AS Level Notes on Nuclear Decay

(a) infer from the results of the α-particle scattering experiment the existence and small
size of the nucleus

• The α-particles were smaller than atoms, and had relatively high kinetic energies.
• In 1906, while Rutherford was experimenting with the passage of α-particles through
a thin mica sheet, he noticed that most of the α-particles passed straight through.
This led him to believe that there might be a large amount of empty space in the
atom.
• In 1911, Rutherford carried out further experiments with two other fellow scientists,
using gold foil in place of the mica.
• Shooting α-particles towards the gold foil showed that most of them went straight
through while some were deflected slightly, and some were deflected at an angle of
more than 90⁰.
• This proved Rutherford’s theory that an atom was mostly empty space, with most of
the mass and all of the positive charge concentrated in a tiny region at the center.
• This central nucleus only altered the α-particles when they came close to it.

(a) describe a simple model for the nuclear atom to include protons, neutrons and orbital
electrons

• The discovery of the proton showed that it had a positive charge, opposite and equal
to that of the neutron, however, its mass was too small to account for the entire
mass of the atom. It was then that the neutron (an uncharged particle) was
discovered.
• Protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom.
• The electrons move around the nucleus in a cloud, some closer to and some further
from the center of the nucleus.
• Radius of a proton ~ radius of a neutron = 10-15 m
• Radius of nucleus ~ 10-15 m to 10-14 m
• Radius of atom ~ 10-10 m
• Size of a molecule ~ 10-10 m to 10-6 m

(a) distinguish between nucleon number (mass number) and proton number (atomic
number)

• Nucleon number: the total number of nucleons in a nucleus, A.

• Proton number: the total number of protons in a nucleus, Z.
• Neutron number: the total number of neutrons in the nucleus, N.
• A=N+Z
• Any nucleus of an atom can be represented by the symbol for the element along with
 the nucleon number and the proton number as shown below:

• Nuclide: A specific combination of protons and neutrons in a nucleus.

(a) show an understanding that an element can exist in various isotopic forms, each with
a different number of neutrons

• Isotopes: atoms of the same element with the same number of electrons and
neutrons but a different number of neutrons.
• For example, there are two naturally occurring forms of hydrogen, with tritium having
to be made. These isotopes are shown below.

• Any atom is electrically neutral, so the number of electrons must equal the number of
protons in the nucleus of the atom.
• If the atom gains or loses an electron, it is no longer electrically neutral, it is called an
ion.
• The number of protons determines the chemical properties of the atom and the
number of neutrons and protons determines the nuclear properties.
• Therefore, because the number of protons, and consequently the number of
electrons in an isotope of the same element will be identical, the isotopes will all
have the same chemical properties but very different nuclear properties.

(a) use the usual notation for the representation of nuclides

• Using the usual notation for the representation of nuclides is referring to showing the

atom in the form of where A is the nucleon number and Z is the proton number,
E being the element. Several examples are shown below:
(a) appreciate that nucleon number, proton number, and mass-energy are all conserved
in nuclear processes

• When an unstable nucleus undergoes radioactive decay, the nucleus before the
decay is often referred to as the parent nucleus and the new nucleus after the decay
of the α-particle is known as the daughter nucleus.
• Radioactive decay processes can be represented by balanced equations, and for all
equations representing nuclear processes, both nucleon number A and proton
number Z are conserved.
• In α-decay, the nucleon number decreases by 4 and the proton number decreases by
2.
• In β-decay, the nucleon number is unchanged and the proton number increases by 1.
• In ϒ-emission there is no change in nucleon or proton number.
• In β-decay, an electron is emitted from a nucleus. The neutron decays to a proton
and an electron, the neutron formed stays inside the nucleus but the electron formed
is emitted as a β-particle, making the daughter nucleus more stable.

(a) represent simple nuclear reactions by nuclear equations of the form

• Take for example, the decay of Uranium-238 (an isotope) which undergoes alpha
decay to produce Thorium and gamma rays.

• Similarly, other atoms or isotopes undergo decay. Take for example, the beta decay
of Lithium.

(a) show an appreciation of the spontaneous and random nature of nuclear decay
• Listening to a Geiger counter will show you that the beeps or clicks are in a random
irregular manner rather than a regular manner. It’s almost impossible to predict
when the next click will come.
• Radioactive decay is a random irregular phenomenon; the average rate of decay can
be measured.
• For example, you could measure the number of counts detected in 1000s, and then
calculate the average number per second.
• Although this average rate will not be exactly accurate, taking averages over a
sufficiently long period of time will reduce or smooth out the random fluctuation to
reveal the underlying pattern.

(a) show an understanding of the nature and properties of α-, β- and γ- radiations (β+ is
not included: β- radiation will be taken to refer to β–)

• Because α-radiation is highly ionizing, it cannot penetrate far into matter.

• Using cloud chamber shows that the tracks of α-particles are very dense and they
extend only a few centimeters into the air.
• By the time the α-particles have travelled this far, they have lost virtually all of their
kinetic energy.
• The α-particle, which is a nucleus of helium-4 grabs two drifting electrons in the air
and becomes a neutral atom of helium gas.
• A Geiger counter can detect

(a) infer the random nature of radioactive decay from the fluctuations in count rate

• Upon looking at a graph of count rate showing randomness of decay, it is easy to see
that radioactive decay is a spontaneous process rather than one that occurs in a
regular pattern.
• It is nearly impossible to predict the decay for a particular nucleus.
• Looking at a very large number of atoms of a radioactive substance shows that the
number of undecayed nuclei gradually decreases, even then, we cannot predict when
an individual nucleus will decay.
• In summary, nuclear decay is a spontaneous process because:
• The decay of a particular nucleus is not affected by the presence of other
nuclei;
• The decay of nucleus cannot be affected by chemical reactions or external
factors such as temperature and pressure.
• In summary, nuclear decay is random because:
• It is impossible to predict when a particular nucleus in a sample is going to
decay;
• Each nucleus in a sample has the same chance of decaying per unit time.
A Level Notes on Nuclear Decay
(a) show an appreciation of the association between energy and mass as represented by
E = mc 2 and recall and solve problems using this relationship

(a) sketch the variation of binding energy per nucleon with nucleon number

(b) explain the relevance of binding energy per nucleon to nuclear fusion and to nuclear
fission

(c) define the terms activity and decay constant and recall and solve problems using A =
λN

(d) infer and sketch the exponential nature of radioactive decay and solve problems
using the relationship x = x0exp(–λt), where x could represent activity, number of
undecayed particles or received count rate

(e) define half-life

(f) solve problems using the relation λ =