IJCIIS February 2011 Vol. 2 No. 2

International Journal of
Computational Intelligence and
Information Security
ISSN: 1837-7823
February 2011
Vol. 2 No. 2
© IJCIIS Publication
International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Information Security, February 2011, Vol. 2, No. 2
IJCIIS Editor and Publisher

P Kulkarni
Publisher’s Address:
5 Belmar Crescent, Canadian
Victoria, Australia
Phone: +61 3 5330 3647
E-mail Address: ijciiseditor@gmail.com
Publishing Date: February 28, 2011
Members of IJCIIS Editorial Board
Prof. A Govardhan, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India

Dr. A V Senthil Kumar, Hindusthan College of Arts and Science, India
Dr. Awadhesh Kumar Sharma, Madan Mohan Malviya Engineering College, India
Prof. Ayyaswamy Kathirvel, BS Abdur Rehman University, India
Dr. Binod Kumar, Lakshmi Narayan College of Technology, India
Prof. Deepankar Sharma, D. J. College of Engineering and Technology, India
Dr. D. R. Prince Williams, Sohar College of Applied Sciences, Oman
Prof. Durgesh Kumar Mishra, Acropolis Institute of Technology and Research, India
Dr. Imen Grida Ben Yahia, Telecom SudParis, France
Dr. Himanshu Aggarwal, Punjabi University, India
Dr. Jagdish Lal Raheja, Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, India
Prof. Natarajan Meghanathan, Jackson State University, USA
Dr. Oluwaseyitanfunmi Osunade, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Dr. Ousmane Thiare, Gaston Berger University, Senegal
Dr. K. D. Verma, S. V. College of Postgraduate Studies and Research, India
Prof. M. Thiyagarajan, Sastra University, India
Dr. Manjaiah D. H., Mangalore University, India
Dr.N.Ch.Sriman Narayana Iyengar, VIT University ,India
Prof. Nirmalendu Bikas Sinha, College of Engineering and Management, Kolaghat, India
Dr. Rajesh Kumar, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Dr. Raman Maini, University College of Engineering, Punjabi University, India
Dr. Seema Verma, Banasthali University, India
Dr. Shahram Jamali, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran
Dr. Shishir Kumar, Jaypee University of Engineering and Technology, India
Dr. Sujisunadaram Sundaram, Anna University, India
Dr. Sukumar Senthilkumar, National Institute of Technology, India
Prof. V. Umakanta Sastry, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, India
Dr. Venkatesh Prasad, Lingaya's University, India
Journal Website: https://sites.google.com/site/ijciisresearch/
2
Contents
1. Stochastic Behaviour of a Computer Network System ( pages 4-19)
2. Ultra Wide Wavelength Multiplexing/Demultiplexing Conventional Arrayed Waveguide

Grating (AWG) Devices for Multi Band Applications (pages 20-32)
3. An Implementation OF SPARC Architecture (pages 33-38)
4. Rapid Progress of a Thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating Module for Dense Wavelength
Division Multiplexing Applications (pages 39-50)
5. Reliability Analysis For a Summer Air Conditioning System With The Aid Of Boolean
Function Expansion Algorithm (pages 51-62)
6. A Detailed Note on Security Metrics (pages 63-69)
7. Reliability Assessment For a Network Having Standby Redundant Unit With Waiting In
Repair (pages 70-80)
8. Performance Measures of a Multi-Evaporator Type Compressor With Standby Expansion

Valve (pages 81-91)
9. Collaboration Healthcare System between Clinics and Hospitals in Malaysia (pages 92-100)
3
STOCHASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF A COMPUTER NETWORK SYSTEM
Subhash Chander Punhani and Deepankar Sharma

ABES College of Engg. & Tech., Ghaziabad, UP, India
D.J. College of Engg. & Tech., Modinagar, UP, India
Email: deepankarxyz@rediffmail.com
Abstract
This paper analyses a computer network system having one server and two subsystems, namely Switch (I)
and Switch (II). The system has three modes normal, degraded and failed. The system can fail in two cases:
(i) if server fails
(ii) both switches fail
All the failure rates are assumed to be exponential whereas the repair rates follow general distribution. In this
paper, the authors employ the method of supplementary variables to obtain the probabilities of the system being
in various states. Several reliability characteristics of interest of system designers as well as operation managers
have been computed. Results obtained are verified as particular cases.
Key Words: Computer network, reliability analysis, supplementary variables etc.
4
1. Introduction
The IEEE defines reliability as “The ability of a system or competent to perform its
required functions under stated conditions for a specified period of time”. A large number of
papers in the field of reliability theory have analyzed a two unit standby system with three
modes-operative at full capacity (normal mode), operative at reduced efficiency (partial
mode or degraded mode) and failed completely. Dhillon (1981), Gupta et al. (1982,1983) and
Goel et al.(1983) have studied redundant system models under different set of operating
units etc.
The authors, in the present paper investigate a system which consists of one server and
two subsystems - SWITCH(I) and SWITCH (II) connected in parallel with the server having
Ethernet standard. SWITCH(I) consists of n-units say 1,2,3…i…n in parallel and
SWITCH(II) consists of m-units say 1,2,…j…m in parallel as shown in fig-1 below.
1----i----n
SWITCH - I
SERVER
1----j----m
SWITCH - II
Fig- 1: System configuration
Although HUBs and switches both glue the PC,s in a network together, but network
built with switches is faster than one built with hubs. When a hub receives a packet (chunk) of
data (a frame in Ethernet lingo) at one of its ports from a PC on the network, it transmits
(repeats) the packet to all of its ports and, thus, to all of the other PCs on the network. If two
or more PCs on the network try to send packets at the same time a collision occurs. Then all
of the PCs have to go through a routine to resolve the conflict. The process/routine is to
resolve the conflict is Ethernet Carrier Sense Multiple Access with collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) protocol.
Each Ethernet Adapter has both a receiver and a transmitter. A crossover cable is used
for connecting two computers directly together in an Ethernet. A crossover cabled does not
cause collision problem. It hardwires the Ethernet transmitter on one computer to the receiver
on the other. Alternatively switches make multiple temporary crossover cable connections
between pairs of computers.
An Ethernet switch automatically divides the network into multiple segments, acts as a
high-speed, selective bridge between the segments, and supports simultaneous connections of
multiple pairs of computers that don’t compete with other pairs of computers for network
bandwidth. It accomplishes this by maintaining a table of each destination address and its
port. When the switch receives a packet, it reads the destination address from the header
information in the packet, establishes a temporary connection between the source and
destination ports, sends the packet on its way, and then terminates.
5
Fig-2 illustrates a LAN switch providing dedicated bandwidth to devices and

illustrates the relationship of Layer 2 LAN switching to the OSI data link layer. Fig-3
represents the state-transition diagram of considered system.
Fig- 2
2. Literature Review
In this section, author has done analysis for mathematical formulation of the model, its
solution, some particular cases and various results related to reliability estimation.
2.1 Components of the whole system
SWITCH A switch uses store-and-forward techniques to support multilayer switching.

The switch must receive the entire frame before it performs any protocol-layer
operations is a relatively simple multiport device rebroadcasts all data it
receives on each port to all remaining ports. It operates at the physical layer of
OSI network model.
SERVER A server collects data from the entire local networks and creates a substation
database. Often a local human machine interface graphics package uses data
from this database. Servers function at the application layer of the OSI model.
If Ethernet servers are based on industrial personal computers, they have an
MTBF of 14.3 years.
MEDIA In this system, Ethernet uses specialized copper unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
cable connections.
NODES Each HUB consists of norm nodes connected in parallel. IEEE 802.3 supports
the system. Ethernet having broad band signal, analog signal. Each station on
an Ethernet network has its own Network Interface Card (NIC).
6
SIGNALING The base band systems use Manchester digital encoding. Manchester code is
widely-used in Ethernet. It provides simple encoding with no long period without a level
transition.
FRAME FORMAT IEEE 802.3 specifies one type of frame containing seven fields
Preamble, SFD, DA, SA, length/ type of PDU, 802.2 frame and CRC.
Preamble SFD Destination Source Length DSAP SSAP Control Information CRC
Address Address PDU
7 bytes 1 byte 6 bytes 2 bytes Data and Padding 4 bytes
The current system can fail completely only due to failure of server or both the switches. The
failure rates are assumed to be exponential [1]-[5] whereas repair rates follow general
distribution. Employing the supplementary variables technique [9]-[10], we obtain the
following performance measures.
(i) Steady-State Transition Probabilities [6].

(ii) Availability and Reliability.
(iii) MTTF.
(iv) Steady-State Availability of the System [7].
2.2 Assumptions
1. Initially at t = 0, the system starts from state S0.

2. The system has three states viz., good, degraded and failed.
3. The whole system works in degraded state on failure of any one switch.
4. The system fails only when both the switches fail and Server fails.
5. Common cause failure can occur only in state S0.
6. Failures are statistically independent.
7. The system will be repaired only when it is failed completely.
8. All the repairs follow general distribution.
9. Repaired subsystem or unit works like new.
7
DS OH 1 O H 2
PDOO ( x, t )
S9 φs (x)
λS µ S (x)
λHH
λλHH j j
OSOH D j 2j
OS O H1 FH 2
S0 OS O H1 O H 2
POOD (t ) POOF (t )
POOO (t ) S1 S2
λH i λH λH i
i
λH λH
λH j
2
1
OS DH iDH j
O S D H iO H 2 O S D H i FH j
PODD (t )
PODO ( t ) S4 PODF (t )
S5
S3
λH 1
λH 1 λH 1
λH λH S8
O S FH1 O H 2 j O S FH1 D H j
2
OS FH 1 FH 2
POFO ( t ) POFD ( t ) POFF ( x, t )
S6 S7
λH 2
Fig-3: STATE-TRANSITION DIAGRAM
2.3 NOTATIONS
D / D x / Dt d ∂ ∂
/ /
dt ∂x ∂t
N Total number of units in SWITCH(I)
M Total number of units in SWITCH(II)
λH / λH
i j Constant failure rate due to failure of i th / j th unit of
SWITCH(I)/ SWITCH (II)
λH / λH
1 2
Constant failure rate due to failure of SWITCH(I)/
SWITCH (II).
λs Constant failure rate due to failure of server.
µ s ( x)∆ / φ s ( x)∆ First order probabilities that the system repaired in the
time interval {x, x + ∆} .
8
POOO (t ) Pr {System is in state S0 at time t}.

POOD (t ) / POOF (t ) / Pr {System is in state Sk due to failure of jth unit/
PODO (t ) / POOD (t ) / PODF (t ) SWITCH(II)/ ith unit}.
Where k =1,2,3,4,5.
POFO ( x, t ) ∆ / POFD ( x, t )∆ / POFF ( x, t ) ∆ Pr {System is in state Sk at time t due to failure of
SWITCH(I) and elapsed repair time lies in the interval
(x, x + ∆ ) where k = 6,7,8}.
PDOO ( x, t )∆ Pr {System is in state S9 at time t due to failure of
server and elapsed repair time lies in the interval
(x, x + ∆ ) }.
x
K ∫
− K ( x ) dx
S ( s ) = k ( x )e
i
0
where k = µ s , φ s
n ∞
∑ = ∑ ,∫ = ∫ unless otherwise stated.
i i =1 0
The possible transitions between states along with transition rates are shown in Fig.4.
2.4 Formulation of mathematical model
Probabilistic considerations and limiting procedure yield the following integral differential
equations [8]-[10].
[D + ∑ λ ]
∞
Hj + ∑ λ H i + λ s POOO(t ) = ∫ PDOO ( x, t ) µ s ( x)dx

0
∞
4.1
+ ∫ POFF ( x, t )φ s ( x)dx
0
[D + λ ]
+ ∑ λH i .POOD (t ) = ∑ λH j POOO (t ) 4.2
[D + ∑ λ ]
H2
Hj + λ H1 POOF (t ) = λ H 2 POOD (t ) 4.3

[D + λ ]P (t ) = ∑ λ P (t ) + λ P (t )
H1 ODF Hi OOF H2 ODD
4.4
[D + λ + λ ]P (t ) = ∑ λ P (t ) + ∑ λ
H1 H2 ODD HJ ODO POOD (t ) 4.5
[D + ∑ λ ]
Hi
Hj + λ H 2 PODO (t ) = ∑ λ H POOO (t ) 4.6
[D + ∑ λ ]
i
Hj +λ H 2 POFO (t ) = λ H1 PODO (t ) 4.7

[D + λ ]P H2 OFD (t ) = λ H1 PODD (t ) + ∑ λ H j POFO (t ) 4.8
[Dx + D + φ S ( x)].POFF ( x, t ) = 0 4.9
[D x + D + µ s ( x)].PDOO ( x, t ) = 0 4.10
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
POFF (0, t ) = λ H1 [POOF ( s) + PODF ( s ) ] + λ H 2 [POOF ( s ) + PODF ( s ) ] 4.11
PDOO (0, t ) = λ s POOO (t ) 4.12
9
INITIAL CONDITION
POOO (0) = 1 4.13
2.5 SOLUTION OF THE MODEL
Taking Laplace transforms of equations (4.1) to (4.10) and solving one using boundary and
initial conditions, we get
1 5.1 5.1
POOO ( s) =
D ( s)
POOD ( s ) =
∑λ Hj 1 5.2
(s + λH 2 + ∑ λ H i ) D( s)
C ( s) 5.3
POOF ( s) =
D( s )
PODO ( s ) =
∑λ Hi 1 5.4
(s + λHi + ∑ λ H j ) D(s)
A( s) 5.5
PODD ( s ) =
D ( s)
PODF ( s ) =
1
( s + λ H1 )
[
B( s ) + λ H 2 A( s)
1
D( s )
] 5.6
POFO ( s ) =
λH 1 ∑λ Hi 1
5.7
( s + ∑ λ H j + λ H 1 ) ( s + λ H1 + ∑ λ H j ) D( s )
POFD ( s ) =
1
s + λH2
[λ H1 A( s ) + K ( s) ] D1(s) 5.8
1 − Sϕ (s)   1 
POFF ( s ) = λ H 1  C ( s ) + [ B( s ) + λ H 2 A( s)] 
s   s + λ H1 

5.9
 λHi ∑ λHi  1
+ λH2  +
1
 ( s + ∑ λ H + λ H )( s + ∑ λ H + λ H ) s + λ H
λ H1 A( s ) + K ( s ) [ ]
 D ( s )
 j 2 j 1 2 
1 − S µ ( x) 1 5.10
PDOO ( x, s) = λs
S D( s)
The Laplace transforms of the probabilities that at time t system is in up and down state are
given by
10
Pup ( s) = POOO ( s ) + POOD ( s) + POOF ( s ) + PODO ( s) + PODD ( s ) + PODF ( s )

+ POFD ( s) + POFO ( s )

=  1 +
∑ λ H j + C ( s) + ∑ λ H i + A( s) + 1 B( s) + λ A(s) + [ ]
5.11
  s + λ H 2 + ∑ λ H j s + λ H1 + ∑ λ H j s + λ H1
H2
1
[
λ H1 A( s ) + K ( s )] +
λHi ∑ λH j  1
s + λH2 ( 
)(
s + ∑ λ H j + λ H i s + ∑ λ H j + λ H1   D ( s )
 )
Pdown(s) = POFF (s) + PDOO (s)
  
= λH1  C(s) +

1
s + λH1
B(s) + λH2 A(s) 

[ ]
  
 λH1 ∑λHi 
+ λH2  +
1
 (s + ∑λH + λH )(s + ∑λH + λH s + λH
λH1 A(s) + K (s) 

[ ] 5.12
 j 2 j 1 2 
1 − S ( x) 1 − S (s) 
φ µ  1
+ .λ 
s s s D(s)

It is worth noticing that
1 5.13
Pup ( s ) + Pdown ( s ) =
s
Where
D ( s ) = s + ∑ λ H j + ∑ H i +λ s − λ s S µ s ( s)
  
- λ H1 C ( s) +
1
s + λ H1
(
B ( s) + λ H 2 A( s )  )
  
 λ H1 ∑ λ H i
− λH2 
( )(
 s + ∑ λ H j + λ H 2 s + ∑ λ H j + λ H1 ) 5.14
 
+
s + λH2
1
(λ
A( s ) + K ( s )  S φ ( s )
H1 )
 
1  ∑ λH ∑ λH  ∑ λH j ∑ λHi 
A( s) =  + 
( )
j i
5.15
s + λ H1 + λ H 2  s + λ H 2 + ∑ λ H i  s + λ H1 + ∑ λ H j  

∑λ λH ∑λ
(s + ∑ λ )(s + ∑ λ )
Hj Hj
B( s) =
2
5.16
Hj + λ H1 Hj + λH 2
11
C ( s) =
λH ∑λ Hj
(s + λ )( )
2
5.17
Hi + ∑ λ H1 s + λ H i + ∑ λ H 2
∑λ .λ H1 ∑ λ H i
(s + ∑ λ )( )
Hj
K (s) = 5.18
Hj + λ H1 s + ∑ λ H j + λ H 2
2.6 Ergodic behaviour of the system

Using Abel’s Lemma in Laplace transform, viz.
lim s f ( s) = lim f (t ) = f , say
s →0 t →∞
Provided that the limit of the light hand side exists, the time independent probabilities are
obtained as follows:
1 6.1
POOO =
D ′(0)
λ H′ 1 6.2
POOD =
λ H 2 + λ H D ( 0)
C ( 0) 6.3
POOF =
D ′(0)
λ H′ 1 6.4
PODO =
λ H 2 + λ H D ( 0)
A(0) 6.5
PODD =
D ′(0)
PODF =
1
λH
[
B(0) + λ H 2 A(0) ] D′1(0) 6.6
1
λH λH 1 6.7
POFO = 1
λ H′ + λ H 2
λ H′ + λ H D ′(0)
1
POFD =
λH
1
[λ H1 A(0) + K (0) . ] D′1(0) 6.8
2
  1 
POFF = M φ  λ H1 C (0) + ( B(0) + λ H 2 A(0)) 
   λ H1  
6.9
 λ H1 .λ H 1  1
+ λH 2  + (λ H1 A(0) + K (0)) 
(
 λ H′ + λ H 2 λ H′ + λ H1 λH2 )( )   D ′(0)
1
PDOO = M µ s λs
′
D ( 0) 6.10
12
 λ H′ λH
Pup = 1 + + C ( 0) +
λH1 + λH′
+ A(0) +
1
λ H1
B(0) + λ H 2 A(0) [ ]
 λH 2 + λH
λH  1 6.11
λH
+
1
[λ + A(0) + K (0)] +
(λ H′ + λ H ) (λ H
1
)

λH + λ H1  D ′(0)
H1
2 j
  
Pdown =  λH1 C(0) +
1
B(0) + λH2 A(0)  [ ]
  λH1  
 λH1 .λH 
+ λH2  +
1
 (λH′ + λH )(λH′ + λH1 ) λH
λH1 A(0) + K (0)  M φ

[1
D′(0)
]
 2 2  6.12
1
− λs M µs
D′(0)
Also Pup + Pdown = 1

where
d
D ′(0) = D( s ) , ∑ λ H i = λ H1 , ∑ λ H j = λ H and
ds s=0
M K ( K = φ s , µ s ) = − S i′ (0)
K
2.7 Some special cases
2.7.1 When repair rates are constant i.e. repair times follow exponential distribution, setting
θ
S ( s )θ = where θ = µ S , φ s in relation to 5.1 to 5.12, one may get
s +θ
1 7.1.1
POOO ( s ) =
E ( s)
PODO ( s ) =
∑λ Hi 1 7.1.2
s + λ H1 + λ H j E (s)
POOD ( s ) =
∑λ Hj 1 7.1.3
s + λH 2 + ∑ λH j E (s)
C ( s) 7.1.4
POOF ( s) =
E ( s)
A( s) 7.1.5
PODD ( s ) =
E (s)
PODF ( s ) =
1
s + λ H1
[
B( s) + λ H 2 A( s )
1
E ( s)
] 7.1.6
13
POFO ( s ) =
λH 1 ∑λ Hi 1 7.1.7
( s + ∑ λ H j +λ H 2 ) (s + ∑ λ Hj +λ H1 ) E ( s )
POFD ( s ) =
1
s + λH2
[λ H1 A( s ) + K ( s ) ] E1(s) 7.1.8
(1 − S ϕ ( s )   1 
POFF ( s ) = λ H 1  C ( s ) + [ B( s) + λ H 2 A( s )] 
s   s + λ H1 

7.1.9
 λHi ∑ λHi  1
+ λH2  +
1
 ( s + ∑ λ H + λ H )( s + ∑ λ H + λ H ) s + λ H
λ H1 A( s) + K ( s ) [ ]

 E ( s )
 j 2 j 1 2 
1 − S µ s ( x) 1 7.1.10
PDOO ( s ) = λS
s E (s)

Pup ( s) = 1 +
∑ λH j + C ( s ) + ∑ λ H i + A( s )
 s + λH 2 + ∑ λH i s + λ H1 + ∑ λ H j
+
1
s + λ H1
[
B( s ) + λ H 2 A( s ) +
1
s + λH 2
]
λ H i A( s )+ K ( s)] [ 7.1.11
+
λH i ∑λ Hi
 1

( s + ∑ λ H j + λ H 2 )( s + ∑ λ H j + λ H1 )  E ( s )

where,
µS 
− λ H [C ( s ) +
1
E ( s) = s + ∑ λ H j + ∑ λ H i + λ S − λ S
s + µ S  1
s + λH 1
 λ H1 ∑ λ H i
[ B( s ) + λ H 2 A( s)] − λ H 2 ] 7.1.12
 ( s + ∑ λ H j + λ H 2 )( s + ∑ λ H j + λ H1 )
  φ S
+
1
s + λH2
(λ A( s ) + K ( s )  )
  s + φ S
H1
2.7.2 Non-repairable system

The Laplace transform of the reliability when all repair rates are zero of the system is given
by:
A1 A2 A3
R ( s) = + +
∑λ Hj + ∑ λHi + λs λH 2
+ ∑ λ H i λ H1 + ∑ λ H j
7.2.1
A4 A A
+ + 5 + 6
λ H1 + λ H 2 λ H1 λ H 2
The reliability of the system is
− ( λ H + λ H + λ S )t − (λ + λ )t − (λ H + H )t
R(t ) = A1e ∑ j ∑ i + A2 e H 2 ∑ H i + A3 e 1 ∑ j
7.2.2
− (λ + λ )t − λ .t − λ .t
+ A4 e H1 H 2 + A5 e H1 + A6 e H 2
14
Mean time to system failure is given as under

∞ 7.2.3
MTTF = ∫ R(t )dt
0
A1 A2 A3
= + +
∑λ Hj + ∑ λHi + λS λH 2
+ ∑ λ H j λ H1 + ∑ λ H j
A4 A A
+ + 5 + 6
λ H1 + λ H 2 λ H1 λ H 2
 λH2 − λS λH j − λH j
A1 =  +
 λ H 2 − ∑ λ H j − λ S (λ H 2 − ∑ λ H j − λ S )(λ H1 − ∑ λ H j − ∑ λ H i −λ S )
+
∑λ ∑λ Hi Hj
7.2.4
(λ H 1 − ∑ λ H i − λ )(λ − ∑ λ − ∑ λ −λ )
S H1 Hj Hi S
λ ∑λ H2 Hj
+
(λ H 2 − ∑ λ H i − λ )(λ − ∑ λ − ∑ λ −λ )
S H1 Hi Hj S
λ H (λ H − ∑λ − λ + λ ) Hi S H1
+
j 2
(λ H 1 − ∑ λ H j − λ )(λ − ∑ λ − λ )
S H2 Hi S
λ ∑λ ∑λ
(λ − ∑ λ − λ )(λ − λ − ∑ λ − ∑ λ )
H1 Hj Hi
+
H2 − ∑ λH j HI S H2 H1 Hj Hi −λ S
∑λ λH ∑λ 
(λ )(
Hj Hi
+ 
)( )
1
H2 − ∑ λ H j − ∑ λ H j − λ S λ H1 − ∑λ Hi − λS λH 2 − ∑ λH i − λ S 
λH ∑λ Hj (λ H2 − ∑ λH j )
A2 =
(λ )( )(∑ λ )+
1
H2 − ∑ λ H j −λ S λ H1 − λ H 2 Hi − λ H1
∑ λ ∑ λ (λ − ∑ λ )
(∑ λ − λ )(λ − ∑ λ )(λ − λ
Hi Hj H1 Hi
+
Hj − λS H2 H1 Hj H1 H2 − ∑ λHi )
∑λ ∑λ λ
(∑ λ − λ )(λ − λ − ∑ λ )(λ
Hi Hj H2
+
Hj + λS H2 H1 H2 Hj H1 − λH2 ) 7.2.5
λH λH ∑ λH
A3 =
(∑ λH + λS − λH ) λH − λ H − ∑ λH λH − ∑ λH ( ))(
1 2 i
7.2.6
∑ λ ∑ λ (λ + λ − ∑λ − ∑λ )
i 1 2 1 j 2 j
(∑ λ )(λ − ∑ λ )(λ − ∑ λ )
Hj Hi H2 H1 Hj Hi
A4 = 7.2.7
Hj + ∑λ + λ − λ − λ Hi S H1 H2 H1 Hi H2 Hj
∑λ λ
(∑ λ + ∑ λ + λ − λ )(∑ λ
Hj H2
A5 =
Hi Hj S H1 Hi + ∑ λ H 2 − λ H1 ) 7.2.8
15
∑λ
(∑ λ )
Hj
A6 =
Hj + ∑λ Hi − λS − λH 2
∑λ ∑λ
(∑ λ )(∑ λ )
Hj Hi
+ 7.2.9
Hj + ∑ λHi + λS − λH2 Hj −λ H 2 + λ H1
∑λ λH
+
(∑ λ )(∑ λ )
Hi 1
Hj + ∑ λHi + λS − λH2 Hj − λ H 2 + λ H1
2.8 Numerical computation
2. 8.1 Availability analysis
Setting ∑λ Hi = 0.2, ∑λ Hj =0.1, λ S = .1 , µ S = 1, λ H1 = 0.15, λ H 2 = 0.25, φ S = 1 in

equation (5.11), one may get the inverse Laplace transform of Pup (s).
1
Pup (t ) = .7236e −1.2190 t − 6.6652e −.7095t . cos(.3934t ) + .0527e −.7095t
.3934
1
. sin(.3934t ) − .0222e −.1809t . cos(.3748)t − 5.5203e −1809 .
.3748
8.1.1
.1
. sin(3748t ) + 6.9659e −.1098t . cos(.01t ) + 2.3474.e −.1098t sin(.01t )
.01
− .0174e −.0307 t
Putting t = 0,1,2,3--- in 8.1.1 one may get Fig-4
Fig-4
16
2.8.2 Reliability analysis

For the same values setting as above except λ H1 in equation 7.2.2
 .9 0.02 4 λ H1 − .05 ( )
R (t ) = 3 + + −
(
 λ H i − .4 λ H1 − .3 λ H1 − .4 )(
λ H 1 − .3 ) ( )
2.6667.λ H1 (λ H1 − .25) 2.6667λ H1  − 0.4t
+ + e
(λ H1 − .15)(λ H1 − .3) λ H1 − .3 
 .3λ H1 .08(λ H1 − .2)
+ −
 (λ H1 − .25)(.2 − λ H1 ) (λ H1 − .1)(λ H1 − .45)
 −.35t  .3333λ H1  −( λH −0.1) t 8.2.
.01
− .e + e 1 1
(λ H 1 − .45)(λ H1 − .25)   (.3 − λ H1 )(.15 − λ H1 
 .1333(λ H1 − .05)  ( − λH +.25) t  0.45 .2  − λ H 1 t
+ .e 1 + + e
 (.15 − λ H1 )(λ H1 − .2)   (.4 − λ H1 ).(.45 − λ H1 .4 − λ H1 
 .133 1.3λ H1  −.25t
+ .666 + + e
 λ H1 − .15 λ H1 − .15 
For t = 0,1,2,3--- in 8.2.1 one can compute reliability for different value if λ H1 which is
shown in Fig-5.
RELIABILITY VS TIME
20
15
R(t)
10 R(t)
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
TIME
Fig-5
17
2.8.3 M.T.T.F. Analysis
 .9 0.02 4(λ H1 − .05)

MTTF = 2.53 + + −
 λ H1 − .4 (λ H1 − .3)((λ H1 − .4) (λ H1 − .3)
2.6667.λ H1 (λ H1 − .25) 2.6667.λ H1 
+ +  + 2.222
(λ H1 − .15)(λ H1 − .3) λ H1 − .3 
 .3λ H1 .08(λ H1 − .2)
 +
 (λ H1 − .25)(.2 − λ H1 ) (λ H1 − .1)(λ H1 − .45)
.01  1  .3333λ H1 
− +  
(λ H 1 − .45)(λ H1 − .25)  λ H1 + 0.1  (.3 − λ H1 )(.15 − λ H1 )  8.3.1
1  .1333(λ H1 − .05) 
+  
λ H1 + .25  (.15 − λ H1 )(λ H1 − .2) 
1  .045 .2 
+  + 
λ H1  (.4 − λ H1 )(.45 − λ H1 ) .4 − λ H1 
 .133 1.3λ H1 
+ 4 .666 + + 
 λ H1 − .15 λ H1 − .15 
Fig-6 exhibits the variation of MTTF for different values of λ H1 .
Fig-6
3. Results and discussion

This paper analyses the reliability of computer network system consists of a server and two
subsystems connected in parallel. In this way whole system will down only when both the
subsystems are down or server fails. By supplementary variable technique it is concluded that
Steady state transition probability is around 99.55%, system will degrade slowly with time
shown in fig-4. It is also shown that availability and reliability also decreases with time as
shown in fig-5. This study also describes that how MTTF will effect with respect to failure
rate as shown in fig-6.
18
REFERENCES
[1] Barlow, R.E; Proschan, F. (1965): “Mathematical Theory of Reliability”, New York; John Wiley.
[2] Chung, W, K (1988): “A K-out-of-n:G redundant system with dependant failure rates and common cause
failures”, Microelectron. Reliability U.K., Vol 28: 201-203.
[3] Gnedenko, B.V; Belayer, Y.K; Soloyar (1969): “Mathematical Methods of Reliability Theory”, Academic
press, New York.
[4] Gupta, P.P.; Gupta, R.K. (1986): “Cost analysis of an electronic repairable redundant system with critical
human errors”, Microelectron . Reliab. , U.K, Vol 26: 417-421.
[5] Nagraja, H.N.; Kannan, N.; Krishnan, N.B. (2004): “Reliability”, Springer Publication.
[6] Pandey, D.; Jacob, Mendus 1995: “Cost analysis, availability and MTTF of a three state standby complex
system under common-cause and human failures”, Microelectronic . Reliab., U.K., Vol. 35: 91-95.
[7] Sharma, S.K. ;Sharma, Deepankar ; Masood, Monis (2005): “Availability estimation of urea
manufacturing fertilizer plant with imperfect switching and environmental failure”, Journal of
combinatorics, information & system sciences, Vol.29 (1-4) : 135-141.
[8] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma, Jyoti (2005); “Estimation of reliability parameters for telecommunication
system”, Journal of combinatorics, information & system sciences, Vol.29 (1-4): 151-160.
[9] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma (2010); “Cost Estimation for ATM with Pre-emptive Resume Repair”,
Published, International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Information Security, Australia, Vol-1,
No-9, PP 119-127.
[10] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma (2010); “Reliability Forecast for Tele-communication System”, Published,
International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Information Security, Australia, Vol-1, No-9, PP
110-118.
19
Ultra Wide Wavelength Multiplexing/Demultiplexing Conventional

Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG) Devices for Multi Band Applications
Ibrahim M. El-dokany1, Abd El–Naser A. Mohamed2, Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed3*, and
Mahmoud M. A. Eid4
1,2,3,4
ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menouf 32951, Menoufia University, EGYPT
3*
E-mail: ahmed_733@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper has proposed new materials based conventional arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) devices such
as pure silica glass (SiO2), Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) , and gallium aluminum arsenide (Ga(1-x)Al(x)As) materials
for multiplexing and demultiplexing applications in interval of 1.45 µm to 1.65 µm wavelength band, which
including the short , conventional , long , and ultra long wavelength band. Moreover we have taken into account
a comparison between these new materials within operating design parameters of conventional AWG devices
such as diffraction order, length difference of adjacent waveguides, focal path length, free spectral range or
region, maximum number of input/output wavelength channels, and maximum number of arrayed waveguides.
As well as we have employed these materials based AWG to include Multi band applications under the effect of
ambient temperature variations.
Keywords: Diffraction order; Multi band wavelengths; Ultra long wavelength band; Arrayed waveguide grating
(AWG); Multiplexing/Demultiplexing applications.
20
1. Introduction
The increase on the demand of these services, related to the deregulation processes in USA and Europe in
the telecommunications sector [1], has motivated the need of telecommunication transport networks with higher
capacity and flexibility. Hence, the general trend in the all the disciplines of telecommunications in the last
decade, has been the increase of the capacity and flexibility of existing networks, and the deployment of new
networks to cope with the mentioned demand. Therefore, new technologies have appeared and been developed in
this period. The discipline of photonics and fiber optic communications has attracted a lot of interest, and has
been one of the fields with major increase during this period. Several photonics and optics technologies have
made feasible the increase and development of the capacity and flexibility in existing and new
telecommunications networks. Nevertheless, two optic technologies have been recognized as the main
contributors. First, optical amplification, which has enabled optical fiber transmission systems with higher
repeater spacing. Second [2], wavelength division multiplexing, WDM, which has been first used to increase the
transmission capacity of point to point optical fiber links, by using serveral wavelengths in the same fiber, to
transmit several independent information channels. Optical Raman, Erbium doped and semiconductor amplifiers
can regenerate several optical channels at the same time, avoiding the demultiplexer and optoelectronic
conversion of each one of the channels in a WDM technique [2, 3]. Nevertheless, the use of multiple
wavelengths within a fiber, i.e. WDM, has also revealed the possibility of what today is known as all-optical
networks, in which the network operations are performed directly in the optical domain, without optoelectronic
conversion. The latter has posed several challenges to optics engineers, which can be summarized in the
following: the need to design components and systems capable of performing processing of WDM signals [5].
In the present study, we have employed three different materials based conventional AWG for multi-
wavelength bands for multiplexing and demultiplexing techniques for multi band applications. Also we are taken
into account the physical operating parameters of materials based AWG over wide range of the affecting
parameters under the temperature variations from room temperature to 65 ºC.
2. General Description of Conventional AWG Model

AWG is an optical device that can separate the channels of a WDM set, or if operated reversely, combine
channels of different wavelengths to form a WDM set, as shown in Fig. 1. (a). From left to right in the figure, the
channels in the input port are separated to the output ports. Conversely, the device operation can be described
from right to left. The channels with different wavelengths present as inputs in the ports at the right hand side of
the device, are combined in the port on the left hand side. AWG is the wavelength dependency, together with
spatial separation/combination. In fact [6], the AWG can be regarded as having a bank of pass band filters,
where each filter allows a channel to pass depending on its wavelength is represented in Fig. 1. (b). Thus, the
basic application of an AWG is the combination and separation of wavelengths, multiplexer and demultiplexer
respectively. The AWG is a passive optical component, and the WDM channels experience some insertion loss,
as in other type of optical filters.
Fig. 1. Separation/combination of channels from/to a WDM set with an AWG (a), and illustration of the AWG as a bank of
pass band filters (b).
The number of WDM channels that an AWG can handle, and their spacing, depends on the design of the device.
The internal construction of an AWG is based in optical waveguides laid over a solid substrate. Hence, the AWG
is an integrated-optic component belonging to the family of planar devices, known as Planar Light wave
Circuits, PLC. The waveguide arrangement is shown in Fig. 2. There are input waveguides that may be
connected to fibers. The light at the input, formed by several wavelengths, is coupled to the arrayed waveguides
by means of a slab coupler, which is also known as free propagation region.
21
Fig. 2. AWG waveguide layout.

The arrayed waveguides have different lengths, specifically; the path length difference between adjacent
waveguides is constant. The different wavelengths of the light experience different phase changes within the
arrayed waveguides. The latter, combined with the second slab coupler, produces the spatial separation of the
wavelengths composing the light incoming to the device [7].
3. Modeling Basics and Analysis
3. 1. Materials based arrayed waveguide grating
3. 1. 1. Pure silica glass (SiO2) based material
The refractive index of this waveguide is cast under the Sellemier equation as the following [8]:
A1λ2 A3λ2 A5λ2
n2 = 1 + + + (1)
λ − 2
A22 λ −
2
A42 λ − A62
2
The set of parameters is recast and dimensionally adjusted as: A1= 0.691663, A2=a2T; a2 = (0.0684043/To), A3=
0.4079426, A4=a4T; a4 = (0.1162414/T0), A5= 0.8974794, and A6=a6T; a6 = (9.896161/T0). Where T is the
temperature of the material in ºC, T0 is the room temperature and is considered 25 ºC. Then the differentiation of
Eq. (1) w. r. t operating wavelength λ yields:
 A A2 A3A42 A5A62 
= −(λ n) . 
dn 1 2
+ +  (2)
dλ ( λ2 − A22 ) (λ
2 2
) ( λ − A62 )2 
− A42 2 2
The differentiation of Eq. (1) w. r. t T gives:

dn
dT
( )  AA a
= λ2 n .  1 2 2 2 +
A3A4a4
+
A5 A6 a6 

 ( λ2 − A22 ) ( λ2 − A42 )2 ( λ2 − A62 )2 
(3)
3.1. 2. Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) based material

The refractive index of this waveguide is cast under the Sellemier equation as the following [9]:
B3 + B4M B7 + B8M
n2 = B1 + B2M + + − B10λ2 (4)
λ2 − (B5 + B6M)2 λ2 − B92
The set of parameters is dimensionally adjusted as: B1=5.35583, B2=4.629x10-7, B3=0.100473, B4=3.862x10-8,
B5=0.20692, B6= -0.89x10-8, B7=100, B8=2.657x10-5, B9=11.34927, B10=0.015334, and M= (T-To). (T+570.82).
Equation (4) can be simplified as:
B34 B78
n2 = B12 + + − B10λ2 (5)
λ2 − B562 λ2 − B92
B12=B1+(B2M), B34=B3+(B4M); B56=B5+(B6M), and B78=B7+(B8M). Differentiation of Eq. (5) w. r. t λ yields:
 
= −(λ n) 
dn B34 B78
+ + B10 (6)
dλ  (λ − B56 )
2 2 2
(λ − B9 )
2 2 2

dn (dM/ dT)  B (λ2 − B562 ) + (2B6B34B56) B8 
= B2 + 4 +  (7)
dT 2n  (λ2 − B562 )2 (λ2 − B92 ) 
Where (dM/dT)=2T+(570.82-To).
3.1. 3. Gallium aluminum arsenide (Ga(1-x)Al(x)As) based material
Parameters required to characterize the temperature and operating wavelength dependence of the refractive-
index, where Sellmeier equation is under the form of [10]:
C2
n2 = C1 + − C4λ2 (8)
λ2 − C3
The set of parameters is recast and dimensionally adjusted as [8]: C1= 10.906-2.92x, C2= 0.97501, C3=c3T2; c3=
(0.52886-0.735x/To)2, for x < 0.36. And C4=c4 (0.93721+ 2.0857x10-4T); c4=0.002467(1.14x+1). Differentiation
of Eq. (8) w. r. t λ gives:
22
 
= −(λ n) 
dn C2 
+ (9)
( )
C4
dλ  2
λ −C
2 
 3 
 
= (1 2n)  3 2 2 −(2.0857×10−4 c4λ2 )
dn 2c C T
(10)
dT (
 2
 λ −C3 ) 

3. 2. Operating parameters of AWG
We expressed the corresponding grating order a function of operating wavelength range according to its
band applications for a certain spectrum range as [11]:
λ
m= , (11)
λf − λ
Where m is the diffraction order, λ is the operating wavelength, λf is the final wavelength. The diffraction
order is an important parameter. Once the diffraction order m is determined, some other parameters of the AWG
device are also determined, such as the length difference of adjacent waveguides, focal length of the slab optical
waveguide, free spectral range, maximum number of I/O wavelength channels, and number of the arrayed
waveguides. The path length difference between adjacent arrayed optical waveguides ∆L is given by [12]:
mλ0
∆L = , (12)
n
Where, n is the refractive-index of AWG, and λ0 is the center wavelength of the arrayed waveguide in µm. The
focal length of slab waveguide (Lf) is given by the following equation [12]:
ns d 2 n
Lf = , (13)
m ∆λ n g
Where ns is the effective index of the slab waveguide, d is the pitch length of adjacent input/output channels and
arrayed waveguides in µm, ∆λ is the wavelength channel spacing in nm, and ng is the group refractive index and
is given as the following:
dn
n g = n − λ0 , (14)
dλ
An important property of the AWG is the free spectral range (FSR), also known as the demultiplexer periodicity.
This periodicity is due to the fact that constructive interface at the output free spectral range or region can occur
for a number of wavelengths. The free spectral range denotes the wavelength and frequency spacing between the
maximum of the interface pattern because of the characteristic of the AWG transfer function, and can be [12]:
λ0 n
FSR = , (15)
m ng
The maximum number of I/O wavelength channels Nmax depends on the FSR. The bandwidth of the multiplexed
light, that is Nmax ∆λ must be narrow than an FSR to prevent the overlapping of orders in the spectral region.
Therefore, Nmax can be derived as follows [12]:
 FSR 
N max = int eger   , (16)
 ∆λ 
The number of the arrayed waveguides P is not a dominant parameter in the AWG design because the
wavelength channel spacing ∆λ and maximum number of wavelength channels Nmax do not depend on it.
Generally, P is selected so that the number of the arrayed waveguides is sufficient to make the numerical
aperture (NA), in which they form a greater number than the input/output waveguides, such that almost all the
light diffracted into the free space region is collected by the array aperture. As a general rule, this number should
be bigger than four times the number of wavelength channels [13, 14]:
 FSR 
P = 4 int eger  . (17)
 ∆λ 
4. Simulation Results and Discussions
We have investigated the new materials based arrayed waveguide grating optical devices for multi-band
multiplexing/demultiplexing applications. In fact, the employed software computed the variables under the
following operating parameters, for temperature variations from T=25 ºC to T=65 ºC. and also under different
channel spacing ∆λ=0.4 nm and ∆λ=0.2nm.
23
Table1. Typical values of operating parameters in proposed model [13].
Operating parameter Symbol Value

Final wavelength λf 1.65 µm
Center wavelength λ0 1.55 µm
Pitch length d 15 µm
Slab refractive-index ns 3.06
4. 1. Variations of the diffraction order

Variations of the diffraction order m are investigated against variations of the controlling set of parameters
as displayed in Fig. 3 for all materials used in our research (SiO2, LiNbO3 ,Ga(1-x)AlxAs). This figure clarifies
that while operating wavelength λ increases, this leads to diffraction order m also increases at the assumed set of
the operating parameters.
4. 2. Variations of the path length difference between adjacent arrayed waveguides
Variations of ∆L are investigated against variations of the controlling set of parameters as displayed in Fig.
4 for all material used in our research (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs ). This figure clarifies the following results:
i. As diffraction order m increases this results in path length difference ∆L also increases for all materials
based conventional AWG.
ii. For certain value of diffraction order m, the value of path length difference ∆L for SiO2 is the largest than
LiNbO3 and Ga(1-x)AlxAs.
4.3. Variations of the free spectral range
Variations of FSR, are investigated against variations of the set of parameters as displayed in Figs. (5, 6) for
all materials used in research (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs ). These figures clarify the following results:
i. As diffraction order m increases, FSR decreases for all materials based conventional AWG.
ii. For certain value of diffraction order m, value of FSR for SiO2 is larger than LiNbO3 and Ga(1-x)AlxAs.
iii. As ambient temperature T increases, FSR decreases for all materials, but in the case of using Ga(1-x)AlxAs
there was significant decreasing.
4. 4. Variations of the path focal length of slab waveguide
Variations of path focal length Lf, are investigated against variations of the controlling set of parameters as
displayed in Figs. (7-10) for all material used in our research (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs ). These figures clarify
the following results:
i. As diffraction order m increases, this results in decreasing of path focal length of slab waveguide for all
materials based conventional AWG.
ii. For certain value of diffraction order m, value of path focal length of slab waveguide for SiO2 is the largest
than LiNbO3 and Ga(1-x)AlxAs.
iii. As ambient temperature T increases, this leads to decrease in path focal length for all materials, but in the
case of using Ga(1-x)AlxAs there was significant decreasing.
iv. As channel spacing ∆λ decreases, this results in increasing path focal length of slab waveguide for all
materials based conventional AWG.
4. 5.Variations of maximum number of I/O wavelength channels
Variations of Nmax, are investigated against variations of the assumed set of parameters as displayed in Figs.
(11-14) for all materials based conventional AWG devices in our research (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs). These
figures clarify the following results:
i. As diffraction order m increases, this results in maximum number of transmitted channels Nmax decreases
for all materials based conventional AWG devices.
ii. For certain value of diffraction order m, SiO2 based AWG presents the largest number of transmitted
channels than LiNbO3 and Ga(1-x)AlxAs.
iii. As ambient temperature T increases, this leads to decrease in number of transmitted channels Nmax for all
materials, but in the case of using Ga(1-x)AlxAs, there was significant decreasing.
iv. As channel spacing ∆λ decreases, this results in increasing number of transmitted channels for all materials
based conventional AWG.
4. 6. Variations of number of the arrayed waveguides
Variations of P, are investigated against variations of the controlling set of parameters as displayed in Figs.
(15-18) for all materials used in our research (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs). These figures clarify the following
results:
i. As diffraction order m increases, this leads to decrease in number of arrayed waveguides for all used
materials.
24
ii. For certain value of diffraction order m, number of arrayed waveguides for SiO2 is the largest than LiNbO3
and Ga(1-x)AlxAs
iii. As ambient temperature T increases, this results in decreasing number of arrayed waveguides for all
materials, but in case of using Ga(1-x)AlxAs there was significant decreasing.
25
26
27
28
29
iv. As channel spacing ∆λ decreases, this leads to increase number of arrayed waveguides for all use materials.
4. 7. Variations of the refractive index
Variations of refractive-index n, are investigated against variations of the controlling set of parameters as
displayed in Figs. (19-21) for all materials based conventional AWG devices (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs).
These figures clarify the following results:
i. As diffraction order m increases, refractive index n decreases for all used materials.
ii. For certain value of diffraction order m and ambient temperature T, the refractive index n for SiO2 is the
lowest than LiNbO3 and Ga(1-x)AlxAs.
30
iii. As ambient temperature T increases, refractive index n increases for all materials based conventional AWG.
4. 8. Variations of dn/dT
Variations of dn/dT are investigated against variations of the controlling set of parameters as displayed in
Figs. (22-24) for all materials based conventional AWG devices (SiO2, LiNbO3, Ga(1-x)AlxAs). These figures
clarify the following results:
a) Within the effect of ambient temperature:
i. For SiO2: As ambient temperature T increases, rate of change of refractive-index with respect to
temperature dn/dT decreases exponentially until reach to approximate value of 39 °C, as well as there is
slightly decreasing until reaches to approximate value of 51 °C, and after that there is exponential
increasing.
ii. For LiNbO3: As ambient temperature T increases, rate of change of refractive-index with respect to
temperature dn/dT increases linearly.
iii. For Ga(1-x)AlxAs: As ambient temperature T increases, rate of change of refractive-index with respect to
temperature dn/dT increases exponentially.
b) Within the effect of wavelength at certain temperature:
i. For SiO2: As operating signal wavelength λ increases, dn/dT also increases exponentially until reaches to
approximate value of 39 °C , and after that as λ increases, dn/dT decreases exponentially.
ii. For both LiNbO3 & Ga(1-x)AlxAs: As operating wavelength λ increases, dn/dT decreases.
5. Conclusions
In a summary, we have investigated the ultra wide wavelength multiplexing/demultiplexing conventional
AWG for multi band applications. It is observed that the increased diffraction order, the decreased refractive
index for all materials based AWG devices. We have indicated that the increased of both ambient temperature
and diffraction order, the decreased number of arrayed waveguides. As well as the decreased of ambient
temperature, channel spacing, and diffraction order, this results in increasing of number of input/output
wavelength channels. Moreover we have observed that SiO2 based material for AWG devices presents the
highest number of transmitted channels than the other materials based conventional AWG. So SiO2 material
based for conventional AWG is the best candidate for core material than the other materials used in our research.
REFERENCES
[1] Abd El-Naser A. Mohammed, Gaber E. S. M. El-Abyad, Abd El-Fattah A. Saad, and Ahmed Nabih Zaki
Rashed, “High Transmission Bit Rate of A thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG) Module in Passive
Optical Networks,” IJCSIS International Journal of Computer Science and Information Security, Vol. 1, No.
1, pp. 13-22, May 2009.
[2] H. Kosek, Y. He, X. Gu, and X. Fernando, “All Optical Demultiplexing Closely Spaced Multimedia Radio
Over Fiber Signals Using Subpicometer Fiber Bragg Grating,” Journal of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 13,
No.4, pp. 191-200, 2006.
[3] J. Ma, J. Yu, C. Yu, X. Xin, J. Zeng, and L. Chen, “Fiber Dispersion Influence on Transmission of the
Optical Millimeter Waves Generated Using LN-MZM Intensity Modulation,” J. of Ligthwave Technol.,
Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 3244–3256, 2007.
[4] Yang, Y., C. Lou, H. Zhou, J. Wang, and Y. Gao, “Simple pulse compression scheme based on filtering self-
phase modulation broadened spectrum and its application in an optical time-division multiplexing systems,”
Appl. Opt., Vol. 45, 7524–7528, 2006.
[5] S. Sawetanshumala, and S. Konar, “Propagation of a mixture of Modes of A laser Beam in A medium With
Securable Nonlinearity,” Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 65–77,
2006.
[6] R. Gangwar, S. P. Singh, and N. Singh, “Soliton Based Optical Communication,” Progress In
Electromagnetics Research, PIER Vol. 74, No.3, pp. 157–166, 2007.
[7] A. Sangeetha , S. K. Sudheer, and K. Anusudha, “Performance Analysis of NRZ, RZ, and Chirped RZ
Transmission Formats in Dispersion Managed 10 Gbit/sec Long Haul WDM Lightwave Systems,”
International Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 103-105, May 2009.
[8] ITU-T, series G, “General aspects of optical fiber cable,” pp. 10-11, 2009.
[9] D. H. Jundt, “Temperature-dependent Sellmeier equation for the index of refraction, ne, in congruent lithium
niobate,” Optics Letters, Vol. 22, No. 20, pp.1553-1555, 1997.
[10] Osama A. Oraby, “Propagation of An Electromagnetic Beams in Nonlinear Dielectric Slab Wave Guides,”
Minufiya Journal of Electronic Engineering Research, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 27-44, 2006.
[11] J. Qiao, F. Zhao, J. W. Horwitz, R. T. Chen, and W. W. Morey “A thermalized Low Loss Echelle Grating
Based Multimode Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexer,” J. Applied Optics, Vol. 41, No. 31, pp. 6567-
6575, 2002.
31
[12] Abd El-Naser A. Mohammed, Abd El-Fattah A. Saad, and Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed, “Matrices of the
Thermal and Spectral Variations for the fabrication Materials Based Arrayed Waveguide Grating Devices,”
International Journal of Physical Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 205-211, April 2009.
[13] Abd El-Naser A. Mohammed, Abd El-Fattah A. Saad, and Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed, “Estimated
Optimization Parameters of Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG) for C-Band Applications,” International
Journal of Physical Sciences, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 149-155, April 2009.
[14] Abd El-Naser A. Mohammed, Abd El-Fattah A. Saad, and Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed, “Thermal Sensitivity
Coefficients of the Fabrication Materials Based A thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG) in Wide
Area Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing Optical Networks,” International Journal of Engineering and
Technology (IJET), Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 131-139, June 2009.
32
An Implementation OF SPARC Architecture

¹K A Parthasarathy and ² Dr.Arun Singh
1 Research Scholar, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India

2 Professor, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India
Kaps_wwh2003@yahoo.com
Abstract
In this paper the author describes an overview of the internal structure and main features of the SPARC
processor. The SPARC architecture was designed by Sun Microsystems. The name SPARC stands for Scalable
Processor Architecture. The idea of scalability arises from two sources. The first is that the architecture may be
implemented in any of a variety of different ways giving rise to SPARC machines ranging from embedded
microcontrollers to supercomputers. The second way in which the SPARC architecture is scalable is that the
number of registers may differ from version to version. Scaling the processor up would then involve adding
further registers. SPARC was designed as a target for optimizing compilers and easily pipelined hardware
implementations. SPARC implementations provide exceptionally high execution rates and short time-to-market
development schedules. If you are new to the SPARC architecture, this paper will give clear idea about SPARC
architecture, Programming model, Instruction set and features of SPARC architecture.
Keywords : SPARC Processor, Instruction set, Registers, RISC, Pipeline
33
1. Introduction
SPARC, formulated at Sun Microsystems in 1985, is based on the RISC I & II designs engineered at the
University of California at Berkeley from 1980 through 1982. The SPARC “register window” architecture,
pioneered in UC Berkeley designs, allows for straightforward, high-performance compilers and a significant
reduction in memory load/store instructions over other RISCs, particularly for large application programs. For
languages such as C++, where object-oriented programming is dominant, register windows result in an even
greater reduction in instructions executed. Note that supervisor software, not user programs, manages the register
windows. A supervisor can save a minimum number of registers (approximately 24) at the time of a context
switch, thereby optimizing context switch latency. One difference between SPARC and the Berkeley RISC I &
II is that SPARC provides greater flexibility to a compiler in its assignment of registers to program variables.
SPARC is more flexible because register window management is not tied to procedure call and return (CALL
and JMPL) instructions, as it is on the Berkeley machines. Instead, separate instructions (SAVE and RESTORE)
provide register window management.
2. SPARC System Components
The architecture allows for a spectrum of input/output (I/O), memory management unit (MMU), and cache
system sub-architectures. SPARC assumes that these elements are optimally defined by the specific requirements
of particular systems. Note that they are invisible to nearly all user application programs and the interfaces to
them can be limited to localized modules in an associated operating system. The SPARC ISA does not mandate
that a single MMU design be used for all system implementations. Rather, designers are free to use the MMU
that is most appropriate for their application — or no MMU at all, if they wish. A SPARC “Reference MMU”
has been specified, which is appropriate for a wide range of applications. SPARC does not assume all
implementations must execute identical supervisor software. Thus, certain supervisor-visible traits of an
implementation can be tailored to the requirements of the system. For example, SPARC allows for
implementations with different instruction concurrency and different exception trap hardware. A standard
memory model called Total Store Ordering (TSO) is defined for SPARC. The model applies both to
uniprocessors and to shared-memory multiprocessors. The memory model guarantees that the stores, FLUSHes,
and atomic load-stores of all processors are executed by memory serially in an order that conforms to the order
in which the instructions were issued by processors. All SPARC implementations must support TSO. An
additional model called Partial Store Ordering (PSO) is defined, which allows higher-performance memory
systems to be built. Machines (including all early SPARC-based systems) that implement Strong Consistency
(also known as Strong Ordering) automatically satisfy both TSO and PSO. Machines that implement TSO
automatically satisfy PSO.
3. Instruction Set Architecture
The Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) view of a machine corresponds to the machine and assembly language
levels.
• A compiler translates a high level language, which is architecture independent, into assembly language, which
is architecture dependent.
• An assembler translates assembly language programs into executable binary codes.
• For fully compiled languages like C and Fortran, the binary codes are executed directly by the target machine.
Java stops the translation at the byte code level. The Java virtual machine, which is at the assembly language
level, interprets the byte codes.
4. Fetch-Execute Cycle
The steps that the control unit carries out in executing a program are:
(1) Fetch the next instruction to be executed from memory.
(2) Decode the opcode.
(3) Read operand(s) from main memory, if any.
(4) Execute the instruction and store results, if any.
(5) Go to step 1.
This is known as the fetch-execute cycle.
34
5. SPARC Features
SPARC includes the following principal features:
• A linear, 32-bit address space.
• Few and simple instruction formats — All instructions are 32 bits wide, and are aligned on 32-bit
boundaries in memory. There are only three basic instruction formats, and they feature uniform
placement of opcode and register address fields. Only load and store instructions access memory and
I/O.
• Few addressing modes — A memory address is given by either “register +register” or

register+immediate.”
• Triadic register addresses— Most instructions operate on two register operands (or one register and a
constant), and place the result in a third register.
• A large “windowed” register file — At any one instant, a program sees 8 global integer registers plus a
24-register window into a larger register file. The windowed registers can be described as a cache of
procedure arguments, local values, and return addresses.
• A separate floating-point register file — configurable by software into 32 single-precision (32-bit), 16

double-precision (64-bit), 8 quad-precision registers (128-bit), or a mixture thereof.
• Delayed control transfer— The processor always fetches the next instruction after a delayed control-
transfer instruction. It either executes it or not, depending on the control-transfer instruction’s “annul”
bit.
• Fast trap handlers— Traps are vectored through a table, and cause allocation of a fresh register window
in the register file.
• Tagged instructions — The tagged add/subtract instructions assume that the two least-significant bits of
the operands are tag bits.
• Multiprocessor synchronization instructions — One instruction performs an atomic read-then-set-

memory operation; another performs an atomic exchange-register-with-memory operation.
• Coprocessor— The architecture defines a straightforward coprocessor instruction set, in addition to the
floating-point instruction set.
6. SPARC Programming model
The programming model of the SPARC architecture is shown in Figure 1. At any time there are 32 working
registers available to the programmer. These can be divided into two categories: eight global registers and 24
window registers. The window registers can be further broken down into three groups, each of eight registers:
the out registers, the local registers and the in registers. In addition there is a dedicated multiply step register (the
Y register) used for multiplication operations. If a floating-point unit is present, the programmer also has access
to 32 floating point registers and a floating point status register. Other specialised coprocessors may also be
installed, and these may have their own registers. Of the 32 available registers some have fixed or common uses.
The first of these is the global register g0. This has a fixed value of zero, as this is a commonly used constant.
This register may be used as a source register for operations that require a zero-valued operand, or as the
destination register for operations in which the result may be discarded (for example, if the purpose of the
instruction was to set the flags, not to compute a result). Several of the window registers also have dedicated
purposes. The first of these is i7, which is used to store the return address for function calls. Register i6 is used as
a stack-frame pointer when making use of the stack during function calls. Finally, register o6 is used as the stack
pointer. We will see how the function calling and parameter passing mechanisms work later on in the course. For
now, simply avoid the use of these special registers.
35
In addition to the general purpose registers there is also a processor state register (PSR) which contains the usual
arithmetic flags (representing Negative, Zero, overflow and Carry, and collectively called the Integer Condition
Codes -- ICC), status flags, the interrupt level, processor version numbers, etc. One of these bits (the Supervisor
mode bit) controls the mode of operation of the SPARC processor. If this bit is set then the processor is
executing in supervisor mode and has access to several instructions that are not normally available. The
programs that we will write all run in the other mode of operation, namely user mode. Returning to the registers,
associated with the 24 window registers is a Window Invalid Mask (WIM) register. To handle software
interrupts (called traps in the SPARC architecture) there is a Trap Base Register (TBR). Finally, there is a pair of
program counters: PC and nPC. The former holds the address of the instruction currently being executed, while
the latter holds the address of the next instruction due to be executed (this is usually PC+4).
Fig.1 SPARC Programming Model
6.1 SPARC16 ISA
SPARC16 is an extension to the SPARCv8 instruction set and it relies on a regular SPARCv8 pipeline in order
to work. The SPARC16 instructions are simple enough to be translated to their 32-bit counterparts during
execution time. The translation, per se, is accomplished by placing a decompressor between the instruction cache
and the SPARCv8 pipeline, as shown in figure 2. Table 1 illustrates the formats in which SPARC16 instructions
are encoded. Every format is identified by a 5-bit major opcode. Some formats also hold a secondary opcode.
Formats come in different shapes and sizes in order to fulfill specific instruction needs. For instance, I format is
used to accommodate a call and link instruction, which requires a large immediate field, but no registers.
On the other hand, RRR format has no immediate field and is used to encode instructions that operate on three
registers, such as an add, which sums the values held by two source registers and stores the result in a third
register. The RR format is also available and is used to encode SPARC16 instructions that operate on two
registers only, forcing one of the registers to act as source and destination of the operation.
36
Fig 2. SPARC16 decompression diagram
Although this may look like a disadvantage, we can use the bits, otherwise used to encode the third register, in a
more convenient way, such as encoding a larger set of instructions through the use of a secondary opcode.
SPARC16 uses a subset of the SPARCv8 registers. From the 32 SPARCv8 registers, 8 are visible and can be
explicitly referenced by SPARC16. To access hidden registers, two special instructions are provided —
MOV8to32 and MOV32to8. The former moves data from a visible register to a hidden register, the latter
performs the opposite operation. The I2 format is used to represent these instructions by breaking the eight bit
immediate into a three bit field, used to index a SPARC16 visible register, and a five bit field, used to index one
of the 32 registers from the SPARCv8 register bank. These instructions could be used to spill data into the
hidden registers avoiding the emission of memory operations during register allocation. This presents two main
advantages. Firstly, it allows us to mitigate the impact of having a smaller set of visible registers – only 8, since
we use 3 bits to index the register bank in SPARC16. If the aforementioned registers were visible, we would
only have 4 registers left to work with. Secondly, implicitly referencing a register means 3 free bits that can be
used to encode a larger immediate. As an example, we can list ldfp, which is a load instruction, encoded in the
RI format, where the frame pointer is used implicitly as a source register. Large constants are handled using an
auxiliary instruction similar to the MIPS16 EXTEND one. Any instruction with the need of larger constants can
be extended using some bits from the extend instruction. This mechanism is also applied for providing additional
registers to some instructions, allowing some operations from the SPARCv8 not represented in SPARC16 to take
place with only a 16 bit overhead, instead of a mode exchange. Neither MIPS16 nor Thumb used the extend
instruction to encode the third register for an instruction.
Alternating between execution modes can be accomplished by the jmpl instruction, available in SPARCv8 and
SPARC16. The least significant bit in the 32-bit target address determines the target routine’s mode — 0 means
SPARCv8 and 1 means SPARC16. Although the instruction allocation came from an ILP model, SPARC16 was
designed to leave some encoding space for future ISA extensions – as a matter of fact, the MOV8to32,
MOV32to8 and EXTEND instructions were added after we obtained the formats using the ILP algorithm
described in section 4. The bit encoding for each new instruction will be made trying to simplify the conversion
between SPARC16 and SPARCv8. The encoding is not expected to reduce the processor clock by two reasons:
37
(1) The critical path in the SPARCv8 processor, that we are going to use, is not in the Instruction Decode stage,
and (2) The bigger decode lookup table to be used will have 32 lines (5-bit address).
7. CONCLUSION
This paper describes SPARC16 instruction set implemented for the SPARCv8 processor. We first evaluated 7
ISAs to find a good candidate for code compression. Then we analyzed all the instructions and formats usage. To
find the best possible encoding, we used an Integer Linear Programming method and selected the best formats to
minimize the code size. As expected, a SPARC16 program needs more instructions to execute than the
SPARCv8 counterpart, but SPARC16 instructions are smaller, and when using the same cache configuration it
takes less time to fetch all the program instructions to SPARC16 than SPARCv8. We conclude that SPARC 16 is
performing better than SPARCv8.
References
[1] ARM. An Introduction to Thumb. Advanced RISC Machines Ltd., Mar. 1995.
[2] N. Aslam, M. Milward, I. Nousias, T. Arslan, and A. Erdogan. Code compression and decompression for
instruction cell based reconfigurable systems. pages 1–7, March 2007.
[3] A. Besz´edes, R. Ferenc, T. Gyim´othy, A. Dolenc, and K. Karsisto. Survey of code-size reduction methods.
ACM Comput. Surv., 35(3):223–267, 2003.
[4] E. Billo, R. Azevedo, G. Araujo, P. Centoducatte, and E. W. Netto. Design of a decompressor engine on a
sparc processor. In SBCCI ’05: Proceedings of the 18th annual symposium
on Integrated circuits and system design, pages 110–114, New York, NY, USA, 2005. ACM.
[5] T. Bonny and J. Henkel. Efficient code density through lookup table compression. Design, Automation and
Test in Europe Conference and Exhibition, 0:151, 2007.
[6] T. Bonny and J. Henkel. Instruction re-encoding facilitating dense embedded code. Design, Automation and
Test in Europe Conference and Exhibition, 0:770–775, 2008.
[7] J. Bunda, D. Fussell,W. C. Athas, and R. Jenevein. 16-bit vs. 32-bit instructions for pipelined
microprocessors. SIGARCH Comput. Archit. News, 21(2):237–246, 1993.
[8] X. Chen, L. Yang, H. Lekatsas, R. P. Dick, and L. Shang. Design and implementation of a high-performance
microprocessor cache compression algorithm. Data Compression Conference, 0:43–52, 2008.
[9] J.L. Hennessy. The future of systems research. IEEE Computer, page 27®, August 1999.
[10] J.L. Hennessy and D.A. Patterson. Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach. Morgan Kaufmann,
third edition, 2003.
[11] S. Heath. Microprocessor Architectures and Systems: RISC, CISC and DSP. Butterworth- Heinemann,
1991.
[12] Ross Technology Inc. SPARC RISC User's Guide, 1990.
38
Rapid Progress of A Thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating Module for

Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing Applications
Abd El–Naser A. Mohamed1, Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed2*, and Mahmoud M. A. Eid3
1,2,3
ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL COMMUNICATIONS ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Faculty of Electronic Engineering, Menouf 32951, Menoufia University, EGYPT

2*
E-mail: ahmed_733@yahoo.com
Abstract
In the present paper, we have proposed a thermal planar arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) module for
dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) which is composed of one of the following material as a core
such as Pure silica glass (SiO2), Lithium niobate (LiNbO3), and gallium aluminum arsenide (Ga(1-
x)Al(x)As)/Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate dibutyl phathalate (PHFIP 2-FA-DBP) used as over
cladding material/Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate (PHFIP 2-FA) used as under cladding material,
hybrid materials on a silicon substrate has parametrically investigated over wide range of the affecting
parameters. multiplexing technique is processed where multi channels in ultra dense wavelength division
multiplexing in a thermal AWG module. We have theoretically investigated the temperature dependent
wavelength shift of the AWG depends on the refractive indices of the materials and the size of the waveguide. A
thermalization of the AWG can be realized by selecting proper values of the material and structural parameters
of the device. We have taken into account the increased number of channels within DWDM technique over a
thermal planar AWG of hybrid materials. The thermal effects of different hybrid materials employed in the
fabrication of AWG are studied deeply and parametrically for the good performance of such AWG.
Keywords: A thermal AWG, Planar waveguide, UW-DWDM, UW-SDM, PHFIP 2-FA, PHFIP 2-FA-DBP,
Hybrid materials.
39
1. Introduction
The performance of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) optical networks [1] greatly depends on the
spectral characteristics of their components. One key component of WDM networks is the arrayed waveguide
grating (AWG), which can serve as a wavelength router, multiplexer, and demultiplexer. In order to allow the
concatenation of many such devices and reduce the need for accurate wavelength control, their filter response
must approximate a rectangular function. Various techniques have been proposed in order to broaden and flatten
the transfer function of an AWG. AWG is an extremely versatile device that features and combines
simultaneously unique periodic spatial and frequency properties and the possibility of integration on a chip [2].
The AWG has been proposed for the implementation of multiple applications that embrace the fields of devices,
systems, and networks. Examples of these include the production of spectrum-sliced sources, dispersion
compensation, wavelength division multiplexing multiplexers and demultiplexers, tunable filters, wavelength
routing , and optical processing. The range of application is very extensive, and the specific design requirements
may differ substantially in terms of insertion losses and their spectral uniformity, frequency periodicity, channel
bandwidth, cyclic nature, polarization sensitivity, and crosstalk. AWG device capable of providing full
amplitude and phase information of the input, output, and intermediate electrical fields [3].
Arrayed waveguide grating is playing an increasingly important role in dense wavelength division
multiplexing (DWDM) system. The regular AWG device consists of an arrayed waveguide region where all the
individual waveguides are equally spaced on the Rowland circle and the adjacent ones have constant length
difference. The regularity of their positions and lengths leads to the phenomenon that a portion of the Rowland
circle is occupied by the adjacent (undesired) order focused beams of the operation wavelength channels [4]. The
repetitions of the same wavelengths at different locations affect the device potential capacity. The method of
irregularly sampled zero-crossings is discussed in a virtual model first and then extended into the arrayed
waveguide grating application. It has proven to be able to solve the abovementioned problem of regular AWG by
reducing the undesired order focused beams with only the desired ones left. Therefore, those places on the image
plane occupied and useless before are freed now for accommodating new wavelength channels. The rapid
progress of the Internet has led to an urgent need for flexible networks with a much larger capacity. Large-scale
and narrow-channel spacing AWG multi/demultiplexers are very attractive components for such applications
with a view to realizing ultrahigh density WDM systems and multi wavelength light sources by using a spectral
slicing technique. To achieve a larger scale AWG, then to increase its port count. However, as the port count
increases, the length of the slab waveguides tend to increase to make it possible to align all the input/output
waveguide ports along them [5].
In the present study, a hybrid material waveguide with silica-doped as core material, Polyhexafluoro
isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate as overcladding material, Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate dibutyl
phathalate as undercladding material are considered as the most attractive a thermal structure because of its
resistance to the thermo-optic sensitivity of the materials treated over wide range of the affecting parameters.
First, we have presented the principle of the a thermal planar arrayed waveguide grating with the following
materials as a core waveguide such as pure silica glass (SiO2), Lithium niobate (LiNbO3), and gallium aluminum
arsenide (Ga(1-x)Al(x)As)/Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate dibutyl phathalate (PHFIP 2-FA-DBP) used
as over cladding material/Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate (PHFIP 2-FA) used as under cladding
material, hybrid materials are described, and the relative formulas are derived for analyzing the temperature
dependence of the a thermal AWG. As well as we have planned the theoretical analysis of the DWDM
application in a thermal planar AWG are taken into account over wide range of the affecting parameters.
Finally, a conclusion is reached based on the analysis and general discussion.
2. A thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating Module
The index of refraction for the silica-doped glass from which the optical waveguides are made is
temperature dependent, causing the center wavelength of the AWG to be temperature-dependent as well. Fig. 1
illustrates the principle of temperature dependence. Let us suppose that at room temperature (T0), the phase front
of the optical signals propagated in the arrayed waveguide forms an arc at the end of the slab waveguide,
focusing the light at the center output waveguide. When temperature rises above room temperature, the effective
index of refraction neff increases, resulting in an increase in the arrayed waveguide phase difference (2π/λ) (∆L)
neff, where λ is the center wavelength and ∆L is the difference in signal wavelength between adjacent arrayed
waveguides.
40
Fig. 1. Principle of AWG module temperature dependence.

When the phase difference in the arrayed waveguide increases, the phase front becomes tilts, as can be seen in
Fig. 1, and since light has the property of advancing perpendicular to the phase front, its focus point will shift.
That is to say light of differing wavelength will be output from the center output waveguide, and a wavelength
shift will occur [6, 7].
3. Modeling Description and Analysis

As shown in Fig. 2, the thermal AWG with cross sections is designed as square shape with the core width a,
of silica-doped as core material, Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate dibutyl phathalate and
Polyhexafluoro isopropyl 2-fluoroacrylate as undercladding and overcladding materials respectively on a silicon
substrate.
Fig. 2. A structure view of cross-section and refractive index of hybrid materials silica-doped/PHFIP 2-FA-DBP/PHFIP 2-
FA.
3. 1. Refractive index of hybrid materials

3. 1. Pure silica glass core material
The refractive-index of pure silica glass material waveguide based on empirical equation is given by [8]:
A1λ2 A3λ2 A5λ2
n12 = 1 + + + (1)
λ −
2
A22 λ −
2
A42 λ − A62
2
The empirical coefficients of the refractive index of this waveguide is cast as [8]: A1= 0.691663, A2=a2T;
a2=(0.0684043/T0), A3= 0.4079426, A4=a4T; a4 = (0.1162414/T0), A5= 0.8974794, and A6=a6T; a6 =
(9.896161/T0).Where T is the ambient temperature in ºC, T0 is considered to be as room temperature.
Differentiation the empirical equation with respect to operating wavelength λ and ambient temperature [2, 7].
3. 2. Lithium niobate core material
The refractive index of this waveguide is cast under the empirical equation is given by [7]:
B3 + B4 M B + B8 M (2)
n12 = B1 + B2 M + + 7 − B10λ2
λ − (B5 + B6 M )
2 2 2
λ2 − B9
The set of parameters is dimensionally adjusted as [9]: B1=5.35583, B2=4.62x10-7, B3=0.100473, B4=3.862x10-8,
B5=0.20692, B6=-0.89x10-8, B7=100, B8=2.657x10-5, B9=11.34927, B10=0.015334, and M= (T-T0)(T+570.82).
The simplified equation as given in [7]. As well as differentiations of empirical equation w. r. t operating
wavelength λ, and ambient temperature T [2, 7].
41
3. 2. Gallium aluminum arsenide core material

The parameters to characterize the temperature and operating wavelength dependence of the refractive-
index from Sellmeier equation is given as by [10].
n1 2 = C 1 +
C2
− C 4λ2 (3)
λ2 − C 3
The parameters is adjusted as [10]: C1= 10.906-2.92x, C2=0.97501,C3=c3T2;c3=(0.52886-0.735x/T0)2,for x<0.36,
and C4=c4(0.93721+2.085710-4T); c4=0.002467(1.14x+1). Differentiation of empirical equation w. r. t operating
wavelength λ and ambient temperature T [10].
3. 4. PHFIP 2-FA-DBP overcladding material
The refractive-index of PHFOP 2-FA-DBP material waveguide based on empirical equation is given by
[11]:
D1λ 2 D 3λ 2 D5 λ 2 (4)
n 22 = 1 + + + ,
λ 2
− D 22 λ 2
− D 42 λ − D 62
2
The set of parameters of empirical equation coefficients of PHFIP 2-FA-DBP material waveguide as a function
of ambient temperature and optical wavelength are cast as [11]: D1=0.2680, D2= 0.07913 (T/T0), D3= 0.3513,
D4= 0.08381 (T/T0), D5= 0.2498, and D6= 0.1062 (T/T0). Then the differentiation of Eq. (4) with respect to
operating wavelength λ which yields:
 
dn 2  λ   D1 D 22 D 3 D 42 D 5 D 62  (5)
= −   . + +
( ) ( ) ( )
  ,
dλ  n2   λ2 − D 2
2 2 2
 2 λ − D4
2 2
λ − D 6 
2 2
3. 5. PHFIP 2-FA undercladding material

The refractive-index of PHFOP 2-FA material waveguide based on Sellemier equation is given by [11]:
E1λ 2 E3λ2 E5 λ2 (6)
n32 = 1 + + + ,
λ 2
− E 22 λ 2
− E 42 λ − E 62
2
The set of parameters of Sellmeier equation coefficients of PHFIP 2-FA material waveguide as a function of
ambient temperature, and wavelength are cast as [11]: E1=0.4200, E2= 0.05874 (T/T0), E3= 0.0461, E4= 0.08755
(T/T0), E5= 0.3484, and E6= 0.09271 (T/T0). Then the differentiation of Eq. (6) w. r. t λ which yields:
 
dn 3  λ   E1 E 22 E 3 E 42 E 5 E 62  (7)
= −   . + +
( ) ( ) ( )
,
dλ  2 2 2 
 n 3 
 λ −E
2 2
λ − E4
2 2
λ − E 6 
2 2
 2
3. 2. A thermal AWG equations analysis

We have presented a thermal condition formulas of silica-doped/PHFIP 2-FA-DBP/PHFIP 2-FA hybrid
materials AWG on a silicon substrate. The temperature dependence of AWG center wavelength is expressed as
[12].
dλc λc  dnc 
=  + nc α sub  (8)
dT nc  dT 
Where λc is the center wavelength of AWG in µm, nc is the effective refractive-index of the arrayed waveguide
dnc
grating, αsub is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the Si substrate, and is the thermo-optic (TO)
dT
coefficient of the waveguide. By integrating w. r. t temperature then Eq. (8), can be expressed as follows [13]:
λc = C nc e(αsub T ) (9)
Where C is an integrating constant. Assume that λc=λ0, and nc=nc0 when T=T0 at room temperature, we can
determine C as the following expression:
C = o e (− α sub To )
λ
(10)
n co
Where nc0 is the effective refractive index at room temperature. By substituting from Eq. (10) into Eq. (9), we
can obtain the following expression:
λc = o c e[α sub (T −To ) ]
λ n
(11)
nco
Then from Eq. (12), the central wavelength shift caused by the temperature variation can be expressed as
follows:
λ
δλ = λc − λo = o nc e(α sub (T −To )) − nco
nco
[ (12)]
Taking δλ = 0, from Eq. (12), the thermal condition of the AWG can be expressed as follows:
n 
α sub (T − To ) = ln  co  (13)
 nc 
Differentiating Eq. (13) w. r. t temperature, a thermal condition of the AWG expressed in another form as [14]:
42
dnc
= − α sub nc (14)
dT
The effective refractive index of the hybrid materials for arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) is given by [15, 16]:
nc =
β
=
(
k n12 − n22 − n32 b + n22 )
= (n
2 2 2) 2
1 − n2 − n3 b + n2 , (15)
k k
Where β is the propagation constant of the fundamental mode, k is the wave number, and b is the normalized
propagation constant and is given by [15]:
2
 0.9660 
b ( V ) = 1.1428 −  , (16)
 V 
Where V is the normalized frequency. For single mode step index optical fiber waveguide, the cut-off
normalized is approximately V= Vc= 2.405, and by substituting in Eq. (16), we can get the normalized
propagation constant b at the cut-off normalized frequency approximately b ≈ 0.5, and then by substituting in Eq.
(15) we can obtain:
(
nc 2 = 0.5 n12 + n22 − n32 , ) (17)
The effective refractive index nc is dependent on the refractive indices of the materials, then by selecting proper
materials of the waveguide to satisfy Eq. (17), an a thermal AWG can be designed. Differentiation of Eq. (17)
with respect to operating wavelength λ which yields:
dn c  1   dn1 dn 2 dn3 
=    n1
  d λ + n2 d λ − n3 d λ  , (18)
dλ  2 nc 
3. 3. Design parameters of a thermal AWG
The diffraction order m is an important parameter. Once the diffraction order m is determined, some other
parameters of the a thermal AWG device are also determined, such as the length difference of adjacent
waveguides, focal length of the slab waveguide, free spectral range, number of input/output wavelength
channels, and number of the arrayed waveguides. In the following analysis, we have investigated the relations
between the diffraction order m and the above parameters, and we are going to estimate its values. The path
length difference between adjacent arrayed waveguides ∆L is:
mλ0
∆L = , (19)
nc
Where m is the diffraction order, nc is the effective refractive-index of a thermal AWG, and λ0 is the center
wavelength of the arrayed waveguide in µm. The focal length of slab waveguide is given by the equation [17]:
d 2 nc2
Lf = , (20)
m ∆λ n g
Where d is the pitch length of adjacent input/output channels and arrayed waveguides in µm, ∆λ is the
wavelength channel spacing in nm, and ng is the group refractive index and is given as the following:
dnc
ng = nc − λ0 , (21)
dλ
An important property of the AWG is the free spectral range, also known as the demultiplexer periodicity. This
periodicity is due to the fact that constructive interface at the output FSR can occur for a number of wavelengths.
The free spectral range denotes the wavelength and frequency spacing between the maximum of the interface
pattern because of the periodic characteristic of the AWG transfer function, and can be expressed as:
λ n
FSR = 0 c , (22)
m ng
The maximum number of Input/Output wavelength channels Nmax depends on the FSR. The bandwidth of the
multiplexed light, that is Nmax ∆λ must be narrow than an FSR to prevent the overlapping of orders in the
spectral region. Therefore, Nmax can be derived as [17]:
 FSR 
N max = int eger   ,
 (23)
 λ0 
The number of the arrayed waveguides P is not a dominant parameter in the AWG design because the
wavelength channel spacing ∆λ and maximum number of wavelength channels Nmax do not depend on it.
Generally, P is selected so that the number of the arrayed waveguides is sufficient to make the numerical
aperture, in which they form a greater number than the input/output waveguides, such that almost all the light
diffracted into the free space region is collected by the array aperture. As a general rule, this number should be
bigger than four times the number of channels [17]:
P = 4 N max . (24)
43
4. Simulation Results and Discussions

We have proposed the operating center wavelength at room temperature T0=25 ºC is selected to be λ0= 1.55
µm, which is one of the standard wavelengths recommended by the International Telecommunication Union
(ITU) [16]. This AWG device is made on the silicon substrate have a coefficient of thermal expansion of
αsub=2.63x10-6/ºC [16]. Because the environmental temperature of a thermal planar arrayed waveguide grating is
usually changed from 25 ºC to 65 ºC and based on AWG multiplexing application to increases number of
transmitted channels and then to increase number of subscribers within a thermal planar arrayed waveguide
grating of hybrid materials. Based on the modeling equations analysis and the assumed set of the operating
parameters as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Proposed operating parameters for a thermal AWG model.
Operating parameter Value
Ambient temperature (T) 25 ≤ T , ºC ≤ 65
Pitch length (d) 15 µm
Operating signal wavelength (λ) 1.45 ≤ λ, µm ≤ 1.65
Room temperature (To) 25 ºC
Channel spacing (∆λ) 0.2 ≤ ∆λ ,nm≤ 1.6
Center wavelength at room temperature (λ0) 1. 55 µm
Thermal expansion coefficient (αsub) 2.63x10-6/ºC
Core radius (a) 4 ≤ a , µm ≤ 5
Ratio of germania dopant (x) x ≤ 0.3
The following facts and concepts are assured as shown in the series of the shown Figs. (3-14):
4. 1. Variation of the refractive index of the core, n1.
Variations of n1 are investigated against variations of the operating wavelength λ are displayed in Figs. (3-
6) for all materials based a thermal AWG in our research as a core material. These figures clarify the following
results:
iv. As operating wavelength λ increases, this results in refractive index of core n1 for all materials used. In case
of using SiO2 as a core, there is slightly decreasing with increasing the operating wavelength, but in case of
using LiNbO3 or Ga(1-x)AlxAs, there is a significant decreasing with increasing the operating wavelength.
v. As ambient temperature T increases, this leads to refractive index n1 increases also for all materials which
used as core. For certain values of operating wavelength λ and ambient temperature T, value of refractive
index n1 for Ga(1-x)AlxAs is the largest than other materials based a thermal AWG.
4. 2. Variation of the effective refractive-index of the arrayed waveguide grating, nc.
Variations of nc are investigated against variations of the operating wavelength are displayed in Figs. (7-10)
for all materials used in our research as a core material. These figures clarify the following results:
i. As operating wavelength λ increases, this leads to effective refractive index nc decreases for all materials
used. In the case of using SiO2 as a core, there is slightly decreasing with increasing the operating
wavelength, but in case of using LiNbO3 or Ga(1-x)AlxAs there is a significant decreasing with increasing the
operating wavelength.
44
45
46
ii. As operating wavelength λ increases, this leads to effective refractive index nc decreases for all materials
used. In the case of using SiO2 as a core, there is slightly decreasing with increasing the operating
wavelength, but in case of using LiNbO3 or Ga(1-x)AlxAs there is a significant decreasing with increasing the
operating wavelength.
iii. As T increases, nc increase also for all material which used as a core. For certain value of operating
wavelength λ and ambient temperature T, value of effective refractive index nc for Ga(1-x)AlxAs is the
largest than other materials based a thermal AWG.
47
4. 3. Variation of dnc/dT.
Variations of dnc/dT are investigated against variations of the temperature are displayed in Figs. (11-14) for
all materials. These figures clarify the following:
i. For all materials used in our research as a core as ambient temperature T increases, dnc/dT decreases.
ii. For all materials used in our research as a core at a certain value of ambient temperature as operating
wavelength λ increases, dnc/dT also increases.
5. Conclusions
In a summary, we have investigated a thermal AWG for DWDM applications. It is observed that variations
of rate of change of effective refractive-index with respect to ambient temperature at a certain operating
wavelength in the case of a thermal AWG is lower than the case of conventional AWG devices, which emphasis
a thermalization concept with coating with polymeric materials for reducing temperature effects as overcladding
and undercladding materials. As well as we have tested and investigated three different as core materials for a
thermal AWG such as SiO2, LiNbO3, and Ga(1-x)AlxAs. It is indicated pure silica glass presents the lowest rate of
change of effective refractive index against rate of change of temperature than other materials based a thermal
AWG when coating with polymeric materials. Moreover we have demonstrated that the increasing diffraction
order, the decreased free spectral range, focal length of slab waveguide, number of input/output wavelength
channels, and number of arrayed waveguides. Also the increased ambient temperature, the decreased number of
transmitted channels, and number of arrayed waveguides. It is evident that pure silica glass (SiO2) has presented
the highest number of transmitted I/O wavelength channels, and number of arrayed waveguides than the other
core materials based a thermal AWG under the same operating parameters and conditions. As well as we have
compared the operating design parameters for conventional and a thermal AWG are summarized in the following
Table 2 under the same conditions of operating parameters.
Table 2: Best operating parameters of materials based conventional and a thermal AWG for multiplexing/demultiplexing
applications in multi band regions
Materials based Conventional AWG Materials based A Thermal AWG
Same conditions of operation

1.45 µm ≤ Operating wavelength, λ ≤ 1.65 µm, Room temperature (T0)=25 ºC,
Center wavelength (λ0) = 1.55 µm, Channel spacing, ∆λ= 0.2 nm.
Operating parameter Diffraction order, m = 15.5
Materials based AWG Pure silica LiNbO3 Ga(1-x)Al(x)As Pure silica LiNbO3 Ga(1-x)Al(x)As
Free spectral range (FSR), mm 98.72 97.96 95.85
98.73 97.96 95.84
Number of I/O wavelength channels, Nmax 494 490 479
494 490 479
Number of arrayed waveguides, P 1976 1960 1916
1976 1960 1916
Rate of change of the refractive index with
7.43 x 10-4 3.75 x 10-5 3.4 x 10-4 -2.72 x 10-6 -4 x 10-6 -6.11 x 10-6
temperature, dn/dT , °C-1
It is indicated from our comparison that conventional and a thermal AWG presents nearly the same values of
free spectral range, number of I/O wavelength channels, and number of arrayed waveguides. But in the case of
rate of change of refractive index with temperature for a thermal AWG is lower than conventional AWG that
permits low dispersion, losses and high bit rates within a thermal than conventional AWG devices.
48
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[1] Abd El-Naser A. Mohammed, Abd El-Fattah A. Saad, and Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed and Mahomud M. Eid,
“Characteristics of Multi-Pumped Raman Amplifiers in Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
Optical Access Networks,” IJCSNS International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, Vol. 9,
No. 2, pp. 277-284, Feb. 2009.
[2] Abd El-Naser A. Mohammed, Abd El-Fattah A. Saad, and Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed, “Applications of Arrayed
Waveguide Grating (AWG) in Passive Optical Networks,” IJFGCN International Journal of Future Generation
Communication and Networking, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 25-36, June 2009.
[3] K. Suzuki, Y. Hida, T. Shibata, Y. Inone, H. Takahashi, and K. Okamoto, “Silica-Based Arrayed Waveguide
Gratings For the Visible Wavelength Range,” NTT Techanical Review, Vol. 4, No. 6, pp. 48-51, June 2006.
[4] O. M. Matos, M. L. Calvo, P. Cheben, S. Janz, J. A. Rodrigo, D-X. Xu, and A. Delage, “Arrayed Waveguide
Grating Based on Group Index Modification,” J. of Lightwave Technol., Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 1551-1559, March
2006.
[5] L. G. Deperalta, A. A. Bernussi, V. Gorbounor, and H. Temakin,” Temperature Insensitive Refractive Arrayed
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[6] E-S. Kang, W-S. Kim, D-J. Kim, and B-S. Bae, “Reducing the Thermal Dependence of Silica-Based Arrayed
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“High Transmission Bit Rate of A thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG) Module in Passive Optical
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22, May 2009.
[8] ITU-T, series G, “General aspects of optical fiber cable,” pp. 10-11, 2009.
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Minufiya Journal of Electronic Engineering Research, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 27-44, 2006.
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[12] C. S. Ma, Z. K. Qin, and H. M. Zhang, “Design of A thermal Arrayed Waveguide Grating (AWG) Using
Silica/Polymer Hybrid Materials,” Optica Applicata Journal, Vol. XXXVII, No. 3, pp. 305-312, 2007.
[13] Y. Kokubun, S. Yoneda, and S. Matsuura, “Temperature-Independent Optical Filter at 1.55 µm Wavelength
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[14] A. Kaneko, S. Kamei, Y. Inoue, and H. Takahashi, “A thermal Silica-Based arrayed Waveguide Grating
(AWG) Multi/Demultiplexer With New Low Loss Groove Design,” Electronics Letters, Vol. 23, No.4, pp. 3-5,
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International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Information Security, February 2011 Vol. 2, No. 2
50
RELIABILITY ANALYSIS FOR A SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM WITH

THE AID OF BOOLEAN FUNCTION EXPANSION ALGORITHM
Reena Garg
Assistant Prof., Dept. of Maths, YMCA, Faridabad, India
Dr. Deepankar Sharma

Prof.& Head, Dept. of Maths, D.J. College of Engg. & Tech., Modinagar, India
Email: cutereenagm@yahoo.co.in, deepankarxyz@rediffmail.com
Abstract
In this paper, the authors have considered a summer air conditioning system for its reliability analysis. Reliability
and mean time to failure for considered system have been computed with the aid of Boolean function expansion
algorithm. Reliability of the complex system has been computed in case of failure rates follow either weibull or
exponential time distribution. An important reliability parameter, viz; mean time to failure (M.T.T.F.) has also been
computed for considered system. A numerical example together with its graphical representation has been appended
in last to highlight important results of the study.
Keywords: Boolean function technique, Reliability function, Mean time to failure (MTTF), Weibull time
distribution, Exponential time distribution, Algebra of logics.
51
1. Introduction
Boolean function expansion algorithm [3] is based on the well known theorem of expansion of
algebra of logics in conformity. The considered system works as air conditioned for a place in
hot and dry weather like Nagpur, Bhopal and Delhi etc. The comfort conditions required in an air
conditioned space are 24 0 C DBT (dry bulb temperature) and 60% RH (relative humidity). The
arrangement of equipments required for an ordinary system has been represented in fig-1(a). The
block diagram of the system under considerations has been shown in fig-1(b).
In the considered system, two air dampers AD1 and AD2 ; two air filters AF1 and AF2 are
working in parallel redundancy to improve system’s overall performance. The input air passes
through air dampers, air filters, cooling coils, adiabatic humidifier and water eliminator, and then
gives output air. The object of the system is to supply cooled air for selected place. It has been
assumed that the failure rates of various components of considered system follow arbitrary
distribution and there is no repair facility available for a failed component.
Fig-1(a): Summer air conditioning system for hot and dry weather
52
Fig-1(b): Block-diagram of considered system
The following assumptions have been associated with this model:

(1) Initially, all the components of considered system are good and operable.
(2) The states of all components are S-independent.
(3) There is no repair facility available for failed components.
(4) The reliability of all components is known in advance.
(5) The state of every component as well as the system as a whole is either operating or
failed.
Notations used in this model are as follows:

x1 , x 2 States of air dampers AD1 , AD2 respectively.
x3 , x 4 , x5 States of pipes P1 , P2 , P3 respectively.
x6 , x7 States of air filters AF1 and AF2 , respectively.
x10 , x12 , x14 States of cooling coil, air humidifier and water eliminator ,
respectively.
x8 , x9 , x11 , x13 States of pipes P4 , P5 , P6 and P7 , respectively.
∧ /∨ Conjunction/Disjunction.
∩ /∪ Intersection/Union.
xi′ Negation of xi , ∀i
Ri Reliability of the component corresponding to state xi .
53
xi =1, in good state; = 0 in bad state.
Pr ( f = 1) Probability of successful operation of the function f.
2. Literature Review:
By using Boolean function technique [1]-[4], the conditions of capability of successful operation
of the considered system in terms of logical matrix can be expressed as:
 x1 x3 x6 x8 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
x x3 x4 x7 x9 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
F ( x1 , x 2 − −, x14 ) = 
1
…(1)
 x2 x5 x7 x9 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
 
 x2 x4 x5 x6 x8 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
2.2 Solution of the model
By using algebra of logics, equation (1) may be written as:

 x6 x8 
 x1 x3 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
x4 x7 x9 
F ( x1 , x 2 − −, x14 ) =  
x7 x9
 x2 x5 x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
 x4 x6 x8 
 x6 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 x7 x9 
= x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 
x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 x6 x8 
= x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 f …(2)

where,
54
 x6 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 x7 x9 
f = …(3)
 x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 x6 x8 
In equation (3), five arguments ( x 4 , x6 , x7 , x8 , x9 ) are entering twice. Therefore, we can take
expansion from any one of them. Let we choose expansion from x6 ,
 0 x8 
 x1 x3 
 ′ x4 x7 x9 
 x6 x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 0 x8 
f = 
 1 x8 
 x1 x3 
x x4 x7 x9 
 6 x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 1 x8 
= x6′ Y0 ∨ x7 Y1 …(4)
where,
 0 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 x7 x9 
Y0 = 
 x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 0 x8 
 x1 x3 x4 x7 x9 
= 
 x2 x5 x7 x9 
 x1 x3 x4 
=  x7 x9  …(5)
 x2 x5 
and
 1 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 x7 x9 
Y1 = 
 x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 1 x8 
55
or,
 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 x7 x9 
Y1 =  …(6)
 x7 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 x8 
All the arguments in equation (5) appear only once, hence Y0 is non -iterated but the arguments
( x 4 , x 7 , x8 , x 9 ) enter twice in Y1 , therefore any one of them may be taken to perform further this
expansion. Let us conveniently choose x7 and do expansion as follows:
 x8 
 x1 x3 
 ′ x4 0 x9 
 x7 0 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x 4 x8 
Y1 =  
 x8 
 x1 x3 
x x4 1 x9 
 7 1 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x 4 x8 
= x7′ Y10 ∨ x7 Y11 …(7)

where,
 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 0 x9 
Y10 = 
 0 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 x8 
 x1 x3 x8 
=
 x2 x5 x4 x8 
 x1 x3 
=  x8  …(8)
 x2 x4 x5 
and
56
 x8 
 x1 x3 
x4 x9 
Y11 =  …(9)
 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 x8 
In equation (8) all the arguments appear once and so Y10 is non –iterated. In equation (9) the
arguments ( x 4 , x8 , x 9 ) appear twice therefore we may take any one of them for further
proceedings. Let us choose x8 for the next expansion. Thus,
 0 
 x1 x3 
 ′ x4 x9 
 x8 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 0 
Y11 =  
 1 
 x1 x3
x x4 x9 
 8 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 1 
= x8′ Y110 ∨ x8 Y111 …(10)

where,
 0 
 x1 x3 
x4 x9 
Y110 =
 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 0 
 x1 x3 x4 x9 
= 
 x2 x5 x9 
 x1 x3 x4 
=  x9  …(11)
 x2 x5 
and
 1 
 x1 x3 
x4 x9 
Y111 =
 x9 
 x2 x5 
 x4 1 
57
 x1 x3 
 
= x9  …(12)
x x5
 2 x 4 

In equations (11) and (12), all the arguments appear once, hence both functions Y110 and Y111 are
non-iterated and are not subjected to further expansion. Hence equation (4) gives, by using
equations (5) through (12):
 x 6′ Y0 
 
x7′ Y10
f = 
x x8′ Y110 
 6 x7 
 x8 Y111 
 x6′ Y0   H 1 Y0 
x x7′  H Y 
=
6 Y10  =  2 10  …(13)
 x6 x7 x8′ Y110   H 3 Y110 
   
 x6 x7 x8 Y111   H Y 
 4 111 
where, H 1 = x6′ , H 2 = x6 x7′ , H 3 = x6 x7 x8′ and H 4 = x6 x 7 x8 .
Clearly H1 , H 2 , H 3 and H 4 are pair-wise disjoint.

4
 f 
∴ Pr ( f = 1) = ∑ Pr (H i ).Pr   …(14)
i =1  Hi 
or, Pr ( f = 1) = Pr ( x6′ ).Pr ( z1 ) + Pr ( x6 x7′ ).Pr ( z 2 ) + Pr ( x6 x7 x8′ ).Pr ( z 3 )
+ Pr ( x6 x7 x8 ).Pr ( z 4 ) …(15)
where, z1 = Y0 , z 2 = Y10 , z 3 = Y110 and z 4 = Y111 and the events H i (∀i = 1,2,3,4 ) form a
complete group of incompatible hypothesis. Then Pr  f  form the conditional probability of


 Hi 
a good state of the system for each hypothesis.
Now, if Ri be the reliability corresponding to component state xi , then equation (14) gives:
Pr ( f = 1) = (1 − R6 )R7 R9 {1 − (1 − R1 R3 R4 )(1 − R2 R5 )}
+ R6 (1 − R7 )R8 {1 − (1 − R1 R3 )(1 − R2 R4 R5 )}
58
+ R6 R7 (1 − R8 )R9 {1 − (1 − R1 R3 R4 )(1 − R2 R5 )}
+ R6 R7 R8 [1 − (1 − R1 R3 ) × {1 − R2 R5 (1 − (1 − R9 )(1 − R4 ))}] …(16)

Finally, the probability of successful operation, i.e., reliability of the considered system is given
by:
R S = Pr (F = 1) = Pr ( x10 x11 x12 x13 x14 ).Pr ( f = 1)
= R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 [R2 R5 R7 R9 + R1 R3 R4 R7 R9 + R1 R3 R6 R8 + R2 R4 R5 R6 R8
+ R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 + R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 − R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R7 R9
− R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R8 − R1 R3 R4 R6 R7 R8 R9 − R2 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9
− R1 R2 R3 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 ] …(17)
2.3 Particular cases
CASE I: When reliability of each component of system is R:

In this case, equation (17) yields:
[
RS = R 5 2 R 4 + 4 R 5 − 2 R 7 − R 8 + 2 R 9 ]
[
= R 9 2 + 2R − 4R 3 − R 4 + 2R 5 ] …(18)
CASE II: When failure rates follow Weibull distribution:

In this case, the reliability of considered system [6] is given by:
{ }− ∑ exp.{− b t }
6 5
R SW (t ) = ∑ exp. − a i t α
j
α
…(19)
i =1 j =1
where α is a real positive parameter and

a1 = c + λ 2 + λ5 + λ7 + λ9
a 2 = c + λ1 + λ3 + λ 4 + λ7 + λ9
a 3 = c + λ1 + λ3 + λ6 + λ8
a 4 = c + λ 2 + λ 4 + λ 5 + λ 6 + λ8
a 5 = c + λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + λ 4 + λ5 + λ7 + λ8 + λ9
a 6 = c + λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + λ 4 + λ5 + λ6 + λ7 + λ8 + λ9
59
b1 = c + λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + λ 4 + λ5 + λ7 + λ9
b2 = c + λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + λ 4 + λ5 + λ6 + λ8
b3 = c + λ1 + λ3 + λ 4 + λ6 + λ7 + λ8 + λ9
b4 = c + λ 2 + λ 4 + λ 5 + λ 6 + λ 7 + λ8 + λ 9
b5 = c + λ1 + λ 2 + λ3 + λ5 + λ6 + λ7 + λ8 + λ9
and c = λ10 + λ11 + λ12 + λ13 + λ14
where λi be the failure rate corresponding to system state xi .
CASE III: When failure rates follow exponential distribution:

Exponential time distribution is the particular case of weibull time distribution for α = 1 and is
very useful in numerous practical problems. Therefore the reliability function for the whole
system at time instant ‘t’, is given by:
R SE (t ) = ∑ exp.{− ai t} − ∑ exp.{− b j t }
6 5
…(20)
i =1 j =1
where a i′s and b′j s have been mentioned earlier.
Also, in this case, an important reliability parameter M.T.T.F , is given by

∞ 6
1  5 1 
M .T .T .F . = ∫ RSE (t )dt = ∑   − ∑   …(21)
i =1  a i
 
0  j =1  b j 
For a numerical computation, let us consider the values:

(i) λi (i = 1,2,− − 14 ) = λ = 0.001, α = 2 and t = 0,1,2 - - - . Using these values in equation (19),
we compute the table -1. The corresponding graph has been shown in fig-2.
(ii) λi (i = 1,2,− − 14 ) = λ = 0.001 and t = 0,1,2 - - - . Using these values in equation (20), we
compute the table-1 and draw the graph, shown in fig-2.
(iii) Putting λi (i = 1,2,− − 14 ) = λ = 0.001,0.002 - - - 0.01 in equation (21), we compute table-2
and its graphical reorientation has been shown in fig-3.
60
3. CONCLUSION
A critical examination of figure-4 reveals that system’s mean time to failure decreases
catastrophically in the beginning, but later on it decreases at an approximately uniform rate.
Figure-5 shows the changes in Rsw(t) and RSE(t) with respect to time. We observe that the
reliability of the system decreases approximately at a uniform rate in the case of an exponential
distribution but it decreases catastrophically when failure rate follows Weibull distribution.
In conclusion, we observe that we could improve system’s overall performance by using the
concept of redundancy. Boolean function expansion algorithm is easier [7] as compared with the
other techniques to obtain reliability parameters. We have compared the values of reliability
function, in case; failures follow weibull and exponential time distributions. By using the
structural redundancy, we obtain the better values of reliability and mean time to failure for
considered system.
2
MTTF ----->
1.5
1 MTTF
0.5
0
.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1
t ------>
Fig-4: Represents the way in which mean time to failure of considered system decreases with
increase in failure rate.
61
1.2
1
RSW(t) RSE(t) ----->
0.8
RSW(t)
0.6
RSE(t)
0.4
0.2
0
1 3 5 7 9 11
t ----->
Fig-5: Represents the way in which reliability of considered system decreases with time in
case, failures follow Weibull and Exponential time distributions.
REFERENCES
[1] R.Billintan &R.N.Allan: “Reliability Evaluation of Engineering and Systems”, Plenum Press.
[2] K.C.Kapoor & L.R.Lamberson: “Reliability in Engineering and Design”, John Wiely and Sons.
[3] S.K.Sinha & B.K.Kale: “Life Testing and Reliability Estimation “, Wiely Eastern Ltd.
[4] M.L.Shooman: “Probabilistic Reliability, An Engineering Approach”, McGraw Hill.
[5] G.H. Sandler: “System Reliability Engineering”, Prentice Hall.
[6] Gupta, P.P.;Agarwal, S.C.: “A Boolean Algebra Method for Reliability Calculation”,
Microelectronic Reliab., (1983),23,863-865.
[7] Zhimin, He; Han,T.L.;Eng,H.O.: “A Probabilistic Approach to Evaluate the Reliability of
Piezoelectric Micro-Actuactuators,IEEE TR on Reliability,(2005),54, 83-91.
62
A Detailed Note on Security Metrics
P. Ramesh Babu1 P.Vamsi Krishna Raja2

Dept of Information Technology Dept of Computer Science & Engineering
Rajamahendri Inst. of Engg & Technology JNTUK College of Engineering
Rajahmundry-533103, INDIA Kakinada – 533003, INDIA
E-mail:rameshbabu_kb@yahoo.co.in E-mail: pvkrajamtech@gmail.com
G. Swarna Latha3 M. Ramakrishna4
Dept of Information Technology Dept of Electronics & Comm. Engineering
Rajamahendri Inst. of Engg & Technology Rajamahendri Inst. of Engg & Technology
Rajahmundry-533103, INDIA Rajahmundry-533103, INDIA
E-mail:swarna2006@rediffmail.com E-mail:mullaps@gmail.com
Abstract
The key origin of writing this paper is to give sophisticated view on security metrics for students and novice
researchers. During the last few decades, researchers have made various attempts to develop measures and systems
of measurement for computer security with varying degrees of success. Computer security is increasingly becoming
a focal point not only for investment, but also for scrutiny of return on that investment. In the face of regular, high-
profile news reports of serious security breaches, security managers are more than ever before being held
accountable for demonstrating effectiveness of their security programs. What means should managers be using to
meet this challenge? Some experts believe that key among these should be security metrics. Security metrics is an
area of computer security. Security metrics are seen as an important factor in making sound decisions about various
aspects of security, ranging from the design of security architectures and controls to the effectiveness and efficiency
of security operations. This paper provides a definition of security metrics, explains their values and uses, discusses
the difficulties in generating them, and suggests a methodology for building a security metrics program.
Keywords: Security Metrics, Computer Security, Security Evaluation and measures.
63
1. Introduction to Security Metrics
It helps to understand what metrics are by drawing a distinction between metrics and measurements. Measurements
provide single-point-in-time views of specific, discrete factors, while metrics are derived by comparing to a
predetermined baseline two or more measurements taken over time [3]. Measurements are generated by counting;
metrics are generated from analysis [4]. In other words, measurements are objective raw data and metrics are either
objective or subjective human interpretations of those data.
Good metrics are those that are SMART, i.e. specific, measurable, attainable, repeatable, and time-dependent [5].
Truly useful metrics indicate the degree to which security goals, such as data confidentiality, are being met, and they
drive actions taken to improve an organization’s overall security program. Distinguishing metrics meaningful
primarily to those with direct responsibility for security management from those that speak directly to executive
management interests and issues is critical to development of an effective security metrics program [6].
2. The Value of Security Metrics

A widely accepted management principle is that an activity cannot be managed if it cannot be measured. Security
falls under this rubric. Metrics can be an effective tool for security managers to discern the effectiveness of various
components of their security programs, the security of a specific system, product or process, and the ability of staff
or departments within an organization to address security issues for which they are responsible. Metrics can also
help identify the level of risk in not taking a given action, and in that way provide guidance in prioritizing corrective
actions. Additionally, they may be used to raise the level of security awareness within the organization. Finally, with
knowledge gained through metrics, security managers can better answer hard questions from their executives and
others, such as:
• Are we more secure today than we were before?

• How do we compare to others in this view?
• Are we secure enough?
3. Why Metrics Generation Is Difficult

Many in the security industry will agree that the number of successful security attacks an organization has
experienced is not necessarily an indication of how secure that organization is. Luck plays a major role [7] and how
does one measure luck? So, a security manager needs to look beyond the organization’s security incident record for
indicators of security strength. There are further complications they need to keep in mind, however, in their search
for meaningful metrics.
As a case in point, asset value, threat, and vulnerability are critical elements of overall risk and are (or should be)
weighed in most decisions having to do with security. Each of these elements poses difficulties when trying to
incorporate them into a useful security metric. Asset value is the easiest of these three elements to measure;
however, certain aspects of value, such as a company’s good reputation, are hard, if not impossible, to quantify.
Some believe that threat cannot be measured at all, since it is the potential for harm [8], although survey results and
other information gathered from external sources could be useful in quantifying threat at a high level. Some progress
is being made in objectively measuring vulnerability, at least for specific types networked computer devices. For
example, the Center for Internet Security [9] has established benchmarks and developed automated tools to detect
levels of computer system vulnerabilities. Measurements of other facets of vulnerability, such as degree of
understanding of security issues among computer users, remain somewhat subjective.
Security metrics are also hard because the discipline itself is still in the early stages of development [16]. There is
not yet a common vocabulary and not many documented best practices to follow. Those pursuing the development
of a security metrics program should think of themselves as pioneers and be prepared to adjust strategies as
experience dictates.
64
4. Building a Security Metrics Program

To facilitate understanding and acceptance at all levels of a new security metrics program, it is advisable to ground
the program in process improvement frameworks that are already familiar to the organization. The DuPont
Corporation, for example, bases its program on the popular “Six Sigma Breakthrough Strategy”, a marketed
management process that focuses on defect elimination [11]. The First Union Corporation ties its metrics program to
corporate security standards compliance [12]. A representative of Bear, Stearns and Company espouses an audit-
based approach that verifies compliance with industry standard control objectives as well as locally defined
standards [13]. Regardless of the underlying framework, the seven key steps below could be used to guide the
process of establishing a security metrics program.
1. Describe the metrics program goal(s) and objectives

2. Choose which metrics to generate
3. Build up strategies for generating the metrics
4. Launch benchmarks and targets
5. Conclude how the metrics will be reported
6. Form an action plan and act on it
7. Start a formal program review/refinement cycle
This seven-step methodology should yield a firm understanding of the purpose of the security metrics program, its
specific deliverables, and how, by whom, and when these deliverables will be provided. The steps are briefly
described below, and outcome examples, where appropriate, are provided.
Step 1: Describe the metrics program goal(s) and objectives

Because developing and maintaining a security metrics program could take considerable effort and divert resources
away from other security activities, it is critical that the goal(s) and objectives of the program be well-defined and
agreed upon up front. Although there is no hard and fast rule about this, a single goal that clearly states the end
toward which all measurement and metrics gathering efforts should be directed is a good approach. A goal statement
might be, for example: Provide metrics that clearly and simply communicate how efficiently and effectively our
company is balancing security risks and preventive measures, so that investments in our security program can be
appropriately sized and targeted to meet our overall security objectives.
Statements of objective should indicate high-level actions that must be collectively accomplished to meet the
goal(s). An action plan should be directly derivable from these statements. A few objectives for the goal above, for
example, might be:
a. To base the security metrics program on process improvement best practices within our company.
b. To leverage any relevant measurements currently being collected.
c. To communicate metrics in formats custom-tailored to various audiences.
d. To involve stakeholders in determining what metrics to produce.
Step 2: Choose which metrics to generate

Any underlying corporate framework for process improvement, as discussed at the beginning of this section, could
dictate what metrics are needed. For example, a “Six Sigma” approach would focus on security processes for which
defects could be detected and managed and Step 2 of building a metrics program would, therefore, be to identify
those specific security processes. A compliance-based approach would assess how closely established security
standards are being followed. In this case, Step 2 would identify those standards for which compliance should be
tracked.
65
Step 3: Build up strategies for generating the metrics

Now that what is to be measured is well understood, strategies for collecting needed data and deriving the metrics
must be developed. These strategies should specify the source of the data, the frequency of data collection, and who
is responsible for raw data accuracy, data compilation into measurements, and generation of the metric.
Although a formal risk assessment is one method for collecting some of the data that might be needed, experts
disagree on its value for generating metrics. One line of thought is that quantitative risk assessment provides “close
enough” metrics [14], while another is that risk assessments are not standardized and are too subjective and
speculative to provide good comparative metrics over time [15]. There are, however, other suggested sources of
data, such as help desk logs, system logs, firewall logs, audit reports, and user surveys.
Early on there were few automated tools available to make data collection, analysis, and reporting cost-effective, but
in recent years products have been introduced into the marketplace to make these activities more viable.
Step 4: Launch benchmarks and targets

In this step appropriate benchmarks would be identified and improvement targets set. Benchmarking is the process
of comparing one’s own performance and practices against peers within the industry or noted “best practice”
organizations outside the industry. Not only does this process provide fresh ideas for managing an activity, but also
can provide comparative data needed to make metrics more meaningful. Benchmarks also help establish achievable
targets for driving improvements in existing practices. A security manager should consult industry-specific data
resources for possible benchmarks and best practices, but also may find national and global metrics from
SecurityStats.com.
Step 5: Conclude how the metrics will be reported

Obviously, no security metrics efforts are worthwhile if the results are not effectively communicated. While
conventional management wisdom on disseminating information of this nature should prevail, current security
metrics literature does reveal some guidance in this area. One analyst, for example, cautions that over-simplification
in the name of clarity is a mistake. Executives are accustomed to dealing with financial and other trend lines, so
complex security-related data can be valuable to this group if presented well. Graphic representations are
particularly effective [18].
Some metrics may be meaningful only to the security manager and staff and should not be distributed further.
Security managers may, however, use other metrics to help trigger needed remedial actions with the organization.
For example, a widely distributed metric, such as one that shows levels of vulnerability for each department in the
organization, might spawn healthy competition among departments to become the least vulnerable department by
the next reporting period a security manager’s dream!
In any case, the context, format, frequency, distribution method, and responsibility for reporting metrics should be
defined up front, so that the end product can be visualized early on by those who will be involved in producing the
metrics and those who will be using them for decision-making.
Step 6: Form an action plan and act on it

Now it is time to get the real work done. The action plan should contain all tasks that need to be accomplished to
launch the security metrics program, along with expected completion dates and assignments. As mentioned in Step
1, action items should be directly derivable from the objectives. Documenting the linkage of actions in the plan to
these objectives is useful, so that no one will lose sight of why a given action is important.
In the same manner that software should be developed, it is critical to include a testing process in the plan.
Deficiencies in collected data may, for example, prove some metrics unusable and require reexamination of what is
to be measured and how.
66
Step 7: Start a formal program review/refinement cycle

Formal, regular reexamination of the entire security metrics program should be built into the overall process. Is there
reason to doubt the accuracy of any of the metrics? Are the metrics useful in determining new courses of action for
the overall security program? How much effort is it taking to generate the metrics? Is the value derived worth that
effort? These and other questions like them will be important to answer during the review process. A fresh scan of
security metrics standards and best practices within and outside the industry should also be conducted to help
identify new developments and opportunities to fine-tune the program.
5. Uses of Security Metrics

Security metrics is an area of computer security that has been receiving a good deal of attention lately. It is not a
new topic, but one which receives focused interest sporadically. Much of what has been written about security
metrics is definitional, aimed at providing guidelines for defining a security metric and specifying criteria for which
to strive [25].
• Deliberate support – Assessments of security properties can be used to aid different kinds of decision
making, such as program planning, resource allocation, and product and service selection.
• Quality promise – Security metrics can be used during the software development lifecycle to eliminate
vulnerabilities, particularly during code production, by performing functions such as measuring adherence to secure
coding standards, identifying likely vulnerabilities that may exist, and tracking and analyzing security flaws that are
eventually discovered.
• Intentional oversight – Supervising and reporting of the security status or posture of an IT system can be
carried out to determine compliance with security requirements gauge the effectiveness of security controls and
manage risk, provide a basis for trend analysis, and identify specific areas for improvement.
6. Conclusion
The job of developing a security metrics program may seem daunting to some, but it need not be. The above stated
seven-step methodology can guide development of very simple metrics programs, as well as highly ambitious ones.
In fact, some individuals with experience in security metrics recommend that simple starts be made. They advise
managers to do what is easy, cheap, fast, and leverage existing measures and metrics. The important thing to keep in
mind is that the metrics generated should be useful enough to drive improvement in the overall security program and
to help prove the value of that program to the organization as a whole.
The authors have stated that the paper they presented will cater the needs of novice researchers and students who are
interested to learn advances of information security.
References
[1] Olsen, Florence “Input: IT Security Spending To Catch Its Breath.” Federal Computer Week. 13 July 2005.
[2] Frank, Diane “Agencies Seek Security Metrics.” Federal Computer Week. 19 June 2000.
[3] Jelen, George “SSE-CMM Security Metrics.” NIST and CSSPAB Workshop, Washington, D.C., 13-14 June
2000.
[4] Alger, John “On Assurance, Measures, and Metrics: Definitions and Approaches,” Williamsburg, Virginia, 21-
23, May 2001
[5] George Jelen of the International Systems Security Engineering Association.
[6] Robinson, Chad. CSO Magazine Analyst Reports. 19, April, 2004.
67
[7] Burris, Peter, and Chris King “A Few Good Security Metrics.” METAGroup, Inc. audio, 11 Oct. 2000.
[8] Nielsen, Fran “Approaches To Security Metrics.” NIST and CSSPAB Workshop, Washington, D.C., 13-14 June
2000.
[9] See URL: http://www.cisecurity.org (16 June 2006).
[11] George, Robert “Security Management in the Fibers and Chemicals Industry.” NIST and CSSPAB Workshop,
Washington, D.C., 14 June 2000.
[12] Hymes, Pat “System Security Compliance Monitoring Program.” NIST and CSSPAB Workshop, Washington,
D.C., 14 June 2000.
[13] Bayuk, Jennifer L. “Information Security Metrics: An Audited-based Approach.” NIST and CSSPAB Workshop,
Washington, D.C., 14 June 2000.
[14] Nielsen “Close enough metrics” Federal Computer Week. 14 Aug 2004.
[15] Burris and King “The Assessment of Metrics”.
[16] See URL: http://www.securitystats.com (16 June, 2006).
[17] See URL: http://www.cio.com (16 June 2006)
[18] Berinato, Scott. “A Few Good Metrics,” CSO Magazine, 1 July 2005.
[19] Craft, James P. “Metrics and the USAID Model Information Systems Security Program.” NIST and CSSPAB
Workshop, Washington, D.C., 14 June 2000.
[20] See URL: http://www.issea.org (16 June, 2006).
[21] See URL: http://csrc.nist.gov/organizations/guidance/framework-final.pdf (16
June 2006).
[22] See URL: http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-55/sp800-55.pdf (16 June 2006). [23] Bartlett, Terry
“Information Assurance Readiness Assessment.” NIST and CSSPAB Workshop, Washington, D.C., 14 June
2000.
[24] See URL: http://csrc.ncsl.nist.gov/cc/ (10 July 2001).
[25] www.webopedia.com
Authors Profile:
Mr. P. Ramesh babu is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Information
Technology of Rajamahendri Institute of Engineering & Technology - Rajahmundry.
His research interests include Steganography, Digital Watermarking, Information
security, Network communications and Cyber Forensics. He did his M.Tech in
Computer Science & Engineering from JNTU Kakinada University. He has 6 years of
teaching and industrial experience.
Mrs. G. Swarna Latha is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Information

Technology of Rajamahendri Institute of Engineering & Technology - Rajahmundry.
Her research interests include Image Processing, Digital Watermarking and
Information security. She obtained her M.Tech in Computer Science & Engineering
from JNTU Kakinada University. She has 7 years of teaching and industrial
experience.
Mr. P. Vamsi Krishna Raja is a Lecturer in the Department of Computer Science &
Engineering of University College of Engineering-Kakinada. His research interests
include Image Processing and Information security. He obtained M.Tech in Computer
Science & Technology from Andhra University. He has 4 years of teaching experience.
68
Mr. M. Ramakrishna is an Associate Professor in the Department of Electronics &

Communication Engineering of Rajamahendri Institute of Engineering & Technology -
Rajahmundry. His research interests include Wireless Sensor Networks and Network
Security. He obtained M.Tech from Osmania University. He has 12 years of Teaching
and Industrial experience.
69
RELIABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR A NETWORK HAVING STANDBY

REDUNDANT UNIT WITH WAITING IN REPAIR
Subhash Chander Punhani and Deepankar Sharma
ABES College of Engg. & Tech., Ghaziabad, UP, India

D.J. College of Engg. & Tech., Modinagar, UP, India
Email: deepankarxyz@rediffmail.com
Abstract
In this paper, the authors deal with a complex network having n-identical units in series and two identical standby
units for evaluation of its ability measures. The authors have been used supplementary variables technique to
formulate the mathematical equations for various flow-states of fig-1(b). These mathematical equations have been
solved by the application of Laplace transform. The Laplace transforms of various flow-states probabilities have
obtained. We have calculated the expressions for reliability function, availability function and mean time to failure
(M.T.T.F.). Analysis of time-independent state probabilities and a particular case, when all repairs follow
exponential time distribution, have also given to improve the practical utility of the model.
Key Words: Computer network, reliability analysis, supplementary variables, Laplace transform etc.
70
1. Introduction
The whole system consists of two subsystems A and B, connected in series. The subsystem B has
two identical units B1 and B2 in standby redundancy. We can online the units of subsystem B by
the application of imperfect switching device. The system configuration has shown in fig-1(a).
The picture drawn in fig-1(b) shows the flow of states. The whole system may fail due to failure
of its either subsystems. The system can be repaired immediately if the subsystem A or the unit
B1 of subsystem B or both are failed. The system has to wait for repair in case of repair of whole
subsystem B.
We may use the results obtained in this study to every network system of real life, with similar
configurations. A numerical example together with its graphical illustration has also appended at
the end to highlight important results of the study.
Subsystem B
Subsystem A
Input Output
1 2 3 n Switching
Device
Fig-1(a): System configuration
The following assumptions have been associated with this study:
1. Initially, the whole network is good and operable with full efficiency.
2. There are n units connected in series in subsystem A.
3. There is one standby unit in subsystem B and on failure of main unit, we can online
standby unit through imperfect switching device.
4. All failures follow exponential time distribution and are S-independent.
5. All repairs follow general time distribution and are perfect.
6. On failure of both the units of subsystem B, the system has to wait for repair.
7. Repair of any one failed unit of subsystem A can be done immediately.
8. Nothing can fail from a failed state.
71
λA
P0,0, 0 (t ) PF , 0, 0 ( x, t )
µ A (x)
αλ B µ B (z )
λA
P0, B1 , 0 (t )
PF , B1 ,0 ( x, t )
µ A (x)
λB (1 − α )
P0, B1 , F ( y, t )
µ SW ( y )
P0W, F , 0 (t ) w P0R, F ,0 ( z , t )
Fig-1(b): State-transition diagram
List of notations used in this study is as follows:
λ A / λB : Failure rate of subsystem A/B.

(1 − α ) : Failure rate of switching device.
w : Waiting rate for repair of whole subsystem B.
µ i ( j )∆ : First order probability that i th failure can be repaired in the time
interval ( j , j + ∆ ) conditioned that it was not repaired up to the time j.
P0,0, 0 (t ) : Pr {at time t, subsystem A, B and switching device is operable i.e. the
whole system is operable}.
P0, B1 ,0 (t ) : Pr {at time t, system is operable while one online unit of subsystem B
has failed.
P0W, F , 0 (t ) : Pr {at time t, system is failed due to failure of subsystem B and is
waiting for repair}.
P0R, F ,0 ( z , t ).∆ : Pr (at time t, system is failed due to failure of subsystem B and is ready
72
to repair}. Elapsed repair time lies in the interval ( z , z + ∆ ) .

PF , 0, 0 ( x, t )∆etc. : Pr (at time t, system is failed due to failure of subsystem A}. Elapsed
repair time lies in the interval ( x, x + ∆ ) .
Si ( j) i ∫ i {
: µ ( j ) exp . − µ ( j )dj } ∀ i and j .
P (s ) : Laplace transform (L.T.) of function P (t).
Di ( j ) : 1 − S i ( j) / j , ∀ i and j .
2. Literature Review
In this section, author has done analysis for mathematical formulation of the model, its solution,
some particular cases and various results related to reliability estimation.

By using continuity argument and limiting procedure [5], we obtain the following set of
difference-differential equations, which is continuous in time and discrete in space [6], governing
the behavior of considered model:
∞ ∞
d 
 dt + λ A + αλ B  P0, 0,0 (t ) = ∫ PF , 0, 0 ( x, t )µ A ( x )dx + ∫ P0, F ,0 ( z , t )µ B ( z )dz
R
…(1)
0 0
∂ ∂ 
 ∂x + ∂t + µ A ( x) PF , 0,0 ( x, t ) = 0 …(2)
∞
d 
 dt + λ A + (1 − α ) + λ B  P0, B1 , 0 (t ) = αλ B P0, 0, 0 (t ) + ∫ PF , B1 ,0 ( x, t ) µ A ( x)dx
0
∞
+ ∫P 0 , B1 , F ( y, t ) µ SW ( y )dy …(3)
0
∂ ∂ 
 ∂x + ∂t + µ A ( x) PF , B1 , 0 ( x, t ) = 0 …(4)
∂ ∂ 
 ∂y + ∂t + µ SW ( y ) P0, B1 , F ( y, t ) = 0 …(5)
 
d  W
 dt + w P0, F ,0 (t ) = λ B P0, B1 , 0 (t ) …(6)
∂ ∂  R
 ∂z + ∂t + µ B ( z ) P0, F ,0 (z , t ) = 0 …(7)
Boundary conditions are:

PF , 0, 0 (0, t ) = λ A P0,0,0 (t ) …(8)
PF , B1 ,0 (0, t ) = λ A P0, B1 , 0 (t ) …(9)
P0, B1 , F (0, t ) = (1 − α ) P0, B1 , 0 (t ) …(10)
P R
0, F ,0 (0, t ) = w P W
0, F , 0 (t ) …(11)
73
Initial conditions are: …(12)

P0, 0,0 (0 ) = 1 , all other state probabilities are zero at t = 0 .
2.2 Solution of the model

We shall solve the above system of difference-differential equations with the aid of Laplace
transform to obtain probabilities of different transition states, depicted in fig-1. Thus, taking
Laplace transform [7], [8] of equations (1) through (11) subjected to initial conditions (12) and
then on solving them one by one, we obtain:
1
P 0 , 0, 0 ( s ) = …(13)
B( s)
λ D (s)
P F , 0, 0 ( s ) = A A …(14)
B(s )
A( s )
P 0, B1 , 0 ( s ) =
B( s)
…(15)
λ D (s ) A(s)
P F , B1 ,0 ( s ) = A A …(16)
B(s)
(1 − α ) D SW ( s ) A ( s )
P 0, B1 , F ( s ) = …(17)
B(s)
W λ B A( s)
P 0, F ,0 ( s ) = …(18)
B( s )( s + w)
R λ w D B ( s ) A( s )
P 0, F ,0 ( s) = B …(19)
B ( s )( s + w)
αλ B
where A( s ) =
s[1 + λ A D A ( s ) + (1 − α ) DSW ( s )] + λ B
…(20)
λB w
and B ( s ) = s + λ A + αλ B − λ A S A ( s ) − A( s ) S B ( s ) …(21)
s+w
λ w
and B ( s ) = s + λ A + αλ B − λ A S A ( s ) − A( s ) S B ( s ) B …(22)
s+w
It is interesting to note here that
1
Sum of equations (13) through (19) =
s
…(23)
2.3 Long-run behaviour of the system
Using final value theorem in L.T., viz; lim P (t ) = lim s P (s ) = P(say ) , provided limit on LHS
t →∞ s →0
exists, in equations (13) through (19) we obtain the following long-run behavior [9]-[10] of the
considered system:
1 …(24)
P0,0, 0 =
B ′(0)
74
λA M A …(25)
PF , 0, 0 =
B ′(0)
α …(26)
P0, B1 ,0 =
B ′(0)
λ αM A …(27)
PF , B1 ,0 = A
B ′(0)
α (1 − α ) M SW …(28)
P0, B1 , F =
B ′(0)
αλ B …(29)
P0W, F ,0 =
wB ′(0)
αλ B M B …(30)
P0R, F ,0 =
B ′(0)
′
where M i = − S i (0) = Mean time to repair subsystem i
d 
and B ′(0) =  B( s )
 ds  s =0
2.4 Some particular case

Case i: When all repairs follow exponential time distribution
In this case, setting S i ( j ) =
µi
, ∀ i and j, in equations (13) through (19), we obtain the
( j + µi )
following L.T. of transition-state probabilities:
1
P 0, 0 ,0 ( s ) = …(31)
E (s)
λA
P F , 0, 0 ( s ) = …(32)
E ( s ) (s + µ A )
C ( s)
P 0, B1 , 0 ( s ) = …(33)
E ( s)
λ AC (s)
P F , B1 , 0 ( s ) = …(34)
E ( s )( s + µ A )
(1 − α )C ( s )
P 0, B1 , F ( s ) = …(35)
E ( s )( s + µ SW )
W λ B C ( s)
P 0, F ,0 ( s ) = …(36)
E ( s )( s + w)
R λ B wC ( s)
P 0, F ,0 (s ) = …(37)
E ( s )( s + w)( s + µ B )
αλ B
where C ( s ) =
 λA (1 − α ) 
s 1 + +  + λB …(38)
 s + µ A s + µ SW 
75
sλ A λ B wµ B
and E ( s ) = s + αλ B + − C ( s) …(39)
s + µA ( s + w)( s + µ B )
Case ii: When switching device used, is perfect

In this case, putting α = 1 in equations (13) to (19), we obtain the required results. Note that in
this case, P 0, B1 , F ( s ) = 0 .
2.5 Reliability and MTTF of the system

Reliability of the considered network can be obtained as
1
R( s) =
s + λ A + αλ B
or, { }
R (t ) = L−1 R ( s )
∴ R(t ) = exp{− (λ A + αλ B ) t} …(40)
∞
Also, M .T .T .F . = ∫ R(t )dt
0
1
= …(41)
λ A + αλ B
2.6 Availability of the system

For the considered network
 αλ B 
P up (s ) =
1
1 + 
s + λ A + αλ B  s + λ A + (1 − α ) + λ B 
 αλ B  −(λ A +αλB ) t αλ B
∴ Pup (t ) = 1 + e − e −(λ A + (1−α ) + λB ) t …(42)
 (1 − α )(1 + λ B )  (1 − α )(1 + λ B )
Also, Pdown (t ) = 1 − Pup (t )
2.7 Numerical illustration

For a numerical illustration, let us consider the following value set for parameters:
λ A = 0.45, λ B = 0.37, α = 0.7 and t = 0,1,2,-----10.
3. Results and discussion

Table-1 gives the values of reliability of considered system for various values of time t. Its graph
has been shown in fig-2. Analysis of table-1 and fig-2 reveal that the reliability of considered
system decreases approximately in constant manner and there are no sudden jumps in the values
of reliability.
Table-2 gives the values of availability of considered system for different values of time t. Its
graph has been shown in fig-3. Critical examination of table-2 and fig-3 yield that value of
availability decreases rapidly in the beginning but thereafter it decreases constantly.
Table-3 gives the values of M.T.T.F. of considered system for different values of failure rate of
subsystem B. Its graph has been shown in fig-4. Analysis of table-3 and fig-4 yield that value of
M.T.T.F. decreases catastrophically.
76
Table-4 gives the values of M.T.T.F. of considered system for different values of failure rate of
subsystem A. Its graph has been shown in fig-5. Analysis of table-4 and fig-5 yield that value of
M.T.T.F. decreases catastrophically.
t R(t)
0 1
1 0.492136
2 0.242198
3 0.119194
4 0.05866
5 0.028869
6 0.014207
7 0.006992
8 0.003441
9 0.001693
10 0.000833
Table-1
Fig-2
77
t Pup(t)
0 1
1 0.596659
2 0.327741
3 0.17242
4 0.088485
5 0.044731
6 0.0224
7 0.01115
8 0.005529
9 0.002734
10 0.00135
Table-2
Fig-3
λA MTTF
0 3.861004
0.01 3.717472
0.02 3.584229
0.03 3.460208
0.04 3.344482
0.05 3.236246
0.06 3.134796
0.07 3.039514
0.08 2.949853
0.09 2.86533
0.1 2.785515
Table-3
78
Fig-4
λB MTTF
0 2.222222
0.001 2.218771
0.002 2.21533
0.003 2.2119
0.004 2.208481
0.005 2.205072
0.006 2.201673
0.007 2.198285
0.008 2.194908
0.009 2.191541
0.01 2.188184
Table-4
79
Fig-5
REFERENCES
[1] Barlow, R.E; Proschan, F. (1965): “Mathematical Theory of Reliability”, New York; John
Wiley.
[2] Chung, W, K (1988): “A K-out-of-n:G redundant system with dependant failure rates and
common cause failures”, Microelectron. Reliability U.K., Vol 28: 201-203.
[3] Gnedenko, B.V; Belayer, Y.K; Soloyar (1969): “Mathematical Methods of Reliability
Theory”, Academic press, New York.
[4] Gupta, P.P.; Gupta, R.K. (1986): “Cost analysis of an electronic repairable redundant system
with critical human errors”, Microelectron . Reliab. , U.K, Vol 26: 417-421.
[6] Pandey, D.; Jacob, Mendus 1995: “Cost analysis, availability and MTTF of a three state
standby complex system under common-cause and human failures”, Microelectronic .
Reliab., U.K., Vol. 35: 91-95.
[7] Sharma, S.K. ;Sharma, Deepankar ; Masood, Monis (2005): “Availability estimation of
urea manufacturing fertilizer plant with imperfect switching and environmental failure”,
Journal of combinatorics, information & system sciences, Vol.29 (1-4) : 135-141.
[8] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma, Jyoti (2005); “Estimation of reliability parameters for
telecommunication system”, Journal of combinatorics, information & system sciences,
Vol.29 (1-4): 151-160.
[9] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma (2010); “Cost Estimation for ATM with Pre-emptive Resume
Repair”, Published, International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Information
Security, Australia, Vol-1, No-9, PP 119-127.
[10] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma (2010); “Reliability Forecast for Tele-communication System”,
Published, International Journal of Computational Intelligence and Information Security,
Australia, Vol-1, No-9, PP 110-118.
80
PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF A MULTI-EVAPORATOR TYPE COMPRESSOR

WITH STANDBY EXPANSION VALVE
Reena Garg
Assistant Prof., Dept. of Maths, YMCA, Faridabad, India
Dr. Deepankar Sharma

Prof.& Head, Dept. of Maths, D.J. College of Engg. & Tech., Modinagar, India
Email: cutereenagm@yahoo.co.in, deepankarxyz@rediffmail.com
Abstract
In this model, the authors have considered a refrigeration plant which contains a single compressor with multi
evaporators, for analysis of some important performance measures. These single compressor type refrigeration
plants can be categories in to following:
(i) Multi evaporator type at same temperature
(ii) Two evaporator type at dual temperature
(iii) Multi evaporator type at multi-temperature
The work of evaporator together with expansion valve is to give the constant temperature corresponding to required
state. Thus the different evaporators can be fixed either for same temperature or different temperatures.
In this model, the author’s investigations are based on “multi-evaporator type at same temperature”. Since, the
system is of Non-Markovian nature, the author has used supplementary variable technique to formulate the
mathematical model. Laplace transform has been used to solve the symbolic model. All the failures follow
exponential time distribution where as all the repairs follow general time distribution. Steady state behavior,
particular case and a numerical example with graphical illustration have appended at the end of each section to
highlight the important results of the study. In this study, the author has evaluated the reliability and M.T.T.F. of the
considered refrigeration machine under head-of-line repair policy. This policy is nothing but the “first come first
served” policy.
Key Words: Refrigeration plant, multi-evaporator, Markovian process, reliability and M.T.T.F.
81
1. Introduction
The whole refrigeration plant is divided in to four subsystems, namely A, B, C and D, connected
in series. The sub system A is compressor and the subsystem B has three evaporators connected
in parallel [1]-[4]. The subsystem C has two expansion valves in standby redundancy and the
standby expansion valve followed on line through a perfect switching device [5]-[6]. The
subsystem D is condenser. The system configuration has shown in fig.-1. The whole system can
fail due to failure of its either subsystems. The state-transition diagram has shown in fig-2.
The following assumptions have been associated with this model:
(i) Initially, all the components of considered system are good.
(ii) There is one standby expansion valve which followed online through a perfect
switching device.
(iii) There is no time lap between failure and start of repair.
(iv) Head-of-line policy has been adopted for repair.
(v) All the failures follow exponential time distribution whereas all repairs follow general
time distribution.
(vi) Failures are statistically independent.
(vii) Nothing can fail from the failed state.
(viii) After repair, system works like a new.
The following notations have been used throughout this model:
P0 (t) : The probability that at time ‘t’, the system is in good state of full efficiency.
Pi (j, t) ∆ : The probability that at time ‘t’, the system is in failed
state due to failure of ith subsystem and elapsed repair
time lies in the interval ( j, j + ∆ ). Where i =A, B, D and
j = x, y, r respectively.
Pc1i (j,t) ∆ : The probability that at time ‘t’, the system is in failed
state due to failure of ith subsystem while one expansion
valve has already failed. The elapsed repair time lies in
the interval ( j, j + ∆ ).
Pc1(n,t) ∆ / PC (z,t) ∆ : The probability that at time ‘t’, the system is in Good
/ failed state due to failure of one / two expansion
valves and elapsed repair time lies in the interval (n, n +∆)
82
/ (z, z + ∆ ).
a/b/c/d :Failure rate of subsystem A/B/C/D.
α1(x)∆ etc. : The first order probability that the subsystem A will be repaired in the
time interval (x, x + ∆), conditioned that it was not repaired up to the time x
s : Laplace transform variable.
P (s ) : Laplace transform of P(t)
Si (k) : α i (k ) e− ∫α i (k )dk for all i and k.
Di (k) : 1 - Si (k ) / k for all i and k.
R(t) : Reliability of the system at time ‘t’.
M.T.T.F. : Mean time to failure.
2. Literature Review:

By using elementary probability and continuity arguments, one can obtain the following
set of difference-differential equations [7]-[8], governing the behavior of considered system:
L
M
d O
P
∞
z ∞
z
+ a + b + c + d P 0 ( t ) = P A ( x , t ) α 1 ( x ) dx + P B ( y , t ) α 2 ( y ) dy
N dt Q 0 0
+ z0
∞
P D ( r , t ) α 4 ( r ) dr z ∞
+ P C1 ( n , t ) α 3 ( n ) dn
0
z ∞
+ P C ( z , t ) α 5 ( z ) dz
0
− − − (1)
L
M∂
+
∂ O
+ α ( x ) PP ( x, t ) = 0 - - - - - (2)
N
∂ x ∂t Q
1 A
83
Evaporator -I
Evaporator -II
Evaporator -III
Perfect
Switching Device
Expansion
Valves
X X
Condenser
Compressor
Fig-1: System Configuration
84
L
M ∂ ∂ O
+ + α (r ) PP (r , t ) = 0 - - - (3)
N∂r ∂t Q
4 D
L
M ∂
+
∂ O
+ α ( y ) PP ( y , t ) = 0 - - - (4)
N∂ y ∂ t Q2 B
L
M ∂
+
∂ O
+ a + b + c + d + α ( n ) PP ( n , t ) = 0 - - - (5)
N∂ n ∂ t Q 3 C1
L
M ∂
+
∂ O (n, t ) = a P (n, t )
+ α 3 ( n ) PP - - - (6 )
N∂ n ∂ t Q
C 1A
c 1
L
M ∂
+
∂ O (n, t ) = b P (n, t )
+ α ( n ) PP - - - (7 )
N∂ n ∂ t Q
C1B
3 c 1
L
M ∂
+
∂
+ α ( n ) PP
O (n, t ) = d P (n, t ) - - - (8 )
N∂ n ∂ t Q 3 C 1D C1
L
M ∂
+
∂ O
+ α ( n ) PP ( z , t ) = 0 - - - (9)
N∂ z ∂ t Q5 C
Boundary conditions are:

P A ( 0, t ) 0z ∞
= a P 0 ( t ) + P C 1A ( n , t ) α 3 ( n ) dn − − − (10)
P D ( 0, t ) 0 z ∞
= d P 0 ( t ) + P C 1 D ( n , t ) α 3 ( n ) dn − − − (11)
P B ( 0, t )
PC1A (0,t) = 0
z ∞
= b P 0 ( t ) + P C 1 B ( n , t ) α 3 ( n ) dn
0
− − − (12 )
--------(13)
PC1D (0,t) = 0 ---------(14)
PC1B (0,t) = 0 ------------(15)
PC (0,t) = cPC1 (t) ------------(16)
PC1 (0,t) = c P0 (t) ------------(17)
Initial conditions are:
P 0 (0 ) = 1, otherwise zero ------------(18)
85
PC1B(n,t)
c
b PC (z,t)
a d
PC1A(n,t) PC1(n,t) PC1D(n,t)
α3(n)
α3(n) c α3(n)
a d
PA(x,t) Po(t) PD(r,t)
α1(x) α4(r)
α5(z)
b α2(y)
PB(y,t)
α3(n)
Fig-2: State-transition Diagram
2.2 Solution of model
Taking Laplace transforms of equations (1) through (17) subjected to initial conditions
(18) and then on solving [5] them one by one, we obtain:
1
P 0 (s) = − − − (1 9 )
A (s)
86
aB
P A (s) = D 1(s) − − − (20)
A ( s)
dB
P D (s) = D 4 ( s) − − − ( 2 1)
A ( s)
bB
P B ( s) = D 2 (s) − − − (22)
A ( s)
c
P c1 ( s) = D3 (a + b + c + d ) − − − ( 23)
A( s)
ac
P c1 A ( s) = E − − − (24 )
A ( s)
bc
P c1 B ( s) = E − − − (2 5)
A ( s)
dc
P c1 D ( s) = E − − − (26)
A (s)
2
PC ( s) = c D 3 ( s + a + b + c + d ) D5 ( s) − − − ( 27 )
A( s)
where,
1 − Si ( s)
D i ( s) = ∀ i = 1,2 − − − 5
s
c
B =1+ { S 3 ( s ) − S 3 ( s + a + b + c + d )}
a+b+c+d
1
E = [ D 3 ( s) − D 3 ( s + a + b + c + d )]
a +b + c+ d
and A ( s ) = s + a + b + c + d − c S 3( s + a + b + c + d )
− c 2 D 3 ( s + a + b + c + d ) S 5( s )
− B [ a S 1( s ) + d S 4 ( s ) + b S 2 ( s ) ]
2.3 Steady-state behavior of the system

Using Abel’s lemma, viz ; lim P (t ) = lim s P ( s ) = P ( say ) , provided the limit on R.H.S. exists
t →∞ s →0
, we have the following time independent state probabilities from equations (19) through (27):
1
P0 = − − − (28)
A ' (0)
87
aB 1
PA = M1 − − − ( 29 )
A ' (0)
dB 1
PD = M4 − − − ( 30 )
A ' ( 0)
bB 1
PB = M2 − − − ( 31)
A ' ( 0)
c
P c1 = D3 (a + b + c + d ) − − − (32)
A'(0)
ac
P c1 A = E1 − − − ( 33)
A ' ( 0)
bc
P c1 B = E1 − − − ( 34 )
A ' ( 0)
dc
P c1 D = E1 − − − ( 35 )
A ' ( 0)
2
c
PC = D3 (a + b + c + d ) M 5 − − − (36)
A'(0)
where,
Mi = − S i ' (0) ∀ i = 1,2 − − − −5
A' (0) =
L
M
d O
A( s) P
Nds Q s=0
c
B1 = 1 + [ 1 − S 3 ( a + b + c + d )]
a +b+c+d
1
and E 1 = [ M 3 − D 3 ( a + b + c + d )]
a +b+c+d
2.4 Particular case

When repairs follow exponential time distribution
Setting S i ( s) = α i / s + α i ∀ i = 1, 2, − − − 5 etc., we have from equations (19) through
(27), the following Laplace transforms of different state probabilities in this case:
1
P 0 ( s) = − − − ( 37 )
F ( s)
aG 1
P A ( s) = ⋅ − − − (38)
F ( s) s+α1
dG 1
P D ( s) = ⋅ − − − (39)
F ( s) s + α 4
88
bG 1
P B ( s) = ⋅ − − − (40)
F ( s) s + α 2
c 1
P c1 ( s ) = ⋅ − − − ( 4 1)
F ( s) s + a + b + c + d + α 3
ac
P c1 A ( s) = ⋅H − − − (42)
F ( s)
bc
P c1 B ( s) = ⋅H − − − ( 4 3)
F ( s)
dc
P c1 D ( s ) = ⋅H − − − (44)
F ( s)
2
c 1
P C (s) = ⋅ − − − (45)
F(s) (s + a + b + c + d +α3)(s + α5)
where,
cα 3 cα 3
G = 1+ = 1+
( s + α 3)( s + a + b + c + d + α 3 ) H
1
H =
( s + α 3)( s + a + b + c + d + α 3)
and
F ( s) = s+a +b+c+d −
c
1+
cα 5 L
M O
P
s+ a +b + c+ d +α3 s+α5 N Q
−G
L
M aα 1
+
dα4
+
bα2 O
P
Ns + α 1 s+α4 s+α2 Q
2.5 Reliability analysis
We have
1
R ( s) =
s+a +b+c+d
o n in v ertin g th is, w e h av e
R (t) = ex p .{-(a + b + c + d )t} − − − (46)
Again , M.T.T.F. = lim R ( s)
s→ 0
1
= − − − ( 47 )
a+b+c+d
89

For a numerical computation, let us consider the values a=0.1 , b = 0.2 ,
c =0.3, d = 0.4 and t = 0,1,2--------.
By using these values in relations (46) and (47), one can observe the change in corresponding
performance measure, with respect to time. These changes have been shown in graphs of fig-3
and 4, respectively.
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION
We plot two graphs shown in the figs (3) and (4). These figs show the changes in different
performance measures of the considered system with respect to chosen parameters.
The analysis of fig (3) reveals that reliability of the system decreases rapidly for lower values of
time‘t’ but after t=5 it decreases appx. in uniform manner.
A critical examination of fig (4) reveals that, as we make increase in failure rate a, M.T.T.F. of
the system decreases in a constant manner.
Fig-3
Fig-4
90
REFERENCES
[1] Barlow, R.E; Proschan, F. (1965): “Mathematical Theory of Reliability”, New York; John Wiley.
[2] Chung, W, K (1988): “A K-out-of-n:G redundant system with dependant failure rates and common cause
failures”, Microelectron. Reliability U.K., Vol 28: 201-203.
[3] Gnedenko, B.V; Belayer, Y.K; Soloyar (1969): “Mathematical Methods of Reliability Theory”, Academic
press, New York.
[4] Gupta, P.P.; Gupta, R.K. (1986): “Cost analysis of an electronic repairable redundant system with critical
human errors”, Microelectron . Reliab. , U.K, Vol 26: 417-421.
[6] Pandey, D.; Jacob, Mendus 1995: “Cost analysis, availability and MTTF of a three state standby complex
system under common-cause and human failures”, Microelectronic . Reliab., U.K., Vol. 35: 91-95.
[7] Sharma, S.K. ;Sharma, Deepankar ; Masood, Monis (2005): “Availability estimation of urea manufacturing
fertilizer plant with imperfect switching and environmental failure”, Journal of combinatorics, information &
system sciences, Vol.29 (1-4) : 135-141.
[8] Sharma, Deepankar, Sharma, Jyoti (2005); “Estimation of reliability parameters for telecommunication
system”, Journal of combinatorics, information & system sciences, Vol.29 (1-4): 151-160.
91
Collaboration Healthcare System between Clinics and Hospitals in Malaysia
En. Abdurrahman Ahmad Dahlan1, Zaidoon Kh. Abdulatif2, Ismail Mahmoud3, Muhammed Aydin4
Information System Department International Islamic University of Malaysia (IIUM)
arad@kict.iiu.edu.my, zaidoonkhalil@yahoo.com, alhanglawe@yahoo.com,
muhammed.aydin@gmail.com
Abstract
Healthcare organizations in over the world had dynamic changes. They have contributed to intensify competitive
activity between healthcare providers. These changes have forced the organizations to consider wide improvement
of their activities and to adopt the use of new technologies in all the organizations’ operations. Recently, there have
been high demands for collaborative medical services between clinics and hospital medicines in the world. This
paper proposes a model; diagrams are enabled collaboration in medicine systems between hospitals and clinics with
attaching that system under the ministry of health in Malaysia.
Keywords: Collaborative Systems, Healthcare, Collaborative Medical Services, e-health
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1. INTRODUCTION
As an important component of social security system, health care system plays a vital role in promoting social
stability and reflecting the fairness of the system [20]. Across the world collaboration has been in fashion in the
business community over the past two decades. Inter-organizational systems (IOS) have been said to play an
important enabling role in many cases. [21]
Collaborative medical application initiatives arising from the Internet explosion are too various [22, 23].
Currently, many nations are creating their own infrastructures for modernizing their collaborative healthcare systems
by taking advantage of the advances in network based telecommunication implementations [22].
Malaysia is rapidly changing. The nation is moving in the direction of a developed nation status by year 2020.
This entails a vast change among others in terms of services and infrastructure. The nation will offer more as the
people will expect more as the standard that prevails will be higher.[25]
The healthcare sector demands high quality patient care services in a continuously changing environment. This is
challenged by the new customers‟ expectation, emergence of new risk factors, charges in medical technology and
application of new information technology. [24]
In this paper, we will explore the current issues of collaborative medical application in Malaysia and to propose a
conceptual framework. The structure of this paper is as follow: in the second section will discuss about background
of current situation of collaborative medical system in Malaysia. In the third section we will discuss the ideal model
also we will discuss the proposed framework for the collaborative medical system derive from combination three-
degree approach existing framework as the flexibility and concrete concept.
2. BACKGROUND
The introduction of the Internet and the advancement of information technology (IT) and telecommunications
have in many ways made transfer of data possible in a split second. The applications of the Internet technology have
contributed in the advancements in many fields including education, business, and entertainment. In the field of
medicine, new concepts like telemedicine, e-medicine and health informatics have been introduced to optimize
healthcare services. The data that can be shared among entities across wireless internet connection can be made
beneficial through connectivity and portability of the devices. With the use of tablet-like personal computer (PC)
and bed-side personal digital assistant (PDA), radio frequency identification (RFID) technology for easy user logon
combined with real-time access, patient data can be captured directly into a central data repository [1].
The implementation of health information technology (HIT) is becoming more prominent worldwide. This is
indicated by the global move towards increased implementation of Electronic Health Records (EHR) such that most
American hospitals surveyed had either implemented or were planning to implement EHR [2]. Driven by the needs
to facilitate the administrative process and reduce medical errors, a healthcare institution may decide to use new
technology and as a result will most likely undergo changes in its clinical work processes [1]. By the use of
electronic records, the methods and ways of clinical practices such as referrals to diagnostic tests as well as
issuances of prescription of medication to patients will be altered [3].
The use of EHR offers significant amount of benefits in healthcare such as improved efficiency, reliability and
system security. The system improves efficiency through easy access to patient records, results of patient
investigation, lab tests, and imaging works from the single point of care. This capability eliminates the time required
for the medical attendants to dispatch and retrieve physical records located at various distant physical locations. It
improves reliability in patient records by ensuring integrity and security of patient data through authentication and
various level of access authority. Loss and misplacement of patient records and x-ray films, which commonly
happen with physical paper folders, can be drastically alleviated [4].The system improves safety in healthcare by
supporting for better decision making in patient treatments. The ability to countercheck interaction between drugs,
allergies, as well as abnormal result of investigation can alert the doctors to alleviate life-threatening situations [5].
The use of EHR applications, like Clinical Decision Support Systems (CDSS), can facilitate clinical decision-
making and minimise the potential for mistakes due to the inaccuracy and incompleteness of paper records [6].
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2.1 Electronic Health Records
According to Waegerman (2003), EHR is the generic term for all electronic patient care systems in digital format
which co-ordinate the storage and retrieval of individual records with the aid of computers via a network that
enables storage and availability of information to authorized health personnel. It is usually comprises of electronic
medical records (EMRs) from many locations and/or sources. A variety of types of healthcare-related information,
such as demographic information, medical history, allergies, lab results, radiology images such as X-Ray, MRI and
CT scans, appointment records, referrals and authorization documents, billing and insurance records may be stored
and accessed via telecommunication. In other words, with the use of EHR, the healthcare practitioners could get
their laboratory results and reports from radiology clinics or issue discharge summaries from hospitals
electronically. In the event of emergencies, such as when a patient is unconscious or unable to speak, the pertinent
information could be accessed from the host computer from the hospital where the patient was treated earlier [7].
Ultimately, an ideal system would allow for connections and the sharing of records over the telecommunication
networks with other healthcare organizations such that patients can move across healthcare facilities with
convenience.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 IT Applications in Health and Medical Industry
Medical Informatics and Health Informatics are new branches of knowledge and technology in the past three
decades which seek to use IT to improve human health. The primary purpose of EHR is to improve and enhance
patient care. Among the improvements offered by the use EHR from the use of paper-based records include
efficiency, reliability, and safety and alleviation of loss and misplacement of patient records and x-ray films which
commonly happen with physical paper folders [4]. The application of Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) in healthcare has been growing exponentially over the last decade and its growth is attributed potentially to its
ability to improve effectiveness and efficiency in healthcare services worldwide. These applications have to be
governed and integrated using internationally recognized standards, like HL7. Applications like Computerized
Provider Order Entry (CPOE) and Clinical Decision Support System (CDSS) are now widely viewed as a critical
component of the modern technologically advanced hospitals, allowing healthcare providers to directly enter orders
for patient care into a computerized system equipped with automatic alerts for drug—drug interactions, dosing and
allergies [5].
The use of system called picture archiving and communication system (PACS) enables the handling, storing,
printing, and transmitting of medical imaging from remote stations in a hospital [8]. The technology is supported by
use of the standard for imaging, Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (IMCOM) using TCP/IP file
format and communication protocol which enables the integration of various types of network hardware such as
scanners, servers, workstations, and printers from multiple manufacturers. The different devices in the market come
with DICOM conformance statements which clearly state the DICOM classes they support. Widely adopted by
hospitals, DICOM is now making smaller applications to cater for dentists’ and doctors’ offices.
The Radiology Information System (RIS), integrated with PACS services, has reduced the time needed for image
interpretation and reporting as compared with older generation film-based radiological activity [8], thus improve
productivity in the radiology department and was able to cut costs for the purchase of dedicated standalone image
processing workstations. This integration has been widely adopted in radiological practice, allowing substantial
acceleration of workflow with greater ease of work. The recent evolution of digital radiology which includes cross-
sectional imaging modalities, such as CT scans and MRI, has been paralleled by the development of integrated
RIS—PACS systems with advanced image processing tools [8].
3.2 Issues in Implementing of HER
Among organizational issues brought forth by the implementation process of an MIS are due to technical and
organizational aspects, which’ involve higher complexity for larger systems. Zmud and Cox (1979) described the
technical complexities to include, among others, processing environment, data structure, integration with and
security considerations, while organizational complexities include issues such as dependence of the organization on
94
the system and impact upon duties and responsibilities of members of the organization. As such, issues of
acceptance in EHR can be linked to the technology itself which can be incompatible with the existing patient care
routine of doctors, difficult to use and migrate from the existing routine, and perceived as not useful [9].
Medical officers may look at the system as a hindrance to their effective clinical work during patient consultation
due to the inconvenience of having to type in the data and carrying their laptops to inappropriate places [10], [11],
[12]. Other acceptance issues can be related to attitudinal and managerial aspects of the hospital administration [13].
These previous researches in user acceptance provide good guidance for healthcare institutions in understanding
factors that can contribute to the success of EHR implementation.
3.3 HER System Implementation

Implementation of IT in an organization can be defined as the hardware, software, telecommunications and office
equipment that transform raw data to useful information and adding new value in the process [14]. The EHR
technology is one type of IT application in healthcare in this context which requires attention in its successful
design, implementation and use.
The new technology can lead to process improvements that produce tangible market advantages [15]. It was
found that implementation of EHR in some institutions was able to run smoothly while others struggle with
difficulty [16]. In his review, Adler (2007) has categorized the main factors of the success of implementation into
“The Three T’s” as Team, Tactics and Technology. Team comprises of the people involved in the implementation
process from the leadership to the employees. Leadership plays the biggest role in ensuring its success and the three
types of leaders that are essential in an EHR implementation: one or more champion among the doctors, a CEO and
a skilled project manager. Tactics represent the strategy of the implementation and Technology represents the
system infrastructure comprising of the hardware and software functionalities [16].
3.4 (HER) Implementation in Malaysia
The Malaysian Health Flagship Application is one of the components introduced with the launch of the
Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) in the year 2000. The Tele-health application targeted to provide a seamless
availability of health information and virtual health services to all Malaysian residents through integration of
information, telecommunication, human-machine interface technologies and health technologies to deliver
healthcare to promote health status of the people. Four pilot projects included in the MSC telemedicine model are
Customized/Personalized Health Information and Education, Continuing Medical Education, Tele-consultation and
Lifetime Health Plan (LHP) [17].
According to LHP, each resident is to have a smart card that contains a subset of the data in the LHR by which he
or she receives “seamless continuous quality care” across a range of health facilities and healthcare providers in
Malaysia. This patient health information is to be stored in the standard identification card or a special health smart
card [18]. The objective of this is to achieve the goal of a nation of “healthy individuals, families and communities”
[18].The success of the implementation depends on the availability of electronic medical record to cover an
individual’s life-span [17].
Under the same Malaysian Health Flagship, the Ministry of Health also introduced the Total Hospital
Information System (T.H.I.S.) concept, which is adopted to run and manage several new government hospitals
around the country. Using the T.H.I.S. concept, all functionalities in a hospital from the clinical functions to
administration and infrastructure is incorporated to achieve a fully integrated system. However, Wong et al. (2007)
pointed out that medical record sharing in the healthcare industry is a daunting task since different clinics or
hospitals might use difference types of data standards, methods, algorithms or procedures to process their patients’
medical data. [19].
3.4.1 University Malaya Medical Centre (UMMC)

The EHR implementation process began in the year 2008 as part of the PPUM iCARE project implemented at
PPUM called the iSOFT Clinical Manager (iCM) which also included modules for an electronic medical record
system. Even though the IT Department, called Nadi IT, has developed most of the modules in-house, external
consultants were also engaged to supervise the implementation processes.
95
Figure 1: UMMC System Framework
The project comprises of three main components called Clinical System, Clinical Support System and the Non-
clinical System. The clinical system encompassed the functions for administration of patients. The clinical support
contains modules like PACS, Radiology Information System (RIS), Lab Centre, Blood Bank System, Cysto-Cyto,
and Neurosurgery ICU system. The non-clinical system included the Engineering system, biomedical system,
Finance and the Queue Management System.
The implementation of the system was launched in stages, according to modules. The first module launched was
the PACS component with the staff of the Radiology Department as the main users. During the time when the
interviews were conducted, the paper folders were still in use, and the pilot run of the complete EMR was scheduled
to take place within the next few months. The implementation process faced some resistance from doctors,
especially senior ones.
The management of the hospital plays a significant role in ensuring the success of the EHR implementation
process by issuing policies enforcing the use of EHR among the medical doctors. The management was adamant on
the use of the PACS system by discontinuing the purchase of radiography films after a given deadline. They also
impeded the availability of the log books previously used for reservations of operation rooms to compel the use of
the online reservation system. While EHR may be perceived as improving the speed and efficiency in work routines
among some doctors, this change was also perceived as imposing difficulty and hardship on others. Since they had
to key in notes of each consultation into the system, more clinical time could be consumed. Lack of computer skills
among senior doctors could cause anxiety and stress when they had to perform the task beyond their ordinary
routines, such as performing complicated searches, updating records, and keying in the data into the computers.
This, however, is less apparent among younger doctors who have had more exposures to computers during their
medical training. This phenomenon is similar to the findings of the study by Ghahramani et al., (2009)[5] on the job
performance and perceived stress levels, which revealed that the level of satisfaction using the system decreases
with years of medical training.
Being attached to a teaching and research university, another positive impact of the EHR implementation is that it
encouraged medical doctors to do research; hence further develop their careers. The ability of accessing aggregate
data across the healthcare facility also encouraged doctors to engage in studies in their area of specializations. Ease
of communication also facilitates sharing of findings among colleagues. However, limitation still persists among
doctors of different hospitals, though, due to systems’ incompatibility and the differences in governance and policies
on record confidentiality and information sharing.
96
It was observed that even though the EHR system was implemented throughout the hospital, the physical paper
folders were still in use for references to patient medical histories. Since this hospital has not completely integrated
the system to accommodate electronic patient history record, this discrepancy might cause inconsistency, confusion
and inconvenience to health care practitioners.
3.4.2 Putrajaya Hospital

The EHR implementation process began almost instantaneously after the hospital started operating in year 2006.
A local vendor, Kompakar, was employed to develop the system. All the modules, which covered clinical and
administrative scope of the hospital, were launched simultaneously.
Figure 2: Putrajaya Hospital System Framework
The EHR modules, using total hospital information system framework (THISF), were divided into three major
components, i.e. images, clinical, and admin finance. The images component was comprised of PACS module. The
clinical component, which made up the core component of the system, was comprised of laboratory information
system, pharmacy information system, critical care system, haemodialysis system, and labour and delivery system.
The admin-finance component was made up of financial management system, human resource and payroll system,
material management system, and office system (See Figure 2).
The IT administrator observed minimal resistance among doctors to use the system. Trainings for doctors were
continuously conducted from time to time to support evolving upgrades of the EHR system. The IT administrator
also reported about the tedious upgrading procedures and red-tapes commonly found in regular government
hospitals causing some difficulties in the EHR implementation. The hospital was also affected by frequent changes
in the government policies regarding vendors or acquisition of infrastructure. Change management was perceived to
be more challenging with the frequent change in the top management itself.
Difficulty in keeping up with the technology frequently creates other problems like frequent down-time or
unstable systems. Some doctors complained about the slow response of the system during peak hours. An incident
occurred where the computer mainframe broke down for seven days forcing doctors to take all notes during
appointments manually. When the system was operating again, all the manually recorded notes had to be entered
into the system. The high dependency on the electronic information services and process flow might prevent the
hospital services from running smoothly during down time.
3.4.3 Comparison between the Two Institutions
When the two hospitals are compared, several similarities and differences can be recognized. Even though the
two hospitals are governed by two different ministries of the Malaysian government, both hospital are operating as
97
government hospitals. As such, the nature of service at both hospitals is that of public healthcare institutions and the
volume of patients in both hospitals is high. The main difference found in the two hospitals with regards to EHR
implementation is the fact that Putrajaya Hospital, in keeping with its location in the MSC hub, was one of the
hospitals that has been strategically built by the Malaysian Health Ministry to fulfil the goals of the Malaysian
Health Flagship. The UMMC, on the other hand is not subjected to the Ministry directive to implement T.H.I.S in its
operations. Its top management has decided to implement the EHR technology to improve the quality of healthcare
services and to develop computerization in its daily operations to be at par with other government hospitals. Being
an old hospital, the implementation of EHR requires massive migration from the previous system to the newly
developed one; not to mention the heavy duty work on the conversion of retrospective records that existed in old
printed files. The daily operations include on-going migration and the use of both manual files as well as electronic
records.
Although the concept of EHR is well understood in both institutions, the models used are somewhat different.
This can be observed in terms of the modules provided and the implementation stage involved. In other words, the
implementation of EHR in the Putrajaya Hospital can be described as strategically driven while the one in UMMC is
operationally driven. This assumption is supported by the fact that the EHR infrastructure was built in together with
the construction of the hospital. All the modules went live all at once from the beginning of its operation while
covering all scopes of the hospital functionalities. In contrast, the implementation in UMMC was only recently
expedited and the modules were launched in stages according to modules. Additionally, the fact that the paper
folders were still widely used in the hospital indicates that the reliance on the EHR at UMMC is not total and
complete. This could be interpreted as low level of readiness to accept the technology or indicate a certain degree of
resistance from the healthcare practitioners towards the implementation.
4. DISSECTION
The purpose of a collaborative diagram is to identify the participating domains and their collaborative
relationships in terms of the core competence. Core competencies in each health sector are the sources of sustainable
competitive advantage and are valuable capabilities. They are collective, unique, non-imitable, and strategically
flexible. These core competences have to be aligned with the medical collaboration strategy.
Fig1 illustrates the collaborative between the clinics and hospitals in one system with the higher level that can
keep and share the information of the patinas at the special department in the ministry of health so will be
monitoring from the ministry regarding to the secure patients' information. Furthermore, expert people in health care
and consultants will are involving in this concept what experience that they own. They can share to the clinics and
the hospitals in order to be aware of new diseases that face the world or complex matter or other problems may face
the clinic and hospitals not aware of it. After the system gets the feedback from both sides will send back the idol
information.
Figure 3: proposed Collaborative system diagram
98
This diagram fig. 3 illustrates the relationship between the experts and the consultants in the health sector will be
attached with the clinics and the hospitals, secondly each organization, whether clinics or hospitals will connect to
the collaborative system to provide the data and the information of the patients. The third action this information it
will at the ministry of health from both clinics and hospitals as history for the patients once any side request any
information of the patients it will be available.
5. CONCLUSION
With implementing such a system in the ministry of health in Malaysia under full control of the government,
which is include the collaborative between the physicians in each clinic and hospitals we find this kind of
Collaboration system it will serve the patient in Malaysia with reduction of cost and time. Moreover this work can
assist to health care institution to learn this experience.
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IJCIIS Reviewers
A. Govardhan, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India
Ajay Goel, Haryana Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Ajay Sharma, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, India
Akshi Kumar, Delhi Technological University, India
Alok Singh Chauhan, Ewing Christian Institute of Management and Technology, India
Amandeep Dhir, Helsinki University of Technology Finland, Denmark Technical University, Denmark
Amit Kumar Rathi, Jaypee University of Engineering and Technology, India
Amol Potgantwar, Sandip Institute of Technology and Research Centre, India
Anand Sharma, MITS, India
Aos Alaa Zaidan Ansaef, Multimedia University, Malaysia
Arash Habibi Lashkari, University of Technology, Malaysia
Arpita Mehta, Christ University, India
Arul Lawrence Selvakumar, Kuppam Engineering College, India
Ayyappan Kalyanasundaram, Rajiv Gandhi College of Engineering and Technology, India
Azadeh Zamanifar, Iran University of Science and Technology University and Niroo Research Institute,
Iran
Bilal Bahaa Zaidan, University of Malaya, Malaysia
Binod Kumar, Lakshmi Narayan College of Technology, India
B. L. Malleswari, GNITS, India
B. Nagraj, Tamilnadu News Prints and Papers, India
Chakresh Kumar, Galgotias College of Engineering and Technology, India
C. Suresh Gnana Dhas, Vel Tech Multitech Dr.Rengarajan Dr.Sagunthla Engg. College, India
C. Sureshkumar, J. K. K. M. College of Technology, India
Deepankar Sharma, D. J. College of Engineering and Technology, India
Dhirendra Pandey, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, India
Durgesh Kumar Mishra, Acropolis Institute of Technology and Research, India
D. S. R. Murthy, SreeNidhi Institute of Science and Technology, India
G. N. K. Suresh Babu, SAMS College of Engineering and Technology, India
Hafeez Ullah Amin, KUST Kohat, NWFP, Pakistan
Hanumanthappa Jayappa, University of Mysore, India
Himanshu Aggarwal, Punjabi University, India
Jagdish Lal Raheja, Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute, India
Jatinder Singh, UIET Lalru, India
Iman Grida Ben Yahia, Telecom SudParis, France
Kanwalvir Singh Dhindsa, B. B. S. B. Engineering College, India
K Padmasree, Yogi Vemana University, India
K. V. N. Sunitha, G. Narayanamma Institute of Technology and Science, India
Leszek Sliwko, CITCO Fund Services, Ireland
M. Azath, Anna University, India
Md. Mobarak Hossain, Asian University of Bangladesh, Bangladesh
Mohd Nazri Ismail, University of Kuala Lampur, Malaysia
101
Mohammed Salem Binwahlan, Hadhramout University of Science and Technology, Yemen

Mohamed Elshaikh, Universiti Malaysia Perlis, Malaysia
M. Surendra Prasad Babu, Andhra University, India
M. Thiyagarajan, Sastra University, India
Manjaiah D. H., Mangalore University, India
Nahib Zaki Rashed, Menoufia Univesity, Egypt
Nagaraju Aitha, Vaagdevi College of Engineering, India
Natarajan Meghanathan, Jackson State University, USA
Navneet Sikarwar, B. S. A. College of Engineering and Technology, India
N. Jaisankar, VIT University, India
Ojesanmi Olusegun Ayodeji, Ajayi Crowther University, Nigeria
Oluwaseyitanfunmi Osunade, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
Perumal Dananjayan, Pondicherry Engineering College, India
Piyush Kumar Shukla, University Institute of Technology, Bhopal, India
Poonam Garg, Institute of Management Technology, India
Praveen Ranjan Srivastava, BITS, India
Rajesh Kumar, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Rajeshwari Hegde, BMS College of Engineering, India
Rakesh Chandra Gangwar, Beant College of Engineering and Technology, India
Raman Kumar, D A V Institute of Engineering and Technology, India
Raman Maini, University College of Engineering, Punjabi University, India
Ramveer Singh, Raj Kumar Goel Institute of Technology, India
Sateesh Kumar Peddoju, Vaagdevi College of Engineering, India
Shahram Jamali, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Iran
Sriman Narayana Iyengar, India
Suhas Manangi, Microsoft, India
Sujisunadaram Sundaram, Anna University, India
Sukumar Senthilkumar, National Institute of Technology, India
S. Murugan, Alagappa University and Centre for Development for Advanced Computing, India
S. S. Mehta, J. N. V. University, India
S. Smys, Karunya University, India
S. V. Rajashekararadhya, Adichunchanagiri Institute of Technology, India
Thipendra P Singh, Sharda University, India
T. Ramanujam, Krishna Engineering College, Ghaziabad, India
T. Venkat Narayana Rao, Hyderabad Institute of Technology and Management, India
Vasavi Bande, Hyderabad Institute of Technology and Management, India
Vishal Bharti, Dronacharya College of Engineering, India
Vuda Sreenivasarao, St. Mary's College of Engineering and Technology, India
V. Umakanta Sastry, Sreenidhi Institute of Science and Technology, India
Yee Ming Chen, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan
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IJCIIS February 2011 Vol. 2 No. 2

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IJCIIS February 2011 Vol. 2 No. 2

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International Journal of

Computational Intelligence and

IJCIIS Editor and Publisher

Publishing Date: February 28, 2011

Members of IJCIIS Editorial Board

Prof. A Govardhan, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, India

Journal Website: https://sites.google.com/site/ijciisresearch/

2. Ultra Wide Wavelength Multiplexing/Demultiplexing Conventional Arrayed Waveguide

3. An Implementation OF SPARC Architecture (pages 33-38)

6. A Detailed Note on Security Metrics (pages 63-69)

8. Performance Measures of a Multi-Evaporator Type Compressor With Standby Expansion

STOCHASTIC BEHAVIOUR OF A COMPUTER NETWORK SYSTEM

Subhash Chander Punhani and Deepankar Sharma

Key Words: Computer network, reliability analysis, supplementary variables etc.

Fig- 1: System configuration

Fig-2 illustrates a LAN switch providing dedicated bandwidth to devices and

2.1 Components of the whole system

SWITCH A switch uses store-and-forward techniques to support multilayer switching.

(i) Steady-State Transition Probabilities [6].

1. Initially at t = 0, the system starts from state S0.

Fig-3: STATE-TRANSITION DIAGRAM

POOO (t ) Pr {System is in state S0 at time t}.

2.4 Formulation of mathematical model

Hj + ∑ λ H i + λ s POOO(t ) = ∫ PDOO ( x, t ) µ s ( x)dx

Hj + λ H1 POOF (t ) = λ H 2 POOD (t ) 4.3

Hj + λ H 2 PODO (t ) = ∑ λ H POOO (t ) 4.6

Hj +λ H 2 POFO (t ) = λ H1 PODO (t ) 4.7

POOO (0) = 1 4.13

2.5 SOLUTION OF THE MODEL

Pup ( s) = POOO ( s ) + POOD ( s) + POOF ( s ) + PODO ( s) + PODD ( s ) + PODF ( s )

It is worth noticing that

2.6 Ergodic behaviour of the system

Also Pup + Pdown = 1

2.7 Some special cases

2.7.2 Non-repairable system

Mean time to system failure is given as under

2.8 Numerical computation

2. 8.1 Availability analysis

Setting ∑λ Hi = 0.2, ∑λ Hj =0.1, λ S = .1 , µ S = 1, λ H1 = 0.15, λ H 2 = 0.25, φ S = 1 in

2.8.2 Reliability analysis

2.8.3 M.T.T.F. Analysis

 .9 0.02 4(λ H1 − .05)

Fig-6 exhibits the variation of MTTF for different values of λ H1 .

3. Results and discussion

Ultra Wide Wavelength Multiplexing/Demultiplexing Conventional

2. General Description of Conventional AWG Model

Fig. 2. AWG waveguide layout.

The differentiation of Eq. (1) w. r. t T gives:

3.1. 2. Lithium niobate (LiNbO3) based material

Table1. Typical values of operating parameters in proposed model [13].

Operating parameter Symbol Value

4. 1. Variations of the diffraction order

An Implementation OF SPARC Architecture

1 Research Scholar, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya, India

Keywords : SPARC Processor, Instruction set, Registers, RISC, Pipeline

2. SPARC System Components

3. Instruction Set Architecture

SPARC includes the following principal features:

• A linear, 32-bit address space.

• Few addressing modes — A memory address is given by either “register +register” or

• A separate floating-point register file — configurable by software into 32 single-precision (32-bit), 16

• Multiprocessor synchronization instructions — One instruction performs an atomic read-then-set-

6. SPARC Programming model

Fig.1 SPARC Programming Model