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Nd: YAG is a solid-state laser. It differs from the CO2 gas laser in that it produces a
smaller wavelength. It also has a smaller energy range than CO2 lasers. The
advantage the Nd: YAG laser has is that the wavelength of laser light can be
transmitted through fiber optic cables, which simplifies the control. This advantage
helps in materials processing.

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Reasons for developing these modified processes are to improve the penetration and
productivity. It also allows for lower cost. In a production line, a process such as
LBW/GMAW is very beneficial.

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The Aureola Borealis, also known as the northern lights. Atmospheric gases are
excited by the Solar Wind, causing electromagnetic bursts of energy.

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Electrical discharge energy is pumped into the system to excite N2, this then excites the
CO2, this is the flow into the bucket. Helium cools the system, lowering the energy
state. This is the hole in the bucket. The rapid heating and cooling of the CO2 gas
generates the laser.

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Energy loss could be due to heating the transformer (eddy currents), pumping the
helium to cool the laser, power to flash lamps, reflecting laser back and forth on
multiple mirrors, pumping to achieve vacuum. The approximate total efficiency is
between 15%-20%.
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The CO2 wavelengths are too large to be transmitted through fiber optics. Therefore,
CO2 lasers are transmitted through the air by bouncing off of multiple mirrors.

CO2 wavelength: 10.6Ɋm

Nd: YAG wavelength: 1.06Ɋm

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Coherent light is light that is aligned with the optical axis. Coherency can be
accomplished by bouncing light back and forth on mirrors until the light beams are
parallel with each other. If we didnǯt have it we would have divergence, which is the
opposite of coherency. When a light is divergent, it is difficult to focus through a lens.

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Keyhole mode and conduction are the two main modes of weld penetration in laser
beam welding. The keyhole mode is more typical.

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The CO2 laser will result in a deep penetration weld with small cross section. The
GMAW process will result in a weld with less penetration but with a larger cross
section. The hybrid will produce a combination of a weld with both good penetration
and larger cross sectional area.

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No, there is no Dzkeyholedz is partially penetrated joints. The keyhole is only when there
are full-penetrated joints.

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A technique for weld joint tracking in laser beam welding is the use of photodiodes.
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EBW is significantly different than LBW in that it is more effective in welding highly
conductive metals. LBW is significantly different than EBW in that it is not affected by
the base metal magnetic properties. EBW can be affected in that the metal on one side
of the weld joint may have higher magnetic properties than the other, causing the
electron beam to bend and miss the weld joint therefore affecting the outcome of the
weld and reducing the performance of EBW on magnetic metals.

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Electrons travel through solids made of conductive materials in the form of current.
Therefore, electrons cannot be transmitted through fiber optics because it is not a
conductive solid.

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The law is the Lorentz.

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It excludes oxygen from contact with the cathode to prevent damage by oxidation at
high temperatures. It minimizes collisions between electrons and heavy molecules in
air to minimize scattering loss of energy. When electrons are released into the
atmosphere, they collide with heavier air molecules causing the beam to diverge. X-
rays are also produced.

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The use of secondary electron imaging can be used for joint tracking in EBW.
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A joint can be missed due to the metals on either side of the joint having different
magnetic properties, causing the beam to bend towards the metal with a higher
positively charged particles. This can be fixed by manually adjusting the beam
position.

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For a given wavelength, absorptivity increases with temperature. However, EBW does
not have waves.