Chapter 1 - Further kinematics

1.1 - Acceleration depending on time (t)

a = dv/dt v = dx/dt a = d²x/dt² a=

f(t) v = ∫f(t)dt + c

v = g(t)

x = ∫g(t)dt + k

1.2 - Acceleration depending on displacement (x)

a = F(x) dv/dt = F(x)

By the chain rule,

dy/dx = dy/du x du/dx

Therefore;

a = dv/dt = dv/dx x dx/dt

Since, dx/dt = v

a = v.dv/dx

If y = v² where v = f(x)

dy/dx = dy/dv x dv/dx = 2v.dv/dx

OR rewrite y = v² as y = v.v

dy/dx = v.dv/dx + v.dv/dx = 2v.dv/dx (by the product rule)

Hence, d(v²)/dx = 2v.dv/dx

The acceleration, therefore, may also be written;

a = d(½v²)/dx

If v = f(x) = dx/dt

1/v = 1/f(x) = 1/(dx/dt) = dt/dx

∫1/v dx = ∫1 dt = t

Chapter 2 - Elastic springs and strings

2.1 - Hooke's law

T = λx/L

T = tension in spring or string

λ = modulus of elasticity of spring or string

x = extension/compression of string or spring

L = natural length of spring/string

If a particle is attached to a string in equilibrium;

Resolve vertically

T = mg

λx/L = mg

x = mgL/λ

If a particle is attached to a string and moves;

When the particle P is in equilibrium, using Hooke's law gives;

T = λe/L

e = TL/λ

e = mgL/λ

When the particle P is at some poinr where the extension, x, is greater than
mgL/λ (e) then the tension in the string will be greater than the weight of the
particle and the particle will move with an acceleration a.

Using the equation of motion,

F = ma

T - mg = ma

λx/L - mg = ma

a = λx/mL - g

The resulting acceleration depends on the extension in the string and is

constantly changing.

2.2 - Energy stored in an elastic string or spring

Consider a particle attached to one end of an elastic string whose other end
is fixed on a smooth horizontal table. When the string is stretched beyond its
natural length by pulling the particle along the table and then released, the
particle will move along the table and will gain kinetic energy. As the motion
is horizontal there is no change in gravitational potential energy so it follows
that when stretched, the string has energy stored in it. This form of potential
energy is called the elastic potential energy (E.P.E) of the string.

Work done

= area under a Tension-extension graph

Before the elastic limit of the string/spring, the gradient of the Tension-
extension graph is a straight line.

So, the area under a Tension-extension graph

= ½ x Tx

= ½ x λx²/L

= λx²/2L

Therefore the work done in stretching an elastic spring with modulus λ from
its natural length L to a length (L+x) is λx²/2L

if a string (or spring) which has its extension (or compression) increased from
x to y will have its elastic energy increased.

This increase is given by;

Increase in E.P.E.

= final E.P.E. - initial E.P.E.

= λy²/2L - λx²/2L

2.3 - Problems involving kinetic energy, gravitational potential energy and

elastic potential energy

By the work-energy principle;

The total change of the mechanical energies (that is kinetic, gravitational

potential and elastic potential energies) of a system is equal to the work done
by any external forces acting on a system.

mgh1 + ½mu² + λx²/2L - FRx = mgh2 + ½mv² + λy²/2L

Chapter 3 - Further dynamics

3.1 - Newton's laws for a particle moving in a straight line when the applied
force is variable

Consider a particle of mass m moving under the influence of a force F which

is a function of time.

F = f(t)

By Newton's second law, F = ma, gives;

ma = f(t)

a = dv/dt

m.dv/dt = f(t)

mv = ∫f(t) dt + c

Similarly, if F is a function of the displacement, that is;

F = g(x)

then using Newton's second law gives;

ma = g(x)

a = d(½v²)/dx

=> m.d(½v²)/dx = g(x)

Integrating with respect to x gives;

½mv² = ∫g(x) dx + k

Impulse and momentum

For a variable force f(t), Newton's second law, f(t) = ma can be written;

f(t) = m.dv/dt

Let the particle have a constant mass m and velocity U at time T1 and a
velocity V at time T2. Then integrating with respect to t over the integral from
T1 to T2 gives;

∫f(t) dt (between T1 and T2) = m∫1 dv (between V and U)

= m[v] (between V and U)

= m(V - U)
= mV - mU

mV - mU is the change of momentum of the particle. The quantity ∫f(t) dt

(between T1 and T2) is the impulse of the variable force on the particle.

Thus the equation;

Impulse = change of momentum

is still valid but for a variable force the impulse is given by;

Impulse = ∫f(t) dt (between T1 and T2)

Work and energy

When a constant force F acts on a particle of mass m and moves it through a

distance s in the direction of the force, the work done by the force is defined
by;

Work done = F x s

Fs = ½mv² - ½mu²

(where u and v are the initial and final speeds respectively of the particle)

a = v.dv/dx

f(x) = ma = mv.dv/dx (1)

If the action of the force causes the particle to increase its speed from U to V
while moving from the point x = x1 to the point where x = x2 then
integrating (1) with respect to x gives;

∫f(x) dx (between x1 and x2) = m∫v dv = m[½v²] between V and U

= ½mV² - ½U² (2)

The RHS of (2) is the increase in the K.E. of the particle and the LHS is the
work done by the variable force.

Therefore. work done = ∫f(x) dx (between x1 and x2)

3.2 - Newton's law of gravitation

The force of attraction between two bodies of masses M1 and M2 is directly

proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

F = GM1M2/d²
G is the constant of gravitation.

Units of G

F = GM1M2/d²

(where F is a function of d, the distance between the two bodies)

=> G = Fd²/[M1M2]

F is measured in Newtons, d in metres and M1 and M2 in kilograms.

So, units for G are;

Nm²kg-²

= kgms-²m²kg-²

= m³/kgs²

Hence G is 6.67 x 10^-11 m³/kgs²

Relationship between G and g

Consider a particle of mass m which is at rest on the surface of the earth.

Suppose the mass of the earth is Mekg and its radius is Rm. By Newton's law
of gravitation the magnitude of the force of attraction between the particle
and the earth is;

F = GmMe/R²

However, the force with which the earth attracts the particle is the weight of
the particle, so;

F = mg

=> mg = GmMe/R²

=> g = GMe/R²

3.3 - Simple harmonic motion

Equation for acceleration

a = -ω²x

Always get the acceleration of the oscillating object in this form to prove that
the motion is simple harmonic.

Equation for speed

v² = ω²(a² - x²)

vmax = ωa

v = speed

ω = v/a

a = amplitude of S.H.M

x = displacement moved by particle

Equations for displacement

x = asin(ωt)

- Particle starts at centre of oscillation (x = 0 when t = 0)

x = acos(ωt)

- Particle starts at either end of oscillation (x = a when t = 0)

Equations for period of motion

Period = 2π/ω = 2π/(vmax/a) = 2πa/vmax

3.4 - Horizontal oscillations of a particle attached to the end of an elastic

string or spring

Consider a particle P resting on a smooth horizontal surface and attached to

one end of an elastic spring whose other end is fixed to a point O on the
surface. If P is pulled aside in the direction OP and then released the spring
will be stretched and so will exert a tension on P resulting in an acceleration.

F = ma

-T = ma

-λx/L = ma

a = -λx/mL (1)

Equation (1) is in the form a = -ω²x

=> ω² = λ/mL

Since period = 2π/ω

The period of the particle's oscillations is 2π√[ml/λ]

String is only taut during S.H.M. When the string goes slack, T = 0 and the
particle moves at a constant speed.

So using time = distance/speed you can calculate the length of time for
which the string is slack etc.

3.5 - Vertical oscillations of a particle attached to the end of an elastic string

or spring.

When the particle is in equilibrium;

T = mg

T = λe/L

λe/L = mg

e = mgL/λ

Hence, the total extension when the particle is displaced a distance x from
the equilibrium position is; e + x = mgL/λ + x

Tension at this point is;

T = λ(mgl/λ + x)/L = mg + λx/L

Using Newton's second law, F = ma, gives;

mg - T = ma

mg - [mg + λx/L] = ma

ma = -λx/L

a = -λx/mL

String becomes slack when x = -e and the particle will then move freely
under gravity until it falls back to x = -e again.

Chapter 4 - Circular motion

4.1 - Angular speed

ω = dθ/dt => θ = ωt

ω is the angular speed of the radius of a circle.

ω is measured in radians/second or revolutions/minute

2π radians = 1 revolution
1 radian = 1/2π revolutions

n rad/s = n/2π rev/s

1 minute = 60 seconds

n/2π rev/s = n/2π x 60 rev/min

Angular and linear speed

v = rω

When the radius is measured in metres and the angular speed in radians per
second, the linear speed is in metres per second.

Direction of the linear velocity

The velocity of a point on the circumference of a circle is directed along the

tangent to the radius of the circle at that point.

4.2 - Acceleration in circular motion

The acceleration of a particle moving on a circular path centre O of radius r is

given by;

a = rω² or a = v²/r

and is directed towards the centre O of the circle.

4.3 - Uniform motion of a particle moving in a horizontal circle

Using F = ma,

F = mv²/r as a = v²/r

OR

F = mrω² as a = rω²

Situations include, the conical pendulum and motion on a banked surface.

See M3 book for more detail.

4.4 - The motion of a particle in a vertical circle

The components of the acceleration in a vertical circle are;

rω² or v²/r along the inward radius and dv/dt along the tangent.

By the work-energy principle;

work done by the forces acting on a particle = change in mechanical energy

of the particle

But generally, if no forces are acting on the particle, then;

mgh1 + ½mu² = mgh2 + ½mv²

Motion of a particle on a fixed vertical circle

mgh1 + ½mu² = mgh2 + ½mv²

0 + ½mu² = mgr - mgrcos θ + ½mv²

½mu² - ½mv² = mgr - mgrcos θ

Dividing through by m and multiplying by 2 gives;

u² - v² = 2gr - 2grcos θ

v² = u² - [2gr - 2grcos θ]

v² = u² - 2gr + 2grcosθ

Motion of a particle which can leave the circular path

A particle which cannot leave its vertical circular path (for example a particle
on a rod) will describe complete circles provided its velocity at the highest
point of the circle is greater than or equal to zero.

A particle which can leave its vertical circular path (for example a particle on
a string) will do so when the force towards the centre of the circle becomes
zero, e.g. the tension, the reaction.

Chapter 5 - Statics of rigid bodies

5.1 - Centre of mass of a uniform plane lamina

x-bar = (∫xy dx)/(∫y dx) both integrals between the x-values x1 and x2 and
where y = f(x)

y-bar = (½∫y²dx)/(∫y dx) both integrals between the x-values x1 and x2 and
where y = f(x)

5.2 - Centre of mass of a uniform solid body

1 - The centre of mass of a solid body is the point at which the weight acts.

2 - The weight of a uniform solid body is evenly distributed throughout its

volume.
3 - The centre of mass of a uniform solid body must lie on any axis of
symmetry.

- The centre of mass of a uniform solid body must lie on any plane of
symmetry.

Use of symmetry

Uniform solid sphere - The sphere has an infinite number of planes of

symmetry, so the centre of mass of the sphere is directly in the centre.

Uniform solid right circular cylinder - The line through the plane face
perpendicular to this face is an axis of symmetry.

Uniform solid right circular cone - The axis of a solid right circular cone is an
axis of symmetry of the cone.

Uniform solid hemisphere - The line the centre of the plane face
perpendicular to the plane face is an axis of symmetry.

Centres of mass of solids of revolution

x-bar = (∫πy²x dx)/(∫πy² dx) both integrals between the x-values x1 and x2
and where y = f(x)

Centres of mass of surfaces of revolution

When part of a curve is rotated through 360 degrees about a fixed line we
obtain a surface known as a surface of revolution. Examples include a hollow
cone and a hemispherical shell. See M3 book for detailed diagrams and
examples.

5.3 - Simple cases of equilibrium of rigid bodies

A rigid body is in equilibrium if;

- the vector sum of the forces acting is zero, that is the sum of the
components of the forces in any given direction is zero.

- the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any given point is
zero.

Suspension of a body from a fixed point

- A rigid body hangs in equilibrium with its centre of mass vertically below the
point of suspension.

Equilibrium of bodies on a horizontal plane

1) If the line of action of the weight lies inside the area of contact, then the
body is in equilibrium.

2) If the line of action of the weight lies outside the area of contact, then it is
not possible to have equilibrium as the reaction must act somewhere in the
area of contact. In this case the body will topple.

3) When the line of action of the weight passes through either end points of
the area of contact. The body is in limiting equilibrium.

Equilibrium of bodies on an inclined plane

Same principles as previous section.

5.4 - Slipping and toppling

1) When the body is on the point of sliding, FR = µR

2) When the body is on the point of toppling, the reaction acts at the point
about which the body will turn.