological aspects and EMC 703

16.1 Regulation 703
16.1.1 Europe 703
16.1.2 United States 705
16.1.3 Summary 707
16.2 Radiological aspects 707
16.3 EMC 708
16.4 Summary 712
16.5 References 713

17 Bibliography 715
Glossary of terms 717
List of Symbols 721
Index 723