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JFMM
13,3
372
Received August 2007
Revised March 2008
Accepted September 2008
Journal of Fashion Marketing and
Management
Vol. 13 No. 3, 2009
pp. 372-393
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1361-2026
DOI 10.1108/13612020910974500
Apparel consumers’ body
type and their shopping
characteristics
Jaekyung Park
Department of Clothing and Textiles, College of Human Ecology,
Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Yunja Nam
Department of Clothing and Textiles and the Research Institute of Human Ecology,
Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
Kueng-mi Choi
Department of Fashion Design, Dong Seoul College, Sungnam, South Korea
Yuri Lee
Department of Clothing and Textiles and the Research Institute of Human Ecology,
Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea, and
Kyu-Hye Lee
Department of Clothing and Textiles, College of Human Ecology,
Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea
Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to identify the relationships between consumers’ body types
and characteristics such as shopping orientation, past experience with fit problems, attitudes toward
internet shopping and attitudes toward 3-D body scanning.
Design/methodology/approach – This study collected body data from 441 Korean females who
participated in 3-D body scanning. Using a hierarchical cluster analysis, the body scanning identified
five body types. Then body types and shopping characteristics variables were analyzed.
Findings – Slim respondents showed significantly higher hedonic shopping orientation and their
attitude to internet shopping was positive, since they evaluated using the internet as being “fun”. By
contrast, respondents with larger body types considered the convenience of internet shopping to be the
most important feature. Respondents, regardless of their body types, regarded 3-D body scanning as
an enjoyable, futuristic and interesting experience. Moreover, respondents showed a high inclination
to spend more money for customization services which utilize the 3-D scanning technique.
Originality/value – This study analyzed Korean females’ body shapes using 3-D scanned body
measurements. This study can contribute to integrate knowledge in the body measurement sector and
the consumer behavior sector.
Keywords Internet shopping, Shopping, South Korea
Paper type Research paper
This work was supported by the Technology Infrastructure Foundation Program, which is
funded by the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy, South Korea.
Introduction Apparel
The internet is increasingly becoming one of the major channels for active business
transactions. With technological advances such as electronic transaction speed,
consumers’
systematic shipping and distribution services, internet shopping has expanded body type
dramatically. According to official statistics from the Korean Ministry of Information
and Communication (2004), 39.9 percent of internet users had shopped online during
the six months prior to the survey, and 51.2 percent of those internet purchases were in 373
the clothing/accessory category. The Korean National Statistical Office (2007) reported
that the turnover of the internet shopping market in 2006 was approximately 13.5
trillion KRW (approximately $13 billion), with 17.6 percent accounted for by
apparel/fashion-related products.
Although it has been established that consumers proficient in internet usage are
more likely to purchase products online (Hwang, 2003), previous studies have found
that Korean consumers believe that the internet provides a limited selection of fashion
products in terms of diversity, design, color, size and price (Ha and Shin, 2001). Because
apparel consumers who shop online cannot touch or model the product in person, the
most frequent complaints about online purchases have been related to texture, size and
fit. Apparel consumers are displeased with the lack of product specifics and inaccurate
information, and one of the major reasons for product return has been a “fit problem”
(Kim and Choi, 2002). Accordingly, clothing articles in which fit is not a major concern
(i.e. t-shirts) tend to be selected more often by internet shoppers than items that require
high consumer involvement in the purchase (Ahn and Park, 2003). Returned products
are more likely to be fashion goods for which the fit was an important criterion for
selection (Kim and Choi, 2002).
Although having a proper fit is one of the most important criteria for consumers
who are purchasing clothing, Korean clothing companies are not committed to
following the universal sizing system recommended by the government. Instead, most
use their own standards, meaning that they are providing apparel with inconsistent fit.
Apparel consumers seem to have difficulty making decisions solely based on the size
without trying on the product. Consequently, internet shopping, where trying on an
article is impossible, proves problematic for apparel consumers who want to select
products that fit them well (Jang and Kim, 2000; Kim and Choi, 2002; Kim and Kim,
2001; Park and Chun, 1996).
Women usually report a high level of dissatisfaction with the fit and styling of their
internet clothing purchases (Goldsberry et al., 1996). While focus groups have spoken
of widespread dissatisfaction with the fit and sizing of mass-produced clothing, they
have also indicated an interest in the potential of customizing the fit to individuals
(Anderson-Connell et al., 2002). Improper fitting is one of the perceived risks that may
influence consumers in their apparel purchases, especially when shopping in a
“non-brick and mortar” retailing format such as online, catalogue and TV home
shopping (Park and Stoel, 2002). Ready-to-wear sizing problems particularly arise with
apparel consumers whose large waist and hip measurements categorize them as being
“overweight”. Consumers who try to buy tight-fitting clothing usually complain about
fitting problems as well. Most fit problems relate to the length of slacks and skirts
(Goldsberry et al., 1996; Lee, 2002; Kim et al., 2003a). These problems imply that even if
the sizing were standardized, certain groups of people with certain body shapes
(especially overweight apparel consumers) would still experience fit problems.
Nevertheless, the internet, as a result of technological advances such as 3-D body
scanning, is regarded as an innovative channel compared to traditional shopping in
JFMM terms of delivering customized products and services to more fragmented sectors of the
market. Fit evaluation is closely associated with apparel consumers’ body shapes.
13,3 Whether e-tailing channels are capable of reducing fit dissatisfaction is one of the keys
to solving fit problems experienced by apparel consumers with particular body shapes.
The purpose of this study is to identify the relationships between apparel consumers’
body types and their general shopping orientation, sizing problems and attitudes toward
374 acceptance of 3-D body scanning in internet shopping. The findings of this study can
provide answers to such basic research questions as, “Can a new internet shopping
technology be developed to meet individual demands for clothing products, including
providing a proper fit?” and “What are the most common types of body shapes of
consumers who are most inclined to order apparel products through the internet?”

Conceptual framework
We selected research variables on the basis of several contemporary attitude theories.
One of the goals of attitude theory is to determine how attitudes drive intentions. The
theory of reasoned action, or TRA (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), is perhaps the most
prominent contemporary attitude theory. The TRA suggests that intentions are the
direct outcome of attitudes together with subjective norms. Another relevant attitude
theory is the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) (Davis et al., 1989), which is an
adaptation of the TRA to the field of Information Technology. When apparel consumers
are faced with complex and new technologies such as personal computers or software
packages, their attitude to the new technologies is dependent on the perceived usefulness
and perceived ease of use of those technologies. In their research on building a unified
model for technology acceptance, Venkatesh et al. (2003) pointed out that affect toward
technology use such as feelings of joy, elation or pleasure is one of the root constructs of
attitude. However, they revealed that the effect of attitude on intention could be captured
by perceived ease of use. In their unified technology acceptance model, the acceptance of
new technologies is moderated by several consumer characteristics such as age, gender
and experience with the technology in question.
Because internet shopping and 3-D body scanning can be regarded as new and
innovative ways in fashion retailing and production, we believe the Technology
Acceptance Model provides applicable constructs for predicting apparel consumers’
intentions of using internet shopping and 3-D body scanning. Additionally, we
examine the relationships between consumer characteristics relevant to clothing
shopping and their technology acceptance, focusing especially on attitude construct.

Literature review
Body types and fitting concerns: influential consumer characteristics
A critical proportion of consumer complaints about apparel products are related to fit.
As internet shopping cannot provide shoppers with the ability to try on and touch
products, retailers must give serious consideration to solving fit problems. Because fit
is related to the apparel consumer’s body shape and size, there is a need for studies on
the relationships between consumers’ body shapes and their fit concerns with
ready-to-wear products.
We know now that body shape is closely associated with the fit of apparel products
(Kim and Nam, 2003). Apparel consumers who do not have a body shape that meets the
standardized ready-to-wear sizing systems are more likely to have fitting concerns and
to be dissatisfied with the apparel products. Frequent fit problem experiences by a
customer may affect the person’s body cathexis. Kaiser (1997) identified the Apparel
consciousness of physical appearance as part of the self-concept and described body
cathexis as “a concept closely related to body image, but representing the degree of
consumers’
satisfaction with the body, rather than the image per se” (Kaiser, 1997, p. 108). body type
Researchers on body cathexis often argue that fashion products are closely related to
the formation and exhibition of the self (Davis et al., 1989; Evans, 1989; Lurie, 1981).
Some studies have reported that all females, regardless of their body concepts, are 375
interested in clothing (e.g. Davis, 1985a, 1985b). Some prior studies have reported that
body cathexis is closely related to orientation for clothing and fashion (e.g. Rook, 1985).
We can posit from this that consumers’ body concepts (or body types) may influence
shopping orientation for apparel products. The following hypothesis is generated.
H1. The shopping orientation of apparel consumers will vary according to their
body types.
Part of the apparel industry is in transition from mass-production to mass-customization
as the industry increasingly experiences demand fragmentation, product proliferation,
information explosion and global competition (Pan and Holland, 2006). With the recently
personalized and upscale consumption pattern in the market, many apparel companies
are interested in increasing diversity in style and size by offering customized services so
as to cater to the individual tastes and body shapes of consumers (Burns and Bryant,
2002). Kim and Chun’s study (2004) reported that consumers who had experienced fitting
problems with pants had intended to pay extra for a customized product - if they could
even have obtained products that would fit them better. Some apparel companies that are
already offering products of customized sizes, designs and colors over the internet have
achieved high marks in response time and consumer satisfaction (Mass Customization
Strategy, 2004). According to Goldsmith and Freiden’s (2004) exploratory study on
consumer attitudes toward personalized marketing, consumers selected dressy clothes as
the apparel product category most appropriate for customization, which implies that
consumers who purchased dressy clothing may have more fit problems than others.
Since body shape relates closely to fit of apparel (Kim and Nam, 2003), we can posit the
following hypothesis, which illustrates that consumer body type is related with fit
problems of ready-to-wear apparel items.
H2. Apparel consumers’ fit problems with ready-to-wear products will vary
according to their body types.

Body types and attitudes toward internet shopping

According to Lee and Johnson (2002), consumers who purchased apparel online were
more likely to perceive internet shopping as an advantageous, safe and easy way to
shop than those who did not. Internet clothing purchasers browsed more frequently
than did non-purchasers. Moreover, purchasers tended to be mature females with high
incomes, and they provided credit card and purchase information over the internet if
the vendors were considered reliable. Shim and Drake (1990) investigated consumers’
intentions to use mail-order shopping which, like internet shopping, is a type of
shopping where consumers do not have to be physically present in a store in order to
make purchases. They found that fashion-conscious individuals and individuals
comfortable with purchasing through catalogues were the most willing to accept
in-home electronic shopping. Goldsmith and Flynn (2004) studied motivation behind
online clothing purchases by exploring the psychological and behavioral aspects.
JFMM Their study sought to go beyond demographics, and it found that online clothing
purchases were motivated more by internet innovativeness than by clothing
13,3 innovativeness. Not surprisingly, they discovered that women purchased more
clothing online than did men. Previous studies supported their findings that fashion
innovators are identifiable by their intense interest in new fashions, exposure to
fashion-relevant media and excessive spending on new fashion products (Goldsmith
376 and Flynn, 2004; Goldsmith and Hofacker, 1991). Apparel products are often reported
to be related to the high rate of returns after online purchases have been made,
primarily because the buyers could not confirm whether the product fit their bodies
well in terms of length and circumference before making their purchases (Kim and
Kim, 2001). Since consumers with different body shapes will have different fit
problems, relationships between apparel consumer body types and attitudes toward
internet shopping may exist. The following hypothesis is generated.
H3. Apparel consumers’ attitudes toward internet shopping will vary according to
their body types.

Body types and attitudes toward 3-d body scanning for customized clothing
Previous studies (Kim and Choi, 2002; Lee, 1992) have shown that apparel consumers
do not generally familiarize themselves with their body measurements with the
exception of such measurements as height, weight and waist size. Apparel consumers
give inaccurate information when stating their bust and hip circumferences and do not
appreciate the importance of body measurements. Furthermore, it requires a lot of time
to measure every part of the body. Apparel consumers’ lack of knowledge about their
body measurements as well as the technical difficulties involved in taking those
measurements are impediments to customizing apparel products for sales over the
internet. However, recent advances in 3-D body scanning measurements provide one
solution to overcoming the limitations of customizing apparel sizing over the internet.
3-D body scanning enables one to quickly and accurately obtain detailed
measurements of every part of the body. Accordingly, the method has become more
refined, with a virtual draping algorithm and 3-D garment patterns being among the
advances in this measuring technique. As these technologies are successfully
transformed to web-based applications and combined with communication
technologies, 3-D digitalization in the apparel industry will become more
commonplace. With this technology, the apparel industry is able to utilize accurate
3-D body measurement, transform the data into a two-dimensional digitalized pattern,
calculate the required amount of materials and simulate the act of trying on the
product. The application of 3-D technology in the apparel industry will expand
customized and made-to-measure product development and distribution (Bruner,
2004). In the future, we expect that the 3-D body scanning technique will be utilized for
IT-supported retailing services such as product customization (Fralix, 2001).
Anderson-Connell et al. (2002) offered a consumer-driven model for customized
apparel products, and body scanning was an important factor in this model.
Nevertheless, this method creates the problem of consumers becoming concerned
with the security of information about their bodies. Another problem with this method
is that respondents may wonder whether the information will remain current if and
when their weight fluctuates. Loker et al. (2004) also reported that female participants
of 3-D body scanning technology showed different responses to 3-D body scanning
according to their marital status and income level. Additionally, some participants who
appear more conscious of their body images verbally expressed that they did not want Apparel
to see their bodies on the screen. Accordingly, we can infer that consumer attitudes
toward 3-D body scanning, which is a more accurate way to measure body shape, may
consumers’
vary depending on the actual body shapes of consumers. Another hypothesis is body type
generated as follows.
H4. Apparel consumers’ (affective) attitude toward 3-D body scanning technology
will vary according to their body types. 377
Influence of attitudes toward internet shopping and body scanning on intention to use
Ulrich et al. (2003) found that subjects who liked to solve problems were more
comfortable with the CAD-supported scenario of the co-design process, which is a
consumer-producer collaborative design endeavor aimed at accomplishing mass
customization. This supports the findings of Fiore et al. that consumers who appreciate
stimulating situations are more willing to participate in the co-designed garment process
(Fiore et al., 2001). Menon and Kahn (2002) also found that when consumers have a
pleasant experience with their initial internet shopping experience, their attitude toward
the shopping site improves. Accordingly, we can infer that if consumers perceive the
overall experience of body-scanning to be positive and pleasant, their intention to use or
attitude toward the internet shopping that requires body-scanning data will improve. As
TRA and TAM have suggested, a positive attitude toward a particular technology,
which in this case means internet shopping and body scanning, will result in positive
intention to use the technology when shopping. The following hypothesis is generated.
H5. Apparel consumers’ attitudes toward internet shopping and attitudes toward
3-D body scanning technology will have a positive influence on their
intentions of using 3-D body scanning when shopping on the internet.
This study identifies body types as influential factors on consumer attitudes and
intention to use 3-D body scanning technology in internet shopping. It focuses on the
relationships between body type, shopping orientation, fit problems, attitudes toward
3-D body scanning and internet shopping, and it also looks at consumer intentions to
use 3-D body scanning for internet shopping. Research hypotheses are depicted in
Figure 1. Considering that the 3-D body scanning technique can be the basis for
expanding customized product development and distribution, we examine the
attitudes of apparel consumers toward using body scanning data. To date, little
research has been conducted on body type as an influential factor on internet shopping
behavior and on accepting advanced technologies that might be utilized by the
internet. However, the body can be an important criterion of marketing clothing and a
predictor of apparel consumers’ shopping behavior patterns. The results of this
analysis will demonstrate how the 3-D body scanning experience can be enhanced and
how clothing retailers and marketers can use the body-scanning data.

Methods
Instrument development
To examine the relationships between body type and 3-D body scanning technology
acceptance in internet shopping, we developed a questionnaire that measured general
shopping orientation, attitude toward internet shopping, affective evaluation of 3-D
body scanning and intention to use 3-D body scanning. We also included several
demographic questions that asked about marital status and household income.
JFMM
13,3

378

Figure 1.
Research model

Body shapes. The main variable, the respondents’ body types, was obtained through
3-D body scanning. We classified the representative body types of the sample with the
raw body-measurement data from the 3-D body scanning.
Shopping orientations. To measure shopping orientation, 11 items developed by
Kim (2003) were adopted, as Kim adapted and refined the established shopping
orientation scales from various research sources to fit Korean female consumers. Each
shopping orientation was presented on a five-point scale ranging from “strongly
disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5).
Past experience of fit problems. To measure sizing problems with ready-to-wear
products, we selected 11 representative body parts where fit problems are frequently
reported (Kim et al., 2003; Lee, 2002). Respondents were asked to indicate their degree
of satisfaction with ready-to-wear products according to the 11 selected body parts on a
scale ranging from “not satisfied at all” (1) to “very satisfied” (5). The lower the scores
of these items were, the greater were the number of fitting problems.
Attitudes. To measure attitudes toward internet shopping, the researchers adopted a
five-point scale from the eight items developed by Szymanski and Hise (2000), Lee and
Turban (2001) and Kim et al. (2003). We measured the attitude toward 3-D body
scanning with four items on a five-point scale that was adapted and modified from
Donovan and Rossiter’s (1982) scales for emotional evaluation of 3-D body scanning.
Intention to use. We used three questions to measure the intention to use 3-D body
scanning in internet shopping for customized services. One was a binomial question
with a choice of “Yes” (1) or “No” (2). Another was a continuous scale with 11 points (i.e.
0 percent, 10 percent, 20 percent . . . 90 percent, 100 percent) for indicating how much
extra consumers are willing to pay if customized service and goods are provided. The
last was a continuous scale measuring the possible waiting time for customized
product delivery and ranging from “less than one day” (1) to “longer than one week” (6).

Data collection and sample profile

In 2005, body measurement data were collected nationwide by way of a 3-D
body-scanning project called “SizeKorea,” which was supported by the Korean
government. In this study, however, we limit the body data to that obtained from the Apparel
Seoul Metropolitan area. The respondents participated in the body scanning process
and responded to the questionnaire after being body scanned. The respondents were
consumers’
females born between 1953 and 1988 and living in the Seoul Metropolitan area. A total body type
of 441 questionnaires were completed and used for further analyses. The trained
assistants of the projects scanned each subject’s body by using the Whole Body Color
3D Scanner Model WB4 developed by the American firm Cyberware. 379
Table I presents the sample profile. Most participants were aged from 20 to 29 (41.6
percent), and married participants accounted for 57.9 percent of the sample. Respondents
with monthly household incomes between US$1,000 and $2,000 accounted for 26.6
percent of the sample while those with incomes higher than $2,000 represented 52.7
percent. Our sample has younger respondents aged between 15-29 more than the Seoul
female population does. As of 2005, the average household income of the Seoul
Metropolitan area was approximately US$3,390 and the amount of expenditure on
apparel and footwear was US$118 (Korean Statistical Information System, 2005). In
addition to our sample data, we provided the monthly income distribution of the Seoul
population as reported in 2004 (Seoul Survey, 2004) and show that more members of our
sample fall into the “below $999” and “over $4,000” categories.

Data analysis
Data were analyzed by using the SPSS WIN 12.0 package. Exploratory factor analyses
with a principal component analysis identified the sub-dimensions of the four
variables, which were measured with multiple items. The factor scores were used for

Current General Current General

study populationa study populationb
% % % %

Age
15-19 18.2 10.1
20-29 41.6 31.5
30-39 27.4 29.7
40-49 12.8 28.7
Total 100.0 100.0
Marital status
Married 57.9 56.1
Not married 42.1 43.9
Total 100.0 100.0
Monthly household income
Below $999 20.7 13.7
$1,000-1,999 26.6 28.1
$2,000-2,999 22.9 30.3
$3,000-3,999 14.8 15.6
Over $4,000 15.0 10.7
Total 100.0 100.0
Notes: a Population of Korean females of the Seoul Metropolitan area aged between 15-49 (Korean
Statistical Information System, 2005); b Population of Korean households of the Seoul Metropolitan Table I.
area (Seoul Survey, 2004); n ¼ 441 Sample profile
JFMM further analyses to test hypotheses stating the relationships of body type with general
shopping orientation and 3-D body scanning technology acceptance. The variable, the
13,3 intention to use 3-D body scanning, was not an analyzed factor, since one item was a
dichotomous question. A hierarchical cluster analysis with a squared Euclidean
Distance and Ward variance method was conducted to identify the respondents’ body
types with the 3-D body scanning data. The ANOVA and Duncan test examined
380 whether the mean scores of shopping orientation, fit problems, attitude to internet
shopping, affective 3-D body scanning and intention to pay extra money and time for
future use of 3-D body scanning were different according to body type.
A principal component factor analysis was used to group 11 items to shopping
orientation. An Eigen value greater than 1 and factor loading over 0.50 were set as the
criteria, and factors were rotated with the varimax method to ease interpretation.
Cronbach alpha coefficients were obtained after the factor analysis. Four factors that
explained 60.9 percent of the total variance emerged and were labeled cost-effective
shopping, convenient shopping, pleasure-seeking shopping and leisure shopping (see
Table II). This result supports previous studies (Kim and Rhee, 1994; Bellenger and
Korgaonkar, 1980) which have stated that shopping orientation encompasses two
major constructs, hedonic and utilitarian orientation. In this study, cost-effectiveness
and convenience are related to the utilitarian aspects of shopping orientation, whereas
pleasure-seeking shopping and leisure shopping are related to the hedonic aspects.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for each factor were 0.62, 0.64, 0.48 and 0.57.
For the respondents’ past experience with fit problems, three factors emerged and
explained 63.7 percent of the total variance (see Table II). The first factor, upper body,
included five items pertaining to body parts above the waist. The second factor, lower
body, contained four items related to body parts below the waist. The final factor
encompassed two items, the waist and abdomen, and was named mid-body.
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for each factor were 0.82, 0.75 and 0.76.
To determine participants’ attitudes toward internet shopping, a factor analysis
that grouped eight items was conducted. The procedure and criteria for abstracting
factors were identical to those used in the shopping orientation factor analysis. First,
three factors emerged to explain attitudes toward internet shopping with a total
variance of 64.3 percent. That is, respondents are likely to form their attitudes toward
internet shopping in terms of how much fun, how convenient and how secure it is.
Consequently, we named the factors as fun, convenience, and security (see Table II).
The factors identified in this study support previous findings (Hwang, 2003; Shim et al.,
2001) in that main constructs of online shopping are related to the abundance of
information, entertainment, convenience and transactional security. Cronbach’s alpha
coefficients for each factor were 0.65, 0.55 and 0.70.
As for attitudes toward 3-D body scanning, only one factor emerged with an Eigen
value of at least one, and this factor explained 58.3 percent of the total variance. Thus,
the factor was named affective evaluation of 3-D body scanning (see Table II).
Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for affective evaluation was 0.76.

Results
Preliminary analysis
To identify body type, we conducted a hierarchical cluster analysis. The clustering was
based on selected data from 14 body-scanned parts: height, cervical height, crotch
height, neck circumference, chest circumference, bust circumference, waist
 Apparel
Factor Eigen Variance Alpha
Factors and items loading value (%) coefficient consumers’
Shopping orientation
body type
Cost-effective 2.55 23.2 0.62
I make a budget before shopping 0.87
I make a plan before shopping
I usually use shops for bargains
0.82
0.50
381
Convenient 1.63 14.9 0.64
I prefer to use a credit card 0.78
I use shops that can save time most 0.74
I use stores of convenient parking and transportation 0.59
I like shopping where facilities are convenient 0.53
Pleasure-seeking 1.43 13.0 0.48
Being in good look is important when shopping 0.80
I try to a have the newest fashions 0.77
Leisure 1.08 9.8 0.57
I spend much time and effort to get what I like 0.84
Shopping is like leisure activity to me 0.60
Fit problems with ready-to-wear
Upper body 2.90 26.4 0.82
Shoulder slope 0.84
Shoulder width 0.84
Neck 0.75
Back 0.65
Bust 0.62
Lower body 2.39 21.7 0.75
Thigh 0.85
Hip 0.73
Calf 0.70
Pants length 0.60
Mid-body 1.72 15.6 0.76
Waist 0.87
Abdomen 0.83
Attitudes toward internet shopping
Fun 2.75 34.3 0.65
It is fun to compare various products/brands on-line 0.85
It is fun to browse various shopping sites 0.77
Shopping sites provide much information 0.61
Convenience 1.40 17.4 0.55
It is easy to find what I want on-line 0.70
It is easy to return or get refund 0.69
It saves my time and effort 0.68
Security 1.01 12.6 0.70
It secures my privacy 0.87
Payment process is secure 0.77
Attitude toward 3-D body scanning
Affective evaluation 2.33 58.3 0.76
Fun 0.83
Interesting 0.83 Table II.
Pleasant 0.73 Factor analyses of
Futuristic 0.65 research variables
JFMM circumference, abdomen circumference, hip circumference, armscye circumference,
biacromion length, arm length, waist back length and foot length. The squared
13,3 Euclidean distance was used as a measure of similarity and Ward’s variance method
was used as a clustering procedure.
According to Malhotra (1999), when deciding the number of clusters of a
hierarchical analysis, three aspects should generally be considered. To begin with, the
382 number should be based on theoretical, conceptual or practical considerations.
Secondly, an objective coefficient indicating the distances at which clusters are
combined can be used as a criterion. Lastly, the relative sizes of the clusters should be
meaningful. Since the purpose of classifying the body type in this study rests on using
it as a market segmentation criterion, practical and theoretical considerations should
be taken together. According to several previous studies that have studied the bodies
of Korean consumers, three to five body types were generally discussed (Jung, 1994;
Kim and Choi, 1995; Moon, 2002). A dendogram and coefficients also generated initial
guidelines of possible solutions ranging from three to six clusters. When compared
with non-hierarchical analyses based on the procedures of previous studies (Hong and
Koh, 2002; Punj and Stewart, 1983), five-cluster solutions showed the highest hit ratio
(i.e. 74.1 percent) across the clustering analyses. Finally, considering the relative size of
each cluster, a five-cluster solution was judged to be acceptable and interpretable. In
order to profile the clusters, we provided mean scores of each variable on which the
clustering was based (see Table III). In order to describe each cluster, the ANOVA and
Duncan test were conducted based on the 14 variables, mean values of weight and BMI
(Body Mass Index). Figure 2 presents the approximate body shapes of each body type.
Type 1, which makes up the smallest proportion of the sample, is characterized by
medium height but also by the heaviest weight, and it has the largest measurements
overall as well as the highest BMI. We consider respondents of this type to have had
rather large and sturdy bodies. Type 2 consists of respondents who have a relatively
short height, medium weight and rather small circumference measurements. Type 3
respondents are tall and rather heavy, and they are likely to have a large overall height
and large circumference measurements compared to the mean values of the sample.
Type 4 respondents can be regarded to have the smallest overall measurements in
terms of height and circumference. Finally, Type 5 respondents are tallest and have the
lowest circumference measurements and the lowest BMI, which thereby implies that
this type of person is the slimmest. Based on the body measurement data and
approximate figures, each of these body types is characterized, in respective order, as
average height/big (AB), short/regular (SR), tall/regular (TR), short/slim (SS) and
tall/slim (TS). The mean age of each body-type and the proportion of the sample were
those in their mid-30s for the average/big (13.2 percent) category, those in their early
30s for short/regular (22.7 percent) and tall/regular (20.6 percent), those in their mid-20s
for short/slim (13.6 percent) and those in their early 20s for tall/slim (29.9 percent).

Hypothesis testing
Shopping orientations by body type. The ANOVA and Duncan test revealed the
differences in the dependent variables, i.e. shopping orientations, based on body type
(see Table IV). It was found that convenience and leisure shopping varied by body
type, but no significant difference in cost-effective and pleasure-seeking shopping
orientation was found across the different body types.
The tall/slim type scored the lowest level in convenience shopping, whereas
tall/regular and average/big types highly favor convenience when shopping.
 Body type
Total AB SR TR SS TS df (between/within) F-value

Frequency 441 58 100 91 60 132

Percentage 100 13.2 22.7 20.6 13.6 29.9
Age 29.1a 35.9aa 30.9b 32.6b 27.6c 22.8d 4/436 32.6 *
Body measurements (cm)
Height 158.5 158.5b 155.7c 160.7a 152.8d 162.0a 4/436 66.9 *
Cervical height 134.6 135.0b 131.8c 136.7a 129.2d 137.8a 4/436 73.4 *
Crotch height 71.1 70.5b 69.0c 72.1a 67.7d 74.0a 4/436 76.7 *
Neck base circumference 36.4 38.5a 36.3c 37.2b 35.1d 35.9c 4/436 56.0 *
Chest circumference 86.0 95.2a 86.0c 89.3b 81.0d 82.0d 4/436 287.1 *
Bust circumference 85.3 96.7a 85.3c 88.9b 79.8d 80.5d 4/436 373.4 *
Waist circumference 71.4 85.5a 71.0c 75.6b 65.6d 65.5d 4/436 372.6 *
Abdomen circumference 82.6 95.1a 81.6c 86.7b 76.4d 78.1d 4/436 197.8 *
Hip circumference 92.5 99.6a 92.3c 94.1b 88.0d 90.4d 4/436 68.5 *
Armscye circumference 36.3 39.8a 36.3c 37.8b 34.1e 34.7d 4/436 187.2 *
Biacromion length 38.5 39.6a 38.2bc 39.1b 37.2d 38.6cd 4/436 15.8 *
Arm length 52.8 53.3b 51.5c 54.0a 50.5d 54.1a 4/436 51.2 *
Waist back length 38.0 40.4a 37.4c 39.1b 36.6d 37.5c 4/436 38.6 *
Foot length 22.7 23.2a 22.4b 23.0a 21.9c 23.0a 4/436 24.7 *
Weight (kg) 54.8 66.7a 53.7c 59.0b 46.7e 51.1d 4/436 240.7 *
BMI 21.7 26.5a 22.2c 22.9b 21.0d 19.5e 4/436 300.3 *
Notes: a Different letters indicate statistically significant mean difference as a result of Duncan test (a . b . c); * p , 0.001
Apparel

cluster
consumers’

Profile of each body type

body type

Table III.
383
JFMM
13,3

384
Figure 2.
Consumer segmentation
by body types using
cluster analysis

Respondents with slim body types, especially the tall and slim ones, valued leisure
shopping highly. Although the F-value was not higher than the critical ratio for the
statistical significance, the tall/regular type scored highly for cost-effective shopping.
In brief, respondents with a regular or large body type are more concerned with
convenience and cost-effective shopping than are the slim body types, who are more
concerned with leisure and pleasurable experiences of shopping. Therefore, H1, which
stated that the general shopping orientation of apparel consumers will vary according
to their body types, was accepted.
Past experience of fit problems with ready-to-wear products based on body type. The
ANOVA and Duncan test results showed that respondents of different body types had
significantly different degrees of fit problems for mid-body parts in particular (see
Table IV). Respondents, except for the tall/slim and tall/regular body types, evaluated
the lower body fit of ready-to-wear products significantly poorly. The short/regular
body types had the greatest fit problems with their lower body parts. Overall, shorter
respondents had more problems with the ready-to-wear items, especially with the
length in the upper and lower body regions. The tall/slim and tall/regular types had the
least complaints with the fit of ready-to-wear products on their lower bodies. However,
based on consumer experience, no significant difference was detected with fit problems
in the upper and mid-body areas. Consequently, H2, which stated that apparel
consumers’ sizing problems with ready-to-wear products will vary according to their
body types, was only partly accepted. Based on our findings, we can infer that the
currently available ready-to-wear products are targeted at tall consumers. In other
words, with the exception of the tall and slim or tall and regular body types, a great
number of female consumers experience unsatisfactory fit with their lower body parts.
Manufacturers of pants or skirts should thus be aware that many of their customers
are likely to be dissatisfied with the fit of their products.
Attitudes toward internet shopping based on body type. The ANOVA and Duncan
test revealed a difference in attitudes toward internet shopping based on the body
types of consumers (see Table IV). We found statistically significant differences by
body type in two aspects, fun and convenience, but none were found for security.
Overall, we could accept H3, which stated that apparel consumers’ attitudes toward
internet shopping will vary according to their body types.
Respondents of the slim body type, regardless of whether they are tall or short,
showed the most positive attitude toward having fun but scored the lowest when it
 Body type
Dependent variables AB SR TR SS TS df (between/within) F-value
b a, b a b a, b
Cost-effective 2 0.094 20.060 0.264 2 0.108 2 0.046 4/430 2.02
b b
Convenient 0.295a 0.020a, 0.122a, b 2 0.031a, 2 0.201b 4/430 2.93 *
Pleasure-seeking 2 0.091 20.077 0.014 0.090 0.041 4/430 0.442
b, c b
Leisure 2 0.331c 20.085a, 2 0.117b, c 0.108a, 0.240a 4/430 4.19 * *
Fit problems with ready-to-wear c
Upper body (shoulder slope, shoulder width, neck
b b
circumference, back length, bust circumference) 2 0.280b 0.045a, 0.089a 2 0.057a, 0.065a 4/424 1.49
Lower body (thigh length, hip circumference, calf
c b
circumference, pants length) 2 0.090b, 20.257c 0.328a 2 0.221b, c 0.098a, 4/424 5.32 * * *
Mid-body (waist circumference, abdomen
circumference) 2 0.120 0.118 2 0.196 0.101 0.084 4/424 2.13
Attitudes toward internet shopping
b
Fun 2 0.268b 20.079a, b 2 0.126a, 0.137a 0.199a 4/424 3.14 * *
Convenience 0.351a 0.002 b 0.333a 2 0.191b 2 0.276b 4/424 7.64 * * *
Security 2 0.084 20.051 0.157 2 0.129 0.019 4/424 0.945
Attitude toward 3-D body scanning affective evaluation 2 0.119 20.022 0.001 0.174 2 0.009 4/434 0.673
Notes: a Factor scores were used for data analysis; b different letters.indicate statistically significant mean difference as a result of Duncan test (a . b . c);
c
higher score means less problem with ready-to-wear; *p , 0.05; * * p , 0.01; * * * p , 0.001
consumers’
Apparel

body type

variables by body typea

Differences in dependent
385

Table IV.
JFMM came to convenience. These people are more interested in the fun aspects of internet
shopping and are less concerned with the internet’s convenience and security. By
13,3 contrast, the larger body types (i.e. average/big, tall/regular) showed a positive attitude
toward the convenience of internet shopping but expressed the least concern with
having fun while shopping online. This finding is in line with the general shopping
orientation in that these types of people are more concerned with the utilitarian aspect
386 of shopping. Consequently, internet shopping companies that usually sell clothing
products with little focus on proper fit for consumers with large body types need to
provide accurate information about convenience and security. On the other hand, these
companies may provide more fun and interesting information on fashion trends or on
the products themselves in order to attract more consumers of slim body types.
Affective attitude toward 3-D body scanning by body type. Regardless of their body
types, respondents generally regarded 3-D body scanning as fun, interesting and
futuristic (see Table IV). Although some may have considered 3-D body scanning
cumbersome, a waste of time and unnecessary before they experienced it, respondents
who were scanned evaluated the experience positively. Therefore, H4 stating that apparel
consumers’ affective attitude of 3-D body scanning technology will vary according to their
body types was rejected. The mean scores of four items (i.e. futuristic, interesting, fun, and
pleasant) rated 3.78, 3.76, 3.35 and 2.92, in respective order, on a five-point scale, with 5
being “strongly agree” and 1 being “strongly disagree”. According to the Technology
Acceptance Model (Davis et al., 1989), consumers’ beliefs and evaluation of technology
influence their attitudes toward use of that technology. Once it has been evaluated as
negative, a certain technology may hinder the expansion of IT-related goods and services.
The findings in this study, however, imply that body scanning may be a useful
instrument for more personalized service in the garment industry. The respondents’
positive evaluation of 3-D body scanning may lead to their greater acceptance of using
body measurement data for customized product development.
Intention to use 3-D body scanning in internet shopping. We explored the relationship
between attitudes toward internet shopping and affective evaluations of 3-D body
scanning technology to test H5, which stated that apparel consumers’ attitudes toward
internet shopping and attitudes toward 3-D body scanning technology will have a
positive influence on their intentions of using 3-D body scanning when shopping on the
internet. To measure the intention of 3-D body scanning in internet shopping, we used
one “Yes/No” dichotomous question and two continuous scale questions to have
respondents indicate their intentions to pay extra costs and take extra time for the new
product. Table V presents the results of three multiple regression analyses, where the
predictors are three attitude measures toward internet shopping and one affective
evaluation measure of 3-D body scanning and where the independent variables are three
measures of intention to use 3-D body scanning in internet shopping.
As shown in the table, out of three intention variables, two were significantly
predicted by attitude variables. Therefore, H5 is partially supported. Firstly, as
respondents evaluate internet shopping as fun and convenient, their intention to use
3-D body scanning when shopping online increases (b ¼ 20:109, 2 0.136). When they
are more concerned with the security aspect of the internet shopping, they are less
likely to use 3-D body scanning (b ¼ 0:150). An affective evaluation of 3-D body
scanning showed a positive influence on the amount of time sacrificed until the 3-D
body scanning service and products are completed (b ¼ 0:119). A security-oriented
attitude toward internet shopping is negatively related to the time sacrifice
(b ¼ 0:146). These findings imply that when apparel consumers evaluate 3-D body
 Intention of using
Likely to useb Extra cost willing to pay Possible waiting time

Attitudes toward the internet shopping

Fun 20.109 a * * 0.085 0.073
Convenience 20.136 * * 0.029 0.086
Security 0.150 * * 2 0.037 20.146 * *
Attitude toward 3-D body scanning
Affective evaluation 0.132 0.066 0.119 * *
Adjusted R 2 0.054 0.005 0.044
R2 0.063 0.014 0.053
F (4,422) ¼ 7.07 * * * (4,418) ¼ 1.48 (4,422) ¼ 5.91 * * *
Notes: a Beta (b) coefficient; b 1 ¼ Yes, 2 ¼ No; * p , 0.01; * * p , 0.05; * * * p , 0.001
consumers’
Apparel

body type

387

internet shopping
use 3-D body scanning in
attitude on intention to
Multiple regression of
Table V.
JFMM scanning to be pleasant, fun, interesting and futuristic, they are willing to wait a longer
time till the new product is delivered. However, when they are more concerned with the
13,3 security aspect of internet shopping, they tend to expect that the new product will be
delivered sooner. We did not find a significant influence of attitudes toward internet
shopping and 3-D body scanning on the amount of extra cost for the new product.

388 Discussion, implications and limitations

This study focused on body type as an important criterion for targeting apparel
consumers. Consumers are usually targeted based on their psychographic,
demographic or behavioral characteristics. Although the body is the visual
component of consumers and an influential factor in purchasing clothing, it has
drawn little attention as a criterion for niche marketing. When companies collect data
on consumers and deploy their consumer relationship management (CRM) activities,
they have little information on the consumers’ body types in their databases. However,
with the advance in body measurement technology, consumer body data is quickly and
easily obtainable, and the data can be utilized in various ways both on- and off-line.
In this study, we used 3-D body scanning to obtain apparel consumers’ body
measurement data because the scanning technology will soon be distributed to the
apparel industry for various purposes including, as Fralix (2001) and Bruner (2004)
noted, for product customization. Since the purpose of the study was to explore
whether the 3-D body scanned data can be utilized, we examined the relationships
between body type and several important shopping variables: shopping orientation, fit
problems with ready-to-wear products, attitudes toward internet shopping, attitudes
toward 3-D body scanning and intentions to use 3-D body scanning in internet
shopping. We found that consumer characteristics such as shopping orientation and
sizing problems with ready-to-wear items varied by body type. These differences are
also related to the significant differences in attitudes toward internet shopping.
In detail, we identified five body types that are mainly characterized by height and
overall body size; average height/big, short/regular, tall/regular, short/slim, and tall/slim.
Shopping orientations could be factorized as cost-effective, convenient, pleasure-seeking
and leisure shopping orientations. Attitudes toward internet shopping also showed three
dimensions, fun, convenience and security. Past experience with fit problems were
examined for three body parts, upper, lower and mid-body parts.
As a result, we found significant relationships between body types and shopping
orientation, fit problems with ready-to-wear items and attitudes toward internet
shopping. Overall, those of large body types were likely to seek convenience when they
were shopping online, but the fun or leisure aspects of shopping were less important to
them. These apparel consumers are the ones who are likely to have unsatisfactory
experiences with ready-to-wear articles. These findings support the findings of previous
studies that consumers with a positive body cathexis were more likely to be satisfied
with ready-to-wear products (e.g. Shim et al., 1991). On the other hand, those of slim body
types who may have little problem with ready-to-wear sizing, regardless of their height,
showed higher leisure-seeking orientation. To them, the convenience and economical
aspects were of little importance when shopping. We can apply these findings to actual
retail stores, which can provide more economical value/convenience-enhancing or
pleasure/leisure enhancing services based on apparel consumers’ body types.
We found a similar tendency in the attitudes toward internet shopping. Those with
slim bodies were more interested in the fun aspect of internet shopping instead of the
convenience aspect, whereas those with larger bodies were more concerned with the Apparel
convenience of internet shopping. We can infer that a slim body is regarded to be closer to
the ideal body type (Hausenblas et al., 2002) and that consumers with slim bodies are
consumers’
likely to show higher body cathexes and, consequently, have higher fashion-oriented body type
attitudes in shopping (e.g. Rook, 1985). This finding provides implications for e-tailers.
Once body measurement data can be obtained either by direct input from website visitors
or by electronic transmission of 3-D body scanned data saved on a smart card, e-tailers 389
can provide personalized interfaces to each consumer based on their body type. Because
ready-to-wear items are more suitable for tall and slim people, the internet can target the
niche market for those who are not easily satisfied with such standard-sized products.
Fit problems are inevitable with ready-to-wear products. Respondents in this study
showed dissatisfaction with the lower body part of ready-to-wear products, which is
consistent with the findings of other studies (Chattaraman and Rudd, 2006; Goldsberry
et al., 1996; Kim et al., 2003). In order to be efficient, mass-production systems target
only the representative body types for a segment of the population (Kim and Nam,
2003). This study explored which body parts of the ready-to-wear product are
problematic and which consumer body types have which particular fitting problems.
Consequently, it was revealed that the current Korean sizing system for ready-to-wear
products apparently focuses more on tall and slim body types.
Findings of this study also indicate that there are complaints about ready-to-wear
clothing. Ironically, based on the results in this study, the most prominent future
apparel consumers of the 3-D body scanning service for internet shopping will be slim
people who have less sizing problems with ready-to-wear items. We can infer that 3-D
body scanning may be perceived to satisfy hedonic and emotional demands for
clothing rather than utilitarian and functional ones. However, the potential demand for
a better fit may provide a new opportunity for internet shopping companies, just as
other researchers have claimed (Burns and Bryant, 2002; Goldsmith and Freiden, 2004;
Kim and Chun, 2004). In light of the relationships between shopping orientation and
body types, internet shopping companies need to provide economical and convenient
shopping environments for those with sizing problems. In addition, retailers should
provide short- and large-bodied consumers with accurate size information on their
products in order to enhance convenience.
We found no significant relationship between body types in the evaluation of 3-D
body scanning. Overall, respondents thought that the body scanning was pleasant, fun,
interesting and futuristic, thereby supporting the findings of Loker et al. (2004). This is
promising for the apparel industry, as it is highly likely that apparel consumers will
adopt 3-D body scanning technology regardless of their body types. As internet
shopping companies provide more fun aspects of shopping and the transactions are
evaluated to be more convenient and secure, apparel consumers are likely to accept
more customized products and services by using 3-D body scanning.
In conclusion, the major contributions of this study are twofold. First, we maintain
that marketers and retailers should consider body type in the design of their products
and in the execution of their marketing plans. Second, we found that the application of
3-D body scanning data for new services or products has a bright future.
Nevertheless, creating a widely acceptable, objective sizing system for both apparel
consumers and the industry should be made a priority. Furthermore, operational barriers
(Pine, 1993) to customization should be eliminated, which would result in consumers
developing an appreciation for customized products and services. Information on
standardized sizing is an especially necessary component for e-commerce competitiveness
JFMM in the garment industry. In general, people are becoming more concerned with their
bodies and are trying to become slimmer (Jung, 2005; Kaiser, 1997). Marketers and
13,3 managers in the apparel industry should consider these macro environmental changes to
be critical external factors that will lead them from mass production to mass
customization. They should also consider apparel consumers’ body shapes both in sizing
ready-to-wear clothing and in expanding pricing, promotion and distribution marketing
390 strategies. In addition, the apparel industry should develop more diverse customized
goods and services that will utilize technologies such as 3-D body scanning.
Despite the contributions of this study, several limitations remain. One major
limitation concerns the correlation between body type and age. Usually, the body
grows larger with aging. It is questionable whether the differences in dependent
variables are solely attributed to body shape. Further research needs to control for the
age factor. In addition, the industry needs a longitudinal research approach to reveal
how changes in body shape interact with psychographic characteristics. This study is
further limited by the characteristics of the Korean female sample; therefore, the
findings of the study cannot be internationally generalized. Additionally, international
studies need to provide consistent evidence to verify our findings, and they also need to
examine the relationships between male body types and relevant shopping variables.
Finally, other ways to utilize 3-D body scanning need exploration. In this study, we
focused only on the customized clothing service. Consumers may show different levels
of interest in other products or services. These limitations notwithstanding, we expect
that this study will spawn further inquires into body shape as an influential target
marketing criterion.

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Further reading
Kim, S., Williams, R. and Lee, Y. (2003b), “Attitude toward online shopping and retail website
quality: a comparison of US and Korean consumers”, Journal of International Consumer
Marketing, Vol. 16 No. 1, pp. 89-111.
Phau, I. and Lo, C-C. (2004), “Profiling fashion innovators: a study of self-concept, impulse buying
and internet purchase intent”, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 8 No. 4,
pp. 399-411.

Corresponding author
Yuri Lee can be contacted at: yulee3@snu.ac.kr

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