Master’s thesis in Comparative Religion

Faculty of Theology
Sami Kivelä
January 2005
HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO - HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET - UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI
Tiedekunta/Osasto - Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos - Institution - Department

Faculty of Theology Comparative Religion

Tekijä - Författare - Author
Sami Kivelä
Työn nimi - Arbetets titel - Title

Oppiaine - Läroämne - Subject

Comparative Religion
Työn laji - Arbetets art - Level Aika - Datum - Month and year Sivumäärä – Sidoanta- Number of pages
Master's thesis January 2005 122
Tiivistelmä - Referat - Abstract

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This case study helps to understand a central Newar Buddhist monument. The results have an
indirect link with the wider study of Mah y na Buddhism, because there is evidence of the type of Buddhism
in the Kathmandu Valley having strong connections to Indian Buddhism before its disappearance there. The
study shows a sacred site such as Svayambh to conceal numerous shades of meaning, which can be easily
misinterpreted if taken too superficially. Deeper meanings become revealed only when one engages in an
active and empathetic dialogue with the local informants.

Avainsanat - Nyckelord - Keywords

Buddhism, field research, Nepal
Säilytyspaikka - Förvaringsställe - Where deposited
Library of the Faculty of Theology
Muita tietoja - Övriga uppgifter - Additional information
HELSINGIN YLIOPISTO - HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITET - UNIVERSITY OF HELSINKI
Tiedekunta/Osasto - Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos - Institution - Department
teologinen uskontotieteen laitos
Tekijä - Författare - Author
Sami Kivelä
Työn nimi - Arbetets titel - Title

Oppiaine - Läroämne - Subject

uskontotiede
Työn laji - Arbetets art - Level Aika - Datum - Month and year Sivumäärä – Sidoanta- Number of pages
pro gradu -tutkielma tammikuu 2005 122
Tiivistelmä - Referat - Abstract

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Avainsanat - Nyckelord - Keywords

buddhalaisuus, kenttätutkimus, Nepal
Säilytyspaikka - Förvaringsställe - Where deposited
teologisen tiedekunnan kirjasto
Muita tietoja - Övriga uppgifter - Additional information
CONTENTS

CONTENTS.....................................................................................................................1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................3
SPELLING AND TRANSLITERATION.....................................................................4
LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES ............................................................5
A. INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................6
1. THE SETTING ..............................................................................................................6
2. KEY TERMINOLOGY....................................................................................................7
3. PREVIOUS STUDIES .....................................................................................................9
4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY MATERIAL .....................................................................11
5. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY ...........................................................................................13
B. UNDERSTANDING RELIGIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENA ...........................14
6. PHILOSOPHICAL HERMENEUTICS AS AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL STARTING POINT ...........14
7. THE USE OF CONCEPTUAL CATEGORIES IN CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH ..................17
8. THE INTERPRETIVE APPROACH OF GEERTZ ...............................................................20
C. RELIGION AND CULTURE IN THE KATHMANDU VALLEY ....................25
9. AN INTRODUCTION TO NEWAR CULTURE AND RELIGION ..........................................25
10. TYPES AND FORMS OF NEWAR RELIGION ................................................................29
D. FIELD RESEARCH ................................................................................................36
11. DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELDWORK ..........................................................................36
12. METHODS OF COLLECTING MATERIAL ....................................................................39
13. EVALUATION OF THE MATERIAL AND METHODS .....................................................42
E. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF SVAYAMBH ..44
14. ON ANALYSING THE MATERIAL ..............................................................................44
15. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA ....................................................................................47
16. THE SVAYAMBH CAITYA – ITS PHYSICAL PARTS AND SYMBOLISM ........................53
17. DEITIES OF THE SVAYAMBH CAITYA AND SEEING THE CAITYA AS A MANDALA ......57
18. OBSERVATIONS ON THE LAY RITUAL LIFE...............................................................62
19. THOUGHTS OF DEVOTEES .......................................................................................68
21. THE WORLDVIEW AND ETHOS OF THE BUDDH C RYAS INTERPRETED ...................78
22. AN EXCURSUS: VIPASSAN MEDITATION ...............................................................82
23. THE CREATION MYTH AND ITS FUNCTIONS .............................................................86
24. OBSERVATIONS ON TIBETAN BUDDHISM IN SVAYAMBH ......................................93
25. NATIONALISM AND RELOCATION ...........................................................................95
26. CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS AS RELIGIO-CULTURAL DILEMMAS ................................99
27. IS SVAYAMBH HINDU IN DISGUISE? ...................................................................105
F. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................109
28. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................109
29. EVALUATION OF THE STUDY ................................................................................111
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES ........................................................... 114
PRIMARY SOURCES ..................................................................................................... 114
I. UNPUBLISHED FIELD MATERIAL .............................................................................. 114
II. PUBLISHED MATERIAL ........................................................................................... 114
SECONDARY SOURCES ................................................................................................ 115
III. WEB DOCUMENTS ................................................................................................ 115
IV. LITERATURE ........................................................................................................ 115
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 120
APPENDIX I – GLOSSARY ........................................................................................... 120
APPENDIX II – INTERVIEW QUESTIONS AND THEMES.................................................. 122

2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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SPELLING AND TRANSLITERATION

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LIST OF FIGURES, TABLES AND PLATES

Figure 1. Map of Nepal and the location of the Kathmandu Valley ...................................25
Figure 2. Map of the Kathmandu Valley .............................................................................26
Figure 3. Outline of the Newar caste system ......................................................................27
Figure 4. Gellner’s functional typology of religions ..........................................................29
Figure 5. Map of Kathmandu showing Svayambh (‘Swaymbhunath’) on the left ............47
Figure 6. Map of the main Svayambh area........................................................................50
Figure 7. Parts of the Svayambh caitya. .............................................................................55
Figure 8. The Five Buddhas and their consorts around the caitya. ....................................58
Figure 9. A comic strip of a government official at Svayambh . © Rajesh K. / The
Kathmandu Post. ................................................................................................................101

Table 1. The Five Buddhas, their family members, characteristics and associations. ........59
Table 2. The seven Buddha families.....................................................................................80

Plate 1. Sunset in Svayambh . On a clear day, the distant Himalayas are visible. Photo
© Dilip B. Ali. ......................................................................................................................48
Plate 2. The Hanuman Dhoka (old royal palace) at Kathmandu Durbar Square with the
Svayambh hilltop seen between the roofs in the distance. .................................................48
Plate 3. A ticket to Svayambh with a view on the upper end of the eastern stairs. Photo
credits unknown. ..................................................................................................................49
Plate 4. The final approach along the eastern stairway towards the top of the hill............51
Plate 5. Prayer flags with the city of Kathmandu in the background. Taken on the
viewing terrace at Svayambh . ............................................................................................53
Plate 6. The Svayambh caitya and the author.....................................................................54
Plate 7. The shrine of Amit bha Buddha with a monkey eating leftover food.....................63
Plate 8. Women at the entrance to the residence of the healer lady Ajim . ........................64
Plate 9. Pratappur after the fire with bamboo scaffolding. ...............................................100
Plate 10. The Patan Durbar (Royal) Square. ....................................................................106

Photographs and drawings by the author unless otherwise noted.

5
A. INTRODUCTION

1. The setting

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2. Key terminology

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See e.g. the introduction in Hodgson 1972. The core of Hodgson’s research is in this essay collection.
7
Wylie 1970. See also Snellgrove 1981 (based on his travels through Nepal in 1956) and Tucci 1956.

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The Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project (1970-2002) has played an important role in pre-
serving the scriptural tradition of Nepal. Most of the relevant German scholars have participated in the
project.
9
Kölver 1992; Gutschow 1997.
10
Von Rospatt 1998 & 1999. The former is a shorter web document that deals with the same issues that
are elaborated in the latter.
11
Von Rospatt 1999, 3.
12
At the time of finishing this study, Prof. von Rospatt was working on a more detailed study on
Svayambh . It is possible that the work will deal with some of the issues treated here. However, my im-
pression is that the focus will be more on the periodical renovations of the caitya.

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See e.g. Locke 1980 & 1985.
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Contributions to Nepalese Studies (the Journal of CNAS, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal).

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B. UNDERSTANDING RELIGIO-CULTURAL PHENOMENA

6. Philosophical hermeneutics as an epistemological starting point

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This division reflects the views of the German Geisteswissenschaften tradition and especially Wilhelm
Dilthey, who attempted to develop a particular hermeneutic human sciences methodology as opposed to
the prevailing ideals of the natural sciences (see Gadamer 1989, 3ff). Actually, when speaking of human
sciences the concept of ‘science’ itself is etymologically dubious. It is preferred in this genre to speak of
scholars instead of scientists. See Gothóni 2002b, 20-21.

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16
Gadamer 1989, xxi.
17
Ibid., 474. Originally ‘Sein, das verstanden werden kann, ist Sprache’. I have used the English transla-
tion based on the fourth edition (1975) of the German original Wahrheit und Methode.
18
Gothóni 2002a, 160.
19
This happened to Gadamer when he started to see his own European tradition through an Asian per-
spective
(ibid., 159).
20
Gadamer 1989, 306-307, 374.
21
See e.g. Gothóni 2001, 2002a, 2002b and 2002c.
22
Gothóni 1982.

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Gothóni 2002a, 158.
24
Cf. however post-positivist paradigms that advocate a natural science approach to the study of relig-
ions.
25
Ibid., 157.
26
Ibid., 164 (discussing Rorty 2000). The epistemological attitude in which reality as such cannot be
reached beyond the limits of human reasoning can be traced to the Copernican Turn in Immanuel Kant’s
philosophy. As is well known, Kant refuted the possibility of knowledge of das Ding an Sich. We can
only know of how things appear to us, not how they ‘really’ are.
27
Ibid., 164-165.
28
Rorty 2000, 24. I see this division mainly on a conceptual level; in typical ethnographic practice, both
are important. For example to understand one person, we need to emphasize the depth aspect, whereas in
order to learn from many people in a comparative manner we need to consider the breath aspect, too. This
also has to do with the question of sample size.
29
Gothóni 2002a, 158ff.

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7. The use of conceptual categories in cross-cultural research

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Pentikäinen 1971, 45. I refer to ‘anthropology’ in the narrow sense. In this study, it only covers cultural
and/or social anthropology.

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31
However, the etymology of the term is more complex. See Saler 2000, 65ff.
32
Saler 2000, 159ff.
33
Ibid., 160; Cf. Gothóni 1996. Gothóni agrees that the family metaphor is suitable for religions but ap-
pears to see the category as more problematic than Saler. Saler, on the other hand, wants to retain the
category for analytical purposes. In the present work, universal and particular categories are used as an
aid for interpretation.
34
Saler 2000, xi. Italics in the original.
35
Ibid., xii.
36
E.g. Gellner 1992, 98; Parpola 1999, 283-284.
37
Saler 2000, 197ff.
38
Ibid., xiii.

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39
Saler himself says he uses religion as a case study for a wider treatment of the problem of conceptualiz-
ing analytical categories, and that the approach might well apply to other categories (ibid., xvi).
40
See e.g. Gadamer 1989, 9ff on the concept of Bildung (Culture) in continental philosophy. The etymol-
ogy of the concept is older, but its use as we know it became fixed only after the Enlightenment.
41
Saler 2000, 263.

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8. The interpretive approach of Geertz

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42
E.g. by Asad, Shankman, Munson and Kuper (Gellner 2001, 81 n. 6). On Shankman’s critique see be-
low.
43
The Interpretation of Cultures is a collection of essays mostly from the 1960s. Geertz has further de-
veloped his views in e.g. Local Knowledge (1983), but his best-known contributions to the field appear in
the pages of the former work.
44
Geertz 1973, 5.
45
In Pyysiäinen 2001, this view is refuted on the grounds that it does not take into account the cognitive
processes involved in human interaction.
46
Geertz 1973, 45-46, 83.

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Ibid., 91.
48
Heisig 1987, 204. The original meaning apparently was very practical as in an attempt to join two
pieces together as a means of identification.
49
Ibid.
50
Ibid., 203; Langer 2002.
51
Ibid., 204.
52
Geertz 1973, 29.
53
Ibid., 20.
54
Ibid., 6-7. The example is also from Ryle.

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Ibid., 7.
56
Ibid., 412-453. Originally published in Daedalus 101 (1972): 1-37. The essay rests upon his fieldwork
in the late 1950s.
57
Ibid., 448.
58
Ibid., 449.
59
Ibid., 452.
60
Ibid., 15.

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Ibid., 92.
62
Ibid., 127 (cf. ibid., 89). Geertz uses a different spelling for worldview.
63
Ibid., 113.
64
Ibid., 93-94.
65
Ibid., 90, 119-123.
66
Shankman 1984, 262.
67
Ibid., 263.

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Ibid., 264.
69
Ibid.
70
Prof. Gray, currently from the University of Adelaide, has conducted long-term fieldwork in Nepal and
the Kathmandu Valley. According to him, the theoretical suggestions made by Talal Asad seem to fit into
this context better than those of Geertz (personal communication in Kathmandu, 18 August 2003).

24
C. RELIGION AND CULTURE IN THE KATHMANDU VALLEY

9. An introduction to Newar culture and religion

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71
Gellner 1992, 16.
72
From Gellner 1992.

25
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From Gellner 1992.
74
Toffin 1999, 33.

26
 HINDU BUDDHIST
R jop dhy y Brahman
(Hindu priests) Vajr c rya (Buddhist priests and
monks) and
kya (Buddhist monks, gold-
re astrologers, aivite
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Other low clean castes (farmers, musicians, gardeners, barbers)

Unclean castes (butchers, musicians, death specialists etc.)

Untouchables (sweepers, fishermen)

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10. Types and forms of Newar religion

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I Soteriology Thiswordly religion

II Social religion III Instrumental religion

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On Weber’s contribution, see Gellner 2001, 14, 95. This framework has retained its validity for Gellner
throughout his decades of anthropological studies on the Newars; he still applies it in Gellner 2001.
86
Gellner 1992, 6.
87
Ibid., 7.
88
Ibid., 80ff.
89
Ibid., 101-102; Lienhard 1978, 151ff.

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! . 8
9 . +
?>
. 2 +

. +
& & C C +
. : ;

! . & C C :8 9;. &

.
?E
3 $ 1 .
C & C C
C .
)) : C 8 9 8 9;
?A
:8 9; ! $ % +
7

& C C $/
:0 8 9; . +
1

. +

.
?L

90
Gellner 1992, 103.
91
Ibid., 101.
92
Harvey 1990, 89.
93
Gothóni 1982, 30-33.
94
Gellner 1992, 111.

31
 . 1
& C C

)
?@
! . 1 !
& C C . C !
FC C :8 9;?I $. & $&$
& C C 2
& C C +
B# C :8 9 8 9;
# . +
! 7
. +

$ $&& . $ $. $$
?O
D
: ; + : ;
2 +
! .
. + FC B+
#C C : A; B #C C
.
1 ! . D
B #C C FC + +
+
:! 8 . 9?M;
1

9 . +

95
Ibid.
96
& C C . 8G C 9 #
?O
>LL
?M
8. 9 ! B #C C R FC

32
 + : ;
.
??
+

$ . :0 ;
1 ! . +
7 . '7
.
FC . &
K 3 :! ; B #C C R FC
:! ; FC
0 4
3 : ;
! +
>HH
1 )
! . 45 &
:) &2 "; : $ ;>H>
+ : ;$
45 & Q
>HE
.
: $ ;
1 B #C C
: 0 4 . C C +
;=
.
1 W +
>HA

??
% >?MH >A
>HH
) >??E >H@+>HI >A@ ) S
T: >A@;
>H>
>LM
>HE
) EHH> OL 45 & 7 B#
D .
0 4
>HA
/ >HM 1 W :% >?MH >AA;
1 W
. ! 3 , 0 % 3
: L>H+L>A;

33
 0 ! . +
>HL
% ) ! . +
D : ;
. 1
% +
$ . 2
! .

D #
0 ! . =
! V) 8 9 8. +
>H@
9 2
8 9 F 5 2 &6
$ ! 5
B
W 8% 1 9 >HI
: . ; 0 .
F " B
F 9 ,2
0 1 Q B F
. .C W C
F
)P W + F
B <

B ]P !C C P B
" ]P 'C 1 +
! . B ]P +
. B
! B ]P 2
: . C B ]P F ;. C +

>HL
>EH+>E>Q) >??E >@?
>H@
) >??E @E 5 : ;
>HI
W ) : >??? E?>;

34
 C G: F ;
< C / C "C G < G% ] 0 G
1 +
B $ & ) +
78 9)
" CG 7 !
2 B 1 !
2
" B +
) +
>HO
0 : ;
+
& # !
+.
& !
+

" B +
>HM
AHHHH +
D !

>H?
"_]P . 5 5
& b#WG
B & b#WG ! B
D
# "$ +
. +
>>H
B W G. 1 & b#WG
+ +
+ + + F C C
+ ! .
0 4 9 ! +

107
Gellner 1992, 73.
108
Brinkhaus 1987, 1.
109
Ibid., 29.
110
The first one of the seven human Buddhas dealt with later in the study.

35
D. FIELD RESEARCH

11. Description of the fieldwork

& ! 5 5 >? 1
L< EHH>
( " +
7 = 0 4 +

< .
B
!
!
2
0 1
+ 0 1 +

1 # , EHHA
& 9 ! +
"
5 +
1 # % )
" CG 7
+
0 4
E? , E> 0 EHHA +
7 +

$%&
: $ % & ; +
0 4 3 !
1 0 :3!10; / +
!
7 !
36
 1
C G !
< !
+
+
! ! . +
+

2 +
9
$
& % ) " CG
+
# " CG

R +
: ;

7
&

1 7
0 4
F ]^
>>>
&
7

>>>

< ) 9 ! /
:) >??E ; +
+

37
 # &
>>E
0 4 ! $
8 9 2
0 4

2 +
" +
7 7 & +
" D
B
1 .
. ! 1 0 4
B C
# +
>H+
.
>>A
8 ! . 9 1
>0
B C
" B /
1
!
&
" # +
$

>>E
/ # ) * >?ME >>I+>>O <
" CG ) * 9
!
5 %
0 4
>>A
1 1 8! # 9 +
91 ) * :EHHH A>; ! 0
S T:0
>??I E ;

38
12. Methods of collecting material

7
>>L
7
>>@
7
9

7 + +

: + ;>>I &$ +

>>O
<

)
) * 9
. C C +

+
F ]^

1
+
>>M
7 Q . C C

7 7

>>L
&EHHE OA
>>@
7 EH7 0 4

5
+
116
Ibid., 76-80.
117
Ibid., 80.
118
See the questions in appendix II.

39
 7
0 4 ) . C C
0 4
1
7 5

7
D
: 9 7 ;
' . C C

! +

7
>>?
2
!
+
+

>EH
2
: ) D9
;
+
>E>
! .
<
) ! +
$
>EE

0 4

>>?
MA Q) >?ME
>EH
! 7
8 9 1 +
+ $ :
8 9 8 9 9:
>; 8 9 +
>E>
&EHHE ML
>EE
) >??E O

40
 7 5 +
( ! + +

0 4
!
5 7 +
0 #

= 7
=
0 4 : +
;

.
3 +
>EA
$ + +

>EL
$
7
$
>E@
+
D
+
>EI
7
9
"
+

+
>EO
#

>EA
3 >??H
>EL
0 # >??H ?@+?O ! 7 5 +

>E@
3 >??H @>
>EI
3!10 / " % ' 3
>EO
$ " ) ! 0

41
 0 4 #

13. Evaluation of the material and methods

1 +
>EM
0&

>E?

7
8 9

2 & $
>AH

:
; :
; +

$ &
0 4

#
7 3 7

>EM
7 0
&EHHE >AL
>E?
) >?ME >OL
130
Ibid., 140-146.

42
 1 & & # +
: 7 ;>A> 7
Q

7
>AE
& 7
1 +

+
7

0 4

7
7 1

7
+

$
>AA
2
0 4 ! .
0 4 ! 2 +
+

0 4 7

131
Ibid., 175. Strict repeatability is normally not required in qualitative studies due to the nature of the
subject matter. See e.g. Gothóni 2002a, 156.
132
Tuomi et al. 2002, 135.
133
Gothóni 1982, 125.

43
E. CONTEXTUAL ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
SVAYAMBH

14. On analysing the material

=
&
0
>AL
5 1
5 5 +
+
&

+
, $ $ +

7 9
1 & S
T>A@ # +
# D
+
Q
D +

. C C
$ & D
Q
>AI
3 +

134
Grönfors 1982, 145.
135
Marton 1994, 4426.
136
Tuomi et al. 2002, 105; Grönfors 1982, 161.

44
 : ;
5 +

7
Q 8
9 + +

+
7 +

8 9
+
2 D
8 9
$

2 +
+ +
+
!

< +
1 +
>AO
D +
8
0 49 ! +
! ! 0 9 0 +
: ;
+
7 K>;
R E; R A; R L; +

137
Cf. Gothóni 1982. There would have been seven sub-chapters in all three main chapters.

45
 R @; R I; D R O; R
>AM
M; ?;
< +

0 9 +

+
1 < :
>A?
; $ $
>LH
%
$ - :8 9 8 9 8 # 9;>L>
5

: >I >O;
5

2
1 0 4

7 +
0 4 D

1 . C C +

0 4 ! +
0 4 0 49 +! .
+

138
Smart 1996, 10-11.
139
Dilley 1999, 2.
140
Ibid., 37.
141
Ibid., 4.

46
 0 4 1
8 0 4 V9

15. Description of the area

0 4 " +
: @ >\E ; 0 4 C
K
& b#WG 0
Q 2 & :;$ ;>LE
0 4 C
.
0 4 &

>LA
@ & " 0 4 :80 9;

>LE
$ 0 EHH> AA :" ;<
: 0 B # 4^ C ) W_`
< C ;
143
From Majupuria et al. 1987.

47
Plate 1. Sunset in Svayambh . On a clear day, the distant Himalayas are visible. Photo © Dilip B. Ali.

Plate 2. The Hanuman Dhoka (old royal palace) at Kathmandu Durbar Square with the Svayambh
hilltop seen between the roofs in the distance.

48
 0 4

& b#WG !
. . +
1
@H
.$ &
0 4 : I ;
: ;
+

2 +
@H # :
A;

Plate 3. A ticket to Svayambh with a view on the upper end of the

eastern stairs. Photo credits unknown.

49
 Figure 6. Map of the main Svayambh area.

+
1 W < !
1 ] . +
c +
. : = ! +
" C ) P W: F ;

50
Plate 4. The final approach along the eastern stairway towards the hilltop.

F &C C G
. c
1 ] ' EH
! : L;
. : ;K) d : ; +

1 : ";
>E < +
C C GW + Pd : ;! +
>LL
. c 0 4 2
+ :2) ;K1
>L@

>LL
.
. 0 0 EHH> >OO+>O?
>L@
2) 1 EHHA 0
1

51
 .
1 0 4 &
$ $ & 1 $ +
C GG
0
1 # F
B : ;
2 B : ;
1 : ; !C : ;

0 4 K .
" C#& C C . < < & C C
! . 0 ` & C C : 3
. C C ;
! 0 ` FC +
>LI

3 . C C

2 .
!
: 9 ;0 . +
+ ) AL
C GG . ! . +
7 2
" : @ ;
D
3< +
)
#

>LI
0 EHH> EAA

52
Plate 5. Prayer flags with the city of Kathmandu in the background. Taken on the viewing terrace at
Svayambh .

16. The Svayambh caitya – its physical parts and symbolism

>LO
.
+
#
0 4 3$ >LM +

147
A comprehensive analysis of these symbolic elements would need much more space than is available
in this study. It would entail a detailed description of the Hindu cosmologic system, its application to the
Buddhist context, manifestations of dozens of deities in different aspects etc. A good overview of the
symbolism of the caitya (st pa) in general is Snodgrass 1992.
148
Gutschow 1997, 28-29. The dating relies on the first inscriptions that mention the caitya. Legends
claim it to be considerably older.

53
Plate 6. The Svayambh caitya and the author.

EO +
EH ! .
. . C " >@
AH . +
"
B 2 + 1W
3$
0 4 O

1
: ; : 45 ;
>L?
1
7 : ); + +
0
. B

>L?
0 >??E >M? :0
EHHE 0 >??E ) 9 ;

54
3 .
>@H
+ 7 ! +
): ;
: ; + 1
7 :$ ;
. 3 +
>@>
1 #
%

Figure 7. Parts of the Svayambh caitya.152

>@H
"& 0 EHHE >I 2
: #bC; : PC;
>@>
:% ; & 1
. 8 9
152
The original version of the drawing is found in Gutschow 1997. Shrines of the Five Buddhas and their
consorts are omitted.

55
 D
+
>@A
+ 1 0 : ! +
; :) >8 9; S
T>@L 1
# 2

.
. /
>@@
$ $ $ $ 0 4
+
& & - 0 1 +
>@I
%
: ) ;
0 4

.
>@O

. : ?
# ; ) . C C

B : ; +
>@M
: ;
+ & +
C C : ; B #+
C : ;

>@A
1 B +
. Q = >??@ AH
>@L
0 >??E A
>@@
0 >??E AIH
>@I
:. >??O
EO;
>@O
& C C :) ; )
/
>@M
) >??O MO

56
 .
. +
>@?
& C C 1
. +
0 4 7
: ;
0 4 ! .
& C C "= : = ; >IH
& B #C C :
. ;
B # B # C
>I>
+
+ 0 4
+
) . ! +

0 4
! "
0 4 ! +
7

17. Deities of the Svayambh caitya and seeing the caitya as a mandala

1 0 4
1 '
>IE
B # C
: ; 1
M> LH

>@?
0 >??E AEL
>IH
) >??I EEI
>I>
B # ! . Q >HE
>IE
B ' >??? A+>>

57
 >IA
>E>
. : = ;
0 4 :/
; M K

Figure 8. The Five Buddhas and their consorts around the caitya.164

. : C ; & C C B #+
C .

>IA
A
164
Individual pictures, which I have combined, are from Hodgson 1972. Vairocana often resides invisibly
in the centre, which the arrow indicates. In this case, he has been built a visible shrine.

58
 >I@
1 & C C :1 ]
1 C ;
>II
B # C 1 . CC
B
C C :8 0 9; +
& C C B # C . +
) = C C >IO 0 4 ) CC:
e C C; 1
. +
>IM
0 1
. K>I?

direction Centre East South West North

consort Vajradhate vori Locan T r M mak T r P ar T r rya T r

bodhisattva Ghantap i ! " ! # !

family tath gata vajra ratna padma karma

$ % & %& ! & !& Garu a

colour white blue yellow red green

human ' $ ' $ ' ! $ ( &
Buddha
element water sky / space earth fire air

$ teaching earth touching gift bestowing meditation fearlessness

(dharmacakra) (bh mispar a) (varada) (dhy na) (abhaya)
symbol cakra vajra ratna padma vi vavajra
taste sweet pungent saline acidic bitter
syllable o) h ) tra) hr * *

Table 1. The Five Buddhas, their family members, characteristics and associations.

>I@
) * \ &C bb >??H >HE
. : ; D
>II
) >??E E@E
>IO
>??H >AO 1 c CC ! +
+

>IM
. ) C#
:% >?MH >EO;
>I?
) * \ &C bb >??H >HAQ0 EHHE >> +
L@

59
 . + . +
+
. : ;
: ; 1
0 4 0 4
# +
>OH

= V
B # C K>; B # C + Pd : B<+ ;
E; < C C GW + Pd : <<BB+ ; >O> B<+
" B
0 4 <<BB+

<<BB+
<
0 +
4 D
B ' 0 4 <<BB+
>OE
1 <<BB+ B<+
1 B # C +
B<+
. B
<<BB+
B & b# ] & b#W G 2
' ( ="2 & 0 4+
! & <<BB+
& b# ]9 < C C GW +
>OA
& B ' & b#W G +
0 4 +
" B D B '

>OH
3 ) >??E ) >??O ' >??? 0 >??E 0 EHHE
>O>
' >??? >
' #
>OE
@
>OA
! \& >?M? LM 1 <<BB+ EEH

60
 5 5 +
0 4 3 +
! . & b#W G
= 0 & 3 " B

' 0 4
2 C B
.
. B # + B # B +
# B # C
e 0 4 >OL
+
1 ]
5
) C# 5
>O@
! . 0 4+
<<BB+ Pd C+ Pd
>OI
1 ] 1 ]
! .
>OO
' +
0 4

0 4
>OM
& C C
& b#W G . <<BB+
0 4 . 1
1 ]
+

>OL
) >??E E@A+E@@
>O@
B ' >??? ? 1 +
"C #
>OI
?+>H
>OO
0 EHH> LH
>OM
1 FC C : C ;

) FC C ! . +
& C C
+

61
 >O?
@

! .
+

18. Observations on the lay ritual life

0 4

&
CGG 1 C
. 0 4 +

0 4 +
>MH
# 9
=
# 5
1 9
5 3
5 0 1 R

1 + CGG 1 C .
) 9 +

>O?
3 J 8! & 9
B 1
0 4
+
0 4 B # C B
180
This principle applies more generally. There are small clay caityas or shrines of deities standing in the
middle of roads all over the city. People automatically pass them on the left hand side, even if one needs
to change the walking route a little.

62
 >M>
1 ! . +
K : "; 8 9: ;
: ;
: ;
7 +
1
8 9 ) 7

1 C
.
0 4
1 C . CC
. 9
1 C 5 5
: O;

Plate 7. The shrine of Amit bha Buddha with a monkey eating leftover food.

181
Gellner 1992, 146-148.

63
 ) 9 5 +
5 <
7
:$ ; 1
<
Q

CGG

0
+
: ; +

S T>ME 1
Q

Plate 8. Women at the entrance to the residence of the healer lady Ajim .

>ME
LL 1
D

64
 ! CGG
1# C :8 9; 1 OH+ +
1# C +
7

: M; /
1# C
% ) " CG +
>MA

' " CG " CGG +

"
' " CG " < :' ; 07
1 +
" CG
: ; & !

" & +
! 5
8 9 5 3 :! +
7 "] ; !
>ML
< +
" CG

' " CG 7
8 9 ) 9 +
: E?; = +
+ 5
! ) +
>M@
& 2
S " CG X Z T1
>MI
S + T

>MA
= % ) " CG ' " CG "
" B + : 1 >??I;
>ML
E>
>M@
1 >??I >>
>MI
EH+E>

65
 < G: " CG ;
2 S T>MO 2
S + T S
>MM
T 1 " CG
S C G G CT:+ 8 9; 0 4 >M?
1 0 4 7 C G G :1# C; >?H
0

7
9 5 1# C +
>?>

CGG
. 0
. 0 4
EO 1 CGG +
5 5
. +
0 4 $
0 4
= 7

0 1 ," 7
. : ;
: ; : +
; : ;
) : ; 2 +
" D S
T S T>?E &

>MO
EH
>MM
O
>M?
0 ) P W . :F ;
" CG
,C C 0 EHH>
>?H
F ]^
>?>
< + + +
>E V
192
Field diary I, 46.

66
 >?A
K :
; : ;
5 5
9 7
,"

)
>?L
) ! .

'
$ $ $ & &

9 7
Q

7
% 0 4
. )4J C
0 4 B !
' . C C
& C C . K

& C C . +
) $ XY Z 9
) A)
>?@
9 0

, ! 9 ) 8 9
>?I
' 1
& 0 4 +
193
For certain rituals, slightly intoxicating materials like betel nuts are used. In addition, cannabis leaves
were sold for ritual purposes openly in the street at the centre of Kathmandu, which was surprising.
194
Gellner 1992, 106. An Indian friend of mine made a similar remark: “To us a guest is God. You can
never really know whether the guest is in fact God in disguise, which is why we respect him or her as
such.” (Personal communication.)
195
Field diary I, 67.
196
Newman 1987, 37.

67
5 5 &

+
1! . +
7 +
$

>?O
+
7 1

19. Thoughts of devotees

& . )4J C 0 4
" B +
0 4 +
2 5
5
; B& " 0 4
>?M
2 )4J C +
>??

OE+ + !
>@H
+ 0 4 A
: ; <

197
These imply the r vakay na form underlying Mah y na in the hierarchical structure of Newar Bud-
dhism (cf. Gellner 1992).
198
Lewis 1998, 310.
199
Field diary I, 52-53; Field diary II, 76-77. The date is 28 August.

68
1 + : ; +

9 .
W ) W G %
FC . ! <
< " 2
) "

: C ;
. S
7 TEHH
0 4 +
1
CGG CGG
: )7 4; % .
@HH
D 3 7
. 1 CGG
KS1
T
: ; V0
. +
D : . ; 2
C +
5
=
7 E@

S # +
EH>
T
#
>@ 1 C 5
& S

200
Field diary I, 52.
201
Ibid.

69
. TEHE 1
. 9 +
+ 5

1
EHA
FC & .1
0 4 +
)4J C
S X Z +
T S
X ZT
CGG "
:
;
"
: +
; EHL /
EH@
. 0

EHI
1 0 +
Q
0
"
:
; CGG

2
0 4 =

202
Prem often uses the word ‘criminal’ to refer to negative deeds and thoughts. The word has to be seen
in a wider context than jurisdictional; it reflects a Buddhist worldview and Buddhist ethics.
203
Field diary I, 57-58. The date is 31 August.
204
This is interesting, since being a kya, he should have been and apparently was a Newar Buddhist
monk as well. I only realized this after the interview and could not ask him to tell me more about his obli-
gations.
205
Purity of substances is highly esteemed. It reflects an attitude of respect as well as purity of the mind.
206
Field diary I, 58. The date is 31 August.

70
 : & .1 ; +

)< +
S
T
# 0 4 !

/!$032 = 0 !

1
0 4 S T
EHO
S T =
B
V= +
V +
= V
! 8 9
: , & . ) ;V1 $) +
# : .
;VEHM % 0 4 $)
# : ; +
EH?
: ; " +
7
= :
0 4 ; # +
E>H

AI@
0
0 4 >A
#
" B
E>>
#

EHO
EHM
) * >??? LIM LO@
EH?
1 b C :) >??E >MH;
E>H
3 ) * >??? LOA+LOL
211
Also discussed by Gellner 1992, 189ff.

71
 0 # V
% : ;
) 9

<

:D " +
# ; 1
# +
2
' ! 1

0 4 &/
& 2 +
# &
5
0
$ +
$
0
9
+
1
D !
.

72
20. The Buddh c ryas – their social status and religious duties

! .
. + +
E>E
+ 1
1 + +
B #C C FC
1 0 4 . C C
: . C C ; 7 +
E>A
+
E>L
FC % ) =
FC
! . 0 4 +
0 4
FC B #C C
FC
E>@
B #C C +
:"" ; +
$ . C C . +
E>I

. C C +
1 % E? >M@
>?M@E>O 0 E? E>E
! >??M E>M & ' . C C
AHH . C C EHHA 1 +

E>E
1 7 ! + : . ;
& 1 1 >??I 2
& >L
! !
&
1
!
E>A
& ) . C C . C C
E>L
0 % >?MH E>+EEQ) >??E >I@+>II
E>@
1 0 +
4 1 C 0C ` :%
>?MH EEQ>?M@ A?O;
E>I
: ) . C C ;
E>O
% >?M@ A?O
E>M
0 EHHH: ;

73
 . C C B +
. & +
0 4 :) ; :' ;
. C C
1
) 0 . " B
7 1 C CGG +
E>?
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0 4
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219
Sharkey 2001, 233. The informants did not contradict this information.
220
Ibid, 40. Although smaller, Lalitpur has a bigger Buddhist population than Kathmandu, so the figure is
relevant.
221
Their esoteric rites are performed in their own monastery in secrecy.
222
Ibid, 55-58. There are considerable differences throughout the cities in terms of frequency of practice.
Sharkey’ s model is an average of all the practice he has witnessed.

74
 1 0

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2)
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:

223
Field diary I, 41-43.
224
Field diary I, 41.

75
 EE@

1 C : 1 C 9 ;
$ : 9 ; S T
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0
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1 ' +
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1 . C C
7 M
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& 0

2 +

225
I have not been able to check the spellings of the Newari names of these rites, so I have written them
as I heard them, without diacritics.
EEI
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230
Sharkey 2001, 234.
231
Field diary I, 57. At the time of my fieldwork, Ramesh was pondering different possibilities and I do
not know whether he found a solution later.
232
See e.g. Gellner 1992, 332ff.
233
Field diary II, 67. This has likely to do with the inclusion of Svayambh in the UNESCO World Heri-
tage Site list in 1978.

77
 0 4; %
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21. The worldview and ethos of the Buddh c ryas interpreted

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78
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237
Gellner 1992, 77-78.
238
Field diary I, 17.
239
For ethical reasons I will not disclose them in this work.
240
Gellner 1992, 268.
241
Wayman 1995, 39-40. The dating is mine and based on Wayman’ s dating of Lilavajra’ s teacher on pp.
13-14.

79
 8 9%
9 5
9 5
+
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: +
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. ; +

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E F G F G '
A BW 4 BW e #
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Table 2. The seven Buddha families.244

242
Ibid., 40.
243
As far as I have been able to find out, some of the names seem to refer to bodhisattva realms or heav-
ens, which goes along well with the general idea of ascending towards the ultimate.
244
Also included were the respective hand gestures of the Buddhas, but they have been in part contra-
dicted by other authoritative sources. Therefore, I have omitted them here. I have not been able to check
the correct spelling of the spouses and sons. Note also that the Newars usually replace the initial V with B
(e.g. Bipa v instead of Vipa v ).

80
 .
EL@
C & C C 0 <G ! C
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7 7 +

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5 :
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245
Gellner 1992, 193.
246
Tuladhar-Douglas 2003 (web document).
247
Gellner 1992, 221; Locke 1980, 193.
248
Field diary I, 68.

81
 $
:S +
T; # +
1

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9

22. An excursus: Vipassan meditation

1 ' 9 +
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249
This Burmese form of Vipassan was popularized in the 1920s and has gained ground e.g. in Sri
Lanka (Harvey 1990, 293). It has established meditation centres all over the world.

82
 >>
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5 +

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250
Based on the leaflets I received (Vipassana Meditation: An Introduction; Vipassana Meditation – code
of discipline and application form; Guidelines for practising Vipassana Meditation) and Goenka’ s dis-
courses at the end of the day.

83
 #
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251
Field diary I, 61.
252
The Dharmashringa meditation centre was established only in 1987.
253
Field diary I, 76.
254
Field diary I, 71.
255
Ibid.

84
 9
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2 & /
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256
Ibid.
257
Field diary I, 79.
258
Ramesh also said the following: “Even me, I’ m Buddhist myself, I’ ll go sometimes into church. When
I go to church, when I see Jesus, I pray to Jesus inner my heart. Because he’ s the great, he’ s the great!
And I’ m not alone.” (Field diary I, 74.)

85
 9 5
E@?
! .

23. The creation myth and its functions

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259
On the overall changes see e.g. Gellner 2001, 285ff.
260
Decleer 1998 (web document).
261
Brinkhaus 1987, 1-4.
EIE
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86
 0 4 CP
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87
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88
 " . 0

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D .

266
How this might be so has remained unclear to me, since the contemporary caitya is naturally on top of
the hill. It may be that the original more modest caitya has actually been placed elsewhere.

89
 0 1

V1 !
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B : 0 4 C W C ) W G;

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267
Shrestha 1997, 187.
268
Michaels 1996, 317.

90
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FC
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269
Ibid., 319-321.
270
Ibid., 311.
271
E.g. Gellner 1992, 193.
272
Locke 1980, 25.
273
There is a story of a Malla king going inside the cave to pray for rains after a long draught. He is said
to have found ntikar c rya still meditating. The plea was successful and the rains came.

91
 B #C C "
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7
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92
 ! .
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+ " B

24. Observations on Tibetan Buddhism in Svayambh

B #C C . !
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% +
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93
 .
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< < & C C >M?A .
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& 0 4 9

279
The caitya is ritually whitewashed so as to ensure its renewed purity. It also has a special birthday in
October, during which its all-seeing eyes are renovated, wick lamps are lighted and a fire sacrifice is per-
formed (Gutschow 1997, 26). This ritual renovation is a very important feature for Newar Buddhists also,
but I did not obtain personal field information on it.
280
Slusser & Giambrone (web document, read on 24 July 2004).
281
An overview of Nepal-Tibet religious relations throughout the centuries is e.g. Dhungel 1999.

94
 : . +
;% Q ' / / >IE?RAH 8 / / $/ >O@>
EME
>O@M ' / / >O?H
.
0 4
.

3 B # C +
! . . 0 4
1
1

25. Nationalism and relocation

! ! 0 7 +
& " B >OIM+I?EMA
>MLI >?@> '
0 = =
= ! 0
>?@> ' !+

3 & >??H
+ ' !
K EHH>
:8 9 = 9; &

! D
! D !
3
! 9 # +
282
Ibid., 186-87, 189, 194.
283
Gellner 1992, 9-10. The process was swift but in practice extended to 1769 before being completed.

95
 !
D 9 +
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EML
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eC +
1

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& $ X ZEMI

284
Field diary I, 77-79.
285
Field diary I, 52-53.
286
Field diary I, 61-62.

96
 &$ $

0 1 : ; + +

0 4 1 '
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B ' D .
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287
Von Rospatt 1999, 27.
288
Ibid. (n. 44)
289
Ibid., 28.

97
 . +. TE?H 1 0 4
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290
Gellner 1990, 221.
291
Harvey 1990, 127.
292
An introduction to the history of Buddhist monasticism in Nepal is e.g. Allen 1973.

98
 0 4
! .

26. Conflicts of interests as religio-cultural dilemmas

& 0 4 E?A
8 0 & 3 9
+
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; 2
0 4 < 1 :< 1; +
< 2
0 4 /!$032 =

2 1 L EHHA W) 0 4+
ALM+ + 2)
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=
7 +
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1 +
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S TE?@

293
Sofield has recorded a total of 17 organisations involved with Svayambh in 1994 (Sofield 2000, web
document).
294
Newspaper article ‘Rescuing God from God’ , the Kathmandu Post, 12 August 2003.
295
Field diary I, 83.

99
 Plate 9. Pratappur after the fire with bamboo scaffolding.

AH

8 9
5 #
E?I

1 S= )
X Z TE?O '
1

3
9 1
+

296
Newspaper article ‘Rescuing God from God’ , the Kathmandu Post, 12 August 2003.
297
Ibid.

100
 0 +
'
/!$032 <+
1 & ' /!$032 +
+

W +
7 KS% +
0 W
X ZTE?M

Figure 9. A comic strip of a government official at Svayambh .299 © Rajesh K. / The Kathmandu Post.

2 0 EA ! +
+

298
Field diary I, 82-83.
299
The Kathmandu Post, 12 August 2003. In the background are the Svayambh caitya and the Pratappur
temple.

101
 +
AHH
7
KS
< 1 ! XZ

TAH> 1 < 1
S=
TAHE 1
D < EHHA
AHA
, EHHL

0 4
!
=
$ & $
: ; 7
5 ) D9 5 +
9 9

0 4 /
+
$& +

- && 2 9

0 4 +
B
0
+

300
The media’ s response would be worthwhile to analyse more precisely, e.g. by discourse analysis or
rhetoric analysis, a treatment which falls beyond the limits of this work. I am basing my interpretation
predominantly on five articles. In them, the voice of the ‘common man’ is quite clearly one that respects
the religious traditions, whereas the government should constantly be acting more quickly, more wisely,
more determinately etc. See Fig. 9 for an illustration of this situation.
301
Newspaper article ‘Pratappur temple waits for restoration’ , the Himalayan Times, 21 October 2003.
302
Ibid.
303
Newspaper article ‘DoA restores 348-yr-old Pratappur temple’ , the Himalayan Times, 2 July 2004.

102
 +

1 +
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&
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.
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>?M?
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304
Newspaper article ‘Politics over Swayambhunath monuments’ , the Kathmandu Post, 5 October 2002.
305
Ibid.
306
Newspaper article ‘Swayambhu demolition turns into a ministerial farce’ , the Kathmandu Post, 27
September 2002.
307
Newspaper article ‘Politics over Swayambhunath monuments’ , the Kathmandu Post, 5 October 2002.

103
 +

5 " B 5 +

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2
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308
Sofield 2000 (web document).
309
Ibid.
310
Ibid.

104
 7
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27. Is Svayambh Hindu in disguise?

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105
 +
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Plate 10. The Patan Durbar (Royal) Square.311

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CGG 0 4 $ +

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311
The royal compound is to the left; adjacent to it is the Patan Museum. To the right are e.g. the Vi va-
n th and Bhimsen temples. Note the architecture of the buildings.
312
Field diary I, 64.

106
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K

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9 Q +
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313
Ibid., 63.
314
On the tympana in Newar monasteries see Locke 1996.
A>@
& D>??I ALA+ALL FG =
. :' / ;

107
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108
 $ . 0 4 +

F. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

28. Conclusion

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109
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110
 $ . 0 4 +
1 + +
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29. Evaluation of the study

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See e.g. Gombrich et al. 1988.

112
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113
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

Primary sources

I. Unpublished field material

a) Field diaries and photographs

Field Diary I (29.7. – 21.9.2003), 83 pages.

Field Diary II (29.7. – 21.9.2003), 102 pages.

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b) Interviews and other recorded material

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II. Published material

a) Newspaper articles (accessible also via the Internet; URL: http://www.nepalresearch.org/)

The Himalayan Times:

21 October 2003: ‘Pratappur temple waits for restoration’ .
2 July 2004: ‘DoA restores 348-yr-old Pratappur temple’ .
The Kathmandu Post:
27 September 2002: ‘Swayambhu demolition turns into a ministerial farce’ .
5 October 2002: ‘Politics over Swayambhunath monuments’ .
12 August 2003: ‘Rescuing God from God’ .

114
b) Information leaflets on Vipassan meditation (published by Nepal Vipassana Centre)

1) Vipassana Meditation: An Introduction

2) Vipassana meditation – code of discipline and application form
3) Guidelines for practising Vipassana meditation, May 1999.

Secondary sources

III. Web documents

Decleer, Hubert
1998 Two Topics from the Svayambhu Purana: Who was Dharma-shri-mitra? Who
was Shantikara Acharya? Paper presented in conference of Lotus Research
Centre, Patan. [http://www.lrcnepal.org/papers/cbhnm-ppr-2.htm]
Slusser, Mary S. & Giambrone, James A.
Unknown Kuber Singh Shakya – A Master Craftsman of Nepal.
[http://www.asianart.com/articles/kubersingh/]
Sofield, Trevor H.B.
2000 Pilgrimage Tourism to Sacred Power Places in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal.
Institute for Sustainability and Technology Policy. Perth: Murdoch University.
[http://wwwistp.murdoch.edu.au/publications/e_public/Case%20Studies_Asia/t
ounepal/tounepal.htm]
Tuladhar-Douglas, Will
2003 The Navagrantha: an historical précis. Paper presented in conference of Lotus
Research Centre, Patan.
[http://www.lrcnepal.org/enews/Dr.%20William’ s%20paper.pdf]
von Rospatt, Alexander
1998 Conflicting Conceptions of the Shrishrishri-Svayambhucaitya as a Holy Shrine.
Paper presented in conference of Lotus Research Centre, Patan.
[http://www.lrcnepal.org/papers/cbhnm-ppr-5.htm]

IV. Literature

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APPENDICES

Appendix I – Glossary

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121
Appendix II – Interview questions and themes

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122