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during setting, the greater the shrinkage that accompanies content.

However, total shrinkage is result of shrinkage


cooling. Excessive temperature changes thereby contribute from five different, independently occurring, mechanisms,

5a
to high cracking risk during early age. as follows:
• Autogenous shrinkage (chemical reaction).
To adjust to extreme environmental conditions, the follow-
• Settlement shrinkage (bleeding).
ing actions can be taken:
• Plastic shrinkage (evaporation before set).
• At high temperatures, pave at night or use pre-cooled
• Drying shrinkage (evaporation after set).
materials in the batch.
• Thermal shrinkage (evaporation due to environmental
Technical Summary
• At low temperatures, take steps to prevent concrete
factors).
from freezing while it gains strength. A summary of chapter 5 (pages 105–170) of the IMCP Manual (reference information on page 4)
To control the collective amount of shrinkage, take the fol-
To control the heat curve, note how the following factors
lowing precautions:
influence concrete temperature:
• Keep water content as low as possible.
• Increasing cement fineness increases the rates of hydra-
tion and heat generation.
• Concrete’s thickness, temperature, and degree of insula-
• Maximize the total aggregate content (while maintain-
ing workability and avoiding segregation).
Plastic (Fresh) Concrete Properties
• Avoid aggregates with excess clay or high coefficients of
tion affect the rate of heat loss to the environment.
thermal expansion. This document is one of a set of technical summaries Optimizing Fresh Concrete Properties
Controlling Shrinkage Also note how other factors influence shrinkage: of chapters 1 through 10 of the Integrated Materials and See table 1 for plastic concrete properties test methods.
Shrinkage is the reduction in volume or length of concrete • Aggregate type is the primary factor influencing a con- Construction Practices for Concrete Pavements: A State-of-the-
that occurs with moisture loss. High shrinkage leads to low crete system’s overall coefficient of thermal expansion. Practice Manual (IMCP manual). The summaries provide an Maximizing Uniformity
strength, increased stress, and increased cracking risk. • Uncontrollable weather factors also influence the rate of overview of the manual and introduce its important con- Excellent uniformity means that concrete maintains con-
The primary factor affecting shrinkage is the water/paste hydration and temperature effects and, thus, shrinkage. cepts. To be useful for training, the summaries should be sistent properties from batch to batch, even though the
used in conjunction with the manual. materials and processes are variable and the test results have
scatter. Uniform concrete prevents the need for adjustments
This summary covers the first sections of chapter 5. It
in the paver and helps create concrete that is consistently
briefly describes the properties of plastic concrete and how
acceptable.
various properties should be optimized.
To ensure sufficient uniformity, take the following precau-
What are Plastic Concrete Properties? tions:
Plastic concrete properties are those manifested from mix • Minimize segregation in the aggregate stockpile
to setting. To successfully construct pavements that achieve (figure 1).
all the desired properties, the designer, ready mix provider, • Batch by mass rather than by volume.
contractor, and owner need to understand how their • Follow mixer guidelines (such as loading capacity and
decisions can affect the many interrelated properties of the speed).
concrete system. • Inspect and maintain equipment regularly.

Plastic properties, such as uniformity, workability, segrega-


tion, bleeding, and setting, affect the ease of placement.
Therefore, contractors need to control these properties by
• Maximizing uniformity.
August 2007
• Maximizing workability.
This technical summary is based on chapter 5 of the IMCP Manual Iowa State University does not discriminate on the • Minimizing segregation.
(Taylor, P.C., et al. 2006. Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for basis of race, color, age, religion, national origin,
Concrete Pavement: A State-of-the-Practice Manual, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State sexual orientation, gender identity, sex, marital
• Controlling bleeding.
University [FHWA HIF-07-004] [www.cptechcenter.org/publications/ status, disability, or status as a U.S. veteran. • Controlling setting.
imcp/]) and was sponsored by the Federal Highway Administration. Inqueries can be directed to the Director of Equal
(References for any citations in this summary are at the end of the chapter.) Opportunity and Diversity, Iowa State University, Early-age cracking can be highly influenced by controlling
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed 3680 Beardshear Hall, 515-294-7612. additional fresh concrete properties (see Technical
in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the
view of Federal Highway Administration or Iowa State University. For More Information Summary 5c):
Marcia Brink, Managing Editor • Optimizing strength gain.
CP Tech Center Mission CP Tech Center, Iowa State University
The mission of the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center 2711 S. Loop Drive, Suite 4700 • Understanding modulus of elasticity. Figure 1. Good stockpile management is important for minimizing
is to unite key transportation stakeholders around the central goal of Ames, IA 50010-8664 • Controlling temperature. aggregate segregation (photo by American Concrete Pavement
advancing concrete pavement technology through research, tech transfer, 515-294-8103, mbrink@iastate.edu
and technology implementation. www.cptechcenter.org/ • Controlling shrinkage. Association).

4
Table 1. Testing for Fresh Concrete Properties To control bleed rate and total bleed amount, the following • Mixing (improved mixing accelerates hydration and
Property Methods Comments
steps can be taken: setting).
• Increase fines.
Uniformity ASTM C 172 / AASHTO T 141 Ensure representative sample Optimizing Strength Gain
• Include air-entraining and water-reducing admixtures.
Strength is a measure of concrete’s ability to resist compres-
Workability Most common = Slump test No existing test directly and comprehensively • Minimize w/cm ratio (higher ratio provides more water
Others = Compaction factor, Vebe, measures workability. sive and flexural stresses, a property that increases over
for potential bleeding).
penetration, and rheology tests time (strength gain).
• Account for the varying effects that different supple-
Segregation No standard test for segregation Easily recognizable with visual inspection mentary cementitious materials (SCMs) have on the Although often interpreted as an assessment of concrete
total bleed volume and rate. quality, there is no direct correlation between strength and
Bleeding ASTM C 232 / AASHTO T 158 Includes two test methods
some other important quality characteristics, such as dura-
Setting ASTM C 403 / AASHTO T 197 Initial set occurs at 500 lb/in2; final set occurs Controlling Setting bility and abrasion resistance. However, strength gain can
Temperature or P-wave for initial set at 4000 lb/in2 Setting is the transformation of concrete from a workable influence susceptibility to early-age cracking (see Technical
plastic to a solid. Initial and final setting times dictate the Summary 5c).
Temperature ASTM C 186 Heat of hydration
ASTM C 1064 / AASHTO T 309 Uses embedded sensors timing of saw cutting and finishing work.
Strength gain is primarily influenced by w/cm ratio and
AASHTO TP 60 Coefficient of thermal expansion To ensure timely setting of concrete, note how the following degree of hydration. To ensure maximum concrete strength,
Strength/ Strength ASTM C 39 / AASHTO T 22 Measures compressive strength of cylinders aspects influence set time: follow these recommendations:
Gain (mix design and acceptance testing). • Temperature (affects setting speed and hydration). • Keep w/cm ratio as low as possible.
ASTM C 42 / AASHTO T 24 Measures cores extracted from the field • System chemistry (type of cement, cement content,
(when disputes about ASTM C 39 data). • Ensure adequate compaction.
w/cm ratio, and SCMs). • Incorporate SCMs.
Shrinkage ASTM C 157 / AASHTO T 160 Specimen size affects rate and magnitude. • Admixtures (provide accelerating or retarding effects;
timing of addition may influence setting). Understanding Modulus of Elasticity
Modulus of Elasticity ASTM C 469 Dynamic modulus
The stiffness, or modulus of elasticity, indicates how much
ASTM C 215
the hardened concrete moves under load. This value gener-
ally correlates with concrete strength (modulus of elasticity
increases with compressive strength) and is used as an
indicator of the risk of cracking.
Maximizing Workability Minimizing Segregation The following factors affect modulus of elasticity:
Workability refers to the ease of mixing, placing, consoli- Segregation occurs when aggregate and mortar separate, • The aggregates’ modulus of elasticity and proportions.
dating, and finishing concrete. It can also serve as a rough causing some areas to have too little coarse aggregate and • The same factors that affect strength, such as w/cm
measure of uniformity. While considered a fresh concrete others to have too much (figure 2): ratio, kinds of cementitious materials, etc.
property, good workability also benefits the hardened • Low-aggregate / high-paste zone—Increased shrinkage
Controlling Temperature Effects
concrete system by allowing adequate consolidation, thus and cracking; poor abrasion resistance.
Concrete hydration generates heat, and the placement tem-
reducing concrete voids and contributing to strength. • High-aggregate / low-paste zone—High permeability;
perature of material affects the rate of hydration and, thus,
low strength.
To achieve good workability, follow these guidelines: strength gain. The hotter (and more expansive) the mix is
Figure 2. Segregated concrete (photo by Iowa Department
• Follow proper mix proportioning (especially regarding To mitigate segregation, take the following actions: of Transportation)
water content). • Increase the amount of fines.
• Carefully select and proportion aggregates (with con- • Ensure a well-graded system.
sideration given to gradation, particle size, texture, and
Controlling Bleeding
porosity).
Bleeding refers to the water moving to the concrete surface
• Include supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs)
due to the settlement of heavier solids. Although some
with spherical shapes or glassy surfaces (such as fly ash
bleeding reduces plastic shrinkage cracking, excessive
and slag).
bleeding has many negative effects (figure 3):
• Incorporate water-reducing admixtures.
• Reduces strength, surface durability, and abrasion
• Do not exceed the established water-to-cementitious
resistance.
materials (w/cm) ratio. • Delays finishing work (can cause blisters if prematurely
• Ensure adequate air entrainment. sealed).
Evaporation rate and, thus, workability are also influenced • Results in voids below steel and aggregate that can
by temperature and amount of time elapsed. affect concrete strength or lead to corrosion. Figure 3. Bleeding

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