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Fuel cell
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Design
Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are made up of three segments
which are sandwiched together: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of
the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created,
and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.
At the anode a catalyst oxidizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively
charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot.
The freed electrons travel through a wire creating the electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode.
Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to
create water or carbon dioxide.
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits, where series yields
higher voltage, and parallel allows a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface
area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell.
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons
often react with oxidants causing them to become what is commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The
protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit
(supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the
electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water — in this example, the only waste
product, either liquid or vapor.
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see: direct-
methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are
carbon dioxide and water.
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SOFC
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is extremely advantageous “because of a possibility of using a wide variety of fuel”.[12] Unlike
most other fuel cells which only use hydrogen, SOFCs can run on hydrogen, butane, methanol, and other petroleum products.
The different fuels each have their own chemistry.
For SOFC methanol fuel cells, on the anode side, a catalyst breaks methanol and water down to form carbon dioxide,
hydrogen ions, and free electrons. The hydrogen ions meet oxide ions that have been created on the cathode side and passed
across the electrolyte to the anode side, where they react to create water. A load connected externally between the anode and
cathode completes the electrical circuit. Below are the chemical equations for the reaction:
At the anode SOFCs can use nickel or other catalysts to break apart the methanol and create hydrogen ions and Template:CO.
A solid called yttria stabilized zirconia (YSZ) is used as the electrolyte. Like all fuel cell electrolytes YSZ is conductive to
certain ions, in this case the oxide ion (O=) allowing passage from the cathode to anode, but is non-conductive to electrons.
YSZ is a durable solid and is advantageous in large industrial systems. Although YSZ is a good ion conductor, it only works
at very high temperatures. The standard operating temperature is about 950oC.[13] Running the fuel cell at such a high
temperature easily breaks down the methane and oxygen into ions. A major disadvantage of the SOFC, as a result of the high
heat, is that it “places considerable constraints on the materials which can be used for interconnections”.[13] Another
disadvantage of running the cell at such a high temperature is that other unwanted reactions may occur inside the fuel cell. It
is common for carbon dust, graphite, to build up on the anode, preventing the fuel from reaching the catalyst. Much research
is currently being done to find alternatives to YSZ that will carry ions at a lower temperature.
MCFC
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) operate in a similar manner, except the electrolyte consists of liquid (molten) carbonate,
which is a negative ion and an oxidizing agent. Because the electrolyte loses carbonate in the oxidation reaction, the
carbonate must be replenished through some means. This is often performed by recirculating the carbon dioxide from the
oxidation products into the cathode where it reacts with the incoming air and reforms carbonate.
Unlike proton exchange fuel cells, the catalysts in SOFCs and MCFCs are not poisoned by carbon monoxide, due to much
higher operating temperatures. Because the oxidation reaction occurs in the anode, direct utilization of the carbon monoxide
is possible. Also, steam produced by the oxidation reaction can shift carbon monoxide and steam reform hydrocarbon fuels
inside the anode. These reactions can use the same catalysts used for the electrochemical reaction, eliminating the need for an
external fuel reformer.
MCFC can be used for reducing the CO2 emission from coal fired power plants[14] as well as gas turbine power plants.[15]
History
Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies
The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in 1838 and published in one
of the scientific magazines of the time.[16] Based on this work, the first fuel cell was demonstrated by Welsh scientist and
barrister Sir William Robert Grove in the February 1839 edition of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science[17]
and later sketched, in 1842, in the same journal.[18] The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric-acid
fuel cell.
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Tubular solid
oxide fuel cell O2--conducting < 100 MW 850-1100 60–65% 55–60%
Commercial /
ceramic oxide Research
(TSOFC)
Protonic H+-conducting 700 Research
ceramic fuel cell ceramic oxide
Direct carbon Commercial /
Several different 700-850 80% 70%
fuel cell Research
Planar Solid O2--conducting < 100 MW 850-1100 60–65% 55–60%
Commercial /
oxide fuel cell ceramic oxide Research
Any that will not
Enzymatic
denature the < 40 Research
Biofuel Cells
enzyme
Magnesium-Air Commercial /
salt water -20 - 55 90%
Fuel Cell Research
Efficiency
Fuel cell efficiency
The efficiency of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power drawn from it. Drawing more power means drawing more
current, which increases the losses in the fuel cell. As a general rule, the more power (current) drawn, the lower the
efficiency. Most losses manifest themselves as a voltage drop in the cell, so the efficiency of a cell is almost proportional to
its voltage. For this reason, it is common to show graphs of voltage versus current (so-called polarization curves) for fuel
cells. A typical cell running at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the energy content of the hydrogen
is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into heat. (Depending on the fuel cell system design,
some fuel might leave the system unreacted, constituting an additional loss.)
For a hydrogen cell operating at standard conditions with no reactant leaks, the efficiency is equal to the cell voltage divided
by 1.48 V, based on the enthalpy, or heating value, of the reaction. For the same cell, the second law efficiency is equal to
cell voltage divided by 1.23 V. (This voltage varies with fuel used, and quality and temperature of the cell.) The difference
between these numbers represents the difference between the reaction's enthalpy and Gibbs free energy. This difference
always appears as heat, along with any losses in electrical conversion efficiency.
Fuel cells do not operate on a thermal cycle. As such, they are not constrained, as combustion engines are, in the same way
by thermodynamic limits, such as Carnot cycle efficiency.[21] At times this is misrepresented by saying that fuel cells are
exempt from the laws of thermodynamics, because most people think of thermodynamics in terms of combustion processes
(enthalpy of formation). The laws of thermodynamics also hold for chemical processes (Gibbs free energy) like fuel cells, but
the maximum theoretical efficiency is higher (83% efficient at 298K [22] in the case of hydrogen/oxygen reaction) than the
Otto cycle thermal efficiency (60% for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4). Comparing limits imposed by
thermodynamics is not a good predictor of practically achievable efficiencies. Also, if propulsion is the goal, electrical output
of the fuel cell has to still be converted into mechanical power with another efficiency drop. In reference to the exemption
claim, the correct claim is that the "limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics on the operation of fuel cells
are much less severe than the limitations imposed on conventional energy conversion systems".[23] Consequently, they can
have very high efficiencies in converting chemical energy to electrical energy, especially when they are operated at low
power density, and using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants.
It should be underlined that fuel cell (especially high temperature) can be used as a heat source in conventional heat engine
(gas turbine system). In this case the ultra high efficiency is predicted (above 70%).[24][25]
In practice
For a fuel cell operating on air, losses due to the air supply system must also be taken into account. This refers to the
pressurization of the air and dehumidifying it. This reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to that of a
compression ignition engine. Furthermore, fuel cell efficiency decreases as load increases.
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The tank-to-wheel efficiency of a fuel cell vehicle is greater than 45% at low loads [26] and shows average values of about
36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure.[27] The comparable
NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with
fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency.[28]
It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running
on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas,
and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.[29] In addition to the production losses, over 70% of US' electricity used for
hydrogen production comes from thermal power, which only has an efficiency of 33% to 48%, resulting in a net increase in
carbon dioxide production by using hydrogen in vehicles[citation needed].
Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on
discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an
energy storage system. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round
-trip efficiency) is between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions.[30] While a much cheaper lead-acid battery might return
about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-
term storage.
Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as
hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP)
application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80-90% at the unit, but does not consider production and
distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.
One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative[32] has
built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a
500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence.
Cogeneration
Micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems such as home fuel cells and cogeneration for office buildings and
factories are in the mass production phase. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the
grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. MicroCHP is usually less
than 5 kWe for a home fuel cell or small business.[33] A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is tolerated (typically
15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas
just as in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In
terms of exergy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then
using the electricity to drive a heat pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP
products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%[34] (35-50% electric + remainder as thermal) Molten
-carbonate fuel cells have also been installed in these applications, and solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist.
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Land vehicles
There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell
technology being researched or manufactured by motor car manufacturers.
The 2001 Chrysler Natrium used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It
produces hydrogen for the fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydride fuel with
Borax, both of which Chrysler claimed were naturally occurring in great
quantity in the United States.[39] The hydrogen produces electric power in the
fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without impinging Toyota FCHV PEM FC fuel cell vehicle.
on passenger space. Chrysler also developed vehicles which separated
hydrogen from gasoline in the vehicle, the purpose being to reduce emissions
without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen infrastructure and to avoid large
storage tanks.[40]
In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working
hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The
motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 100 miles in
an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour.[41] In 2004 Honda developed
a fuel-cell motorcycle which utilized the Honda FC Stack.[42][43]
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Netherlands. More races are planned for 2009 and 2010. After this first race,
Greenchoice Forze from the university of Delft (The Netherlands) became
leader in the competition. Other competing teams are Element One (Detroit),
HerUCLAs (LA), EUPLAtecH2 (Spain), Imperial Racing Green (London) and
Zero Emission Racing Team (Leuven).
A few companies are conducting hydrogen fuel cell research and practical fuel
cell bus trials. Daimler AG, with thirty-six experimental units powered by
Ballard Power Systems fuel cells completing a successful three-year trial, in
eleven cities, in January 2007. [46][47] There are also fuel cell powered buses
currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor buses with UTC
Power fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency.[48] The
Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses.
The first Brazilian hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype will begin operation in São
Paulo during the first semester of 2009. The hydrogen bus was manufactured
in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be produced in São Bernardo do
Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus
Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three
additional buses.[49][50] Mercedes-Benz (Daimler AG) Citaro fuel
cell bus on Aldwych, London.
Airplanes
The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net
output.
Submarines
The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to
remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.
Fueling stations
The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland Toyota's FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005.
in April 2003. This station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are
in service in the public transport net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing
unit (produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. Royal Dutch Shell is also
a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.
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The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative by the California Governor to implement a series of hydrogen refueling
stations along that state. These stations are used to refuel hydrogen vehicles such as fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen
combustion vehicles. As of July 2007 California had 179 fuel cell vehicles and twenty five stations were in operation,[53] and
ten more stations have been planned for assembly in California. However, there have already been three hydrogen fueling
stations decommissioned.[54]
South Carolina also has a hydrogen freeway in the works. There are currently two hydrogen fueling stations, both in Aiken
and Columbia, SC. Additional stations are expected in places around South Carolina such as Charleston, Myrtle Beach,
Greenville, and Florence. According to the South Carolina Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Alliance, the Columbia station has a
current capacity of 120 kg a day, with future plans to develop on-site hydrogen production from electrolysis and reformation.
The Aiken station has a current capacity of 80 kg. There is extensive funding for Hydrogen fuel cell research and
infrastructure in South Carolina. The University of South Carolina, a founding member of the South Carolina Hydrogen &
Fuel Cell Alliance, received 12.5 million dollars from the United States Department of Energy for its Future Fuels Program.
[55]
Japan also has a hydrogen highway, as part of the Japan hydrogen fuel cell project. Twelve hydrogen fueling stations have
been built in 11 cities in Japan. Canada, Sweden and Norway also have hydrogen highways implemented.
Other applications
Market structure
Not all geographic markets are ready for SOFC powered m-CHP appliances. Currently, the regions that lead the race in
Distributed Generation and deployment of fuel cell m-CHP units are the EU and Japan.[61]
Low temperature fuel cell stacks proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) and
phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) use a platinum catalyst. Impurities create catalyst poisoning (reducing activity and
efficiency) in these low-temperature fuel cells, thus high hydrogen purity or higher catalyst densities are required.[62]
Although there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand,[63] most predictions of platinum running out and/or
platinum prices soaring do not take into account effects of reduction in catalyst loading and recycling. Recent research at
Brookhaven National Laboratory could lead to the replacement of platinum by a gold-palladium coating which may be less
susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime considerably.[64] Another method would use iron and sulphur
instead of platinum. This is possible through an intermediate conversion by bacteria. This would lower the cost of a fuel cell
substantially (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around $1500, and the same amount of iron costs only around $1.50).
The concept is being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of Milan-Bicocca.[65]
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Current targets for a transport PEM fuel cells are 0.2 g/kW Pt – which is a factor of 5 decrease over current loadings – and
recent comments from major original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) indicate that this is possible. Recycling of fuel cells
components, including platinum, will conserve supplies. High-temperature fuel cells, including molten carbonate fuel cells
(MCFC's) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC's), do not use platinum as catalysts, but instead use cheaper materials such as
nickel and nickel oxide. They also do not experience catalyst poisoning by carbon monoxide, and so they do not require high-
purity hydrogen to operate. They can use fuels with an existing and extensive infrastructure, such as natural gas, directly,
without having to first reform it externally to hydrogen and CO followed by CO removal.
See also
■ Bio-nano generator
■ Comparison of automobile fuel technologies
■ Cryptophane
■ Energy development
■ Fuel Cell Development Information Center
■ Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative (in Europe)
■ Glossary of fuel cell terms
■ Grid energy storage
■ Hydrogen codes and standards
■ Hydrogen reformer
■ Hydrogen sulfide sensor
■ Hydrogen storage
■ Hydrogen technologies
■ Microgeneration
■ Paper battery
■ Renewable energy
■ Water splitting
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell 11/12/2010
Fuel cell - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Page 16 of 16
Further reading
■ Vielstich, W., et al. (eds.) (2009). Handbook of fuel cells: advances in electrocatalysis, materials, diagnostics and
durability. 6 vol. Hoboken: Wiley, 2009.
■ Gregor Hoogers (2003). Fuel Cell Technology – Hand Book. CRC Press.
■ James Larminie and Andrew Dicks (2003). Fuel Cell Systems Explained, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons.
■ High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells-Fundamentals, Design and Applications. Elsevier. 2003.
■ Frano Barbir. PEM Fuel Cells-Theory and Practice. Elsevier Academic Press.
■ EG&G Technical Services, Inc. (2004). Fuel Cell Technology-Hand book, 7th Edition. U.S. Department of Energy.
External links
■ Fuel Cell Origins: 1840-1890 (http://americanhistory.si.edu/fuelcells/origins/origins.htm)
■ TC 105 (http://www.iec.ch/dyn/www/f?p=102:17:0::::FSP_LANG_ID,FSP_SEARCH_TC:25,105) IEC Technical
standard for Fuel Cells
■ EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program
(http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/)
■ Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells (http://hyperphysics.phy-
astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/thermo/electrol.html#c2)
■ 2002-PORTABLE POWER APPLICATIONS OF FUEL CELLS (http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file15304.pdf)
■ US Fuel Cell Council (http://www.usfcc.com/)
■ DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package- "Fuel Cells" (http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/fuel-cells/index.php)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell"
Categories: Fuel cells | Electrochemistry | Energy conversion | Hydrogen economy | Hydrogen technologies
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell 11/12/2010