Psychology Assignment 3 – Term 3

Course: PSYC 1006 – Psychological Development

Term: 3

Assignment No.: 3

Assignment Type: Essay

Topic: Attachment Theory

Lecturer: Mr. Nick Davies

Student Name: JJ Benjamin

Student Number: 334222

I hereby declare that the content of this assignment is my own work and
that I have tried to the best of my abilities to abide by the University rules
and guidelines, in particular those that make reference to plagiarism.

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 Psychology Assignment 3 – Term 3

Introduction

Drawing largely on the ideas of John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth regarding attachment
theory, Senior (2007) posits that the nature of the parent-child relationship during early
childhood is believed to be one of the central causal factors in personality development,
interpersonal functioning and psychopathology.

This essay will attempt to critically discuss the impact of attachment on psychosocial
development before contrasting attachment with broader theories such as Erikson’s
Stage Theory. Finally, this essay will assess the relevance of Bowlby’s attachment
theory in the South African context by focusing on culture.

Impact of Attachment on Psychosocial Development

The basic assumption of attachment theory is that critical variations in the quality of
one’s early experiences with care-giving figures shape the formation of mental
representations or internal working models of close relationships (Senior, 2007). The
table below summarises the two types of internal working models identified by Bowlby.

Table 1: Bowlby’s Internal Working Models

Model Description Impact of adequate Impact of inadequate
care-giving care-giving
Perception of self Competent and worthy Deficiencies in feelings
Self worth and lovability of affection and about self
attention
Expectations regarding Generally positive Deficiencies in feelings
the goodness, expectations of about others and
Other trustworthiness and intimate relationships generally negative
dependability of others expectations regarding
relationships

Senior (2007) notes that according to Bowlby once these internal working models are
formed in early childhood, they tend to persist and become a template for subsequent
relationships. It is further assumed that the models become a central feature of
personality and come to operate at an unconscious level as they are so taken for
granted. This assumption is supported by an experimental test conducted by Maier et al
(2004) where it was found that the Adult Assessment Interview instrument assess to a
certain degree the unconscious working models of attachment.
Based the adequacy of care-giving and the formation of internal working models,
children begin to demonstrate differences in patterns of attachment. Westen (1999)
highlights the findings of the Strange Situation experiment conducted by Mary Ainsworth
and her colleagues where the following patterns of attachment were demonstrated;

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 Psychology Assignment 3 – Term 3

1. Secure attachment
2. Avoidant attachment
3. Anxious-ambivalent attachment
Weiten (2007) comments that, following Ainsworth’s Strange Situation experiment, other
researchers have added a fourth category called disorganised-disoriented attachment.
Evidence suggests that the quality of the attachment relationship can have important
consequences for children’s subsequent development (Weiten, 2007). Further evidence
suggesting the impact of attachment patterns in later phases of life, particularly in
adolescence, is highlighted by research conducted by Zimmerman et al (2001). Results
showed that adolescents with secure attachment representations were less hostile
towards their peers, less anxious and less helpless as compared to adolescents with
insecure attachment representation. In addition, adolescents with insecure attachment
show an ineffective emotion regulation pattern.
The repercussions of attachment patterns in infancy appear to even reach into
adulthood (Weiten, 2007). Senior (2007) cites three longitudinal studies that have
shown a significant correspondence between attachment classifications in infancy and
attachment classifications in adulthood.

Attachment Theory versus Stage Theory

Senior (2002) comments that Bowlby described four gradual, continuous phases in the
development of an infant’s attachment namely: pre-attachment (age 0 to 2 months),
attachment-in-the-making (3 to 6 months), clear-cut-attachment (7 months to 3 years)
and goal-corrected attachment (3 years and above). As suggested by Newman (2005)
however, the psychosocial theory of Erik Erikson provides a conceptional framework to
understand human development through eight stages, from the first year of life to late
adulthood. Newman (2005) notes further that Erikson’s stage theory addresses the
physical, intellectual, social, and emotional growth in all life stages, focusing on the idea
that development results from the interdependence of these areas at every stage and
placing special emphasis on optimal development through life. Weiten (2007) points out
that according to Erikson, personality is shaped by how individuals deal with
psychosocial crises that arise during each stage of the life span. Each stage is
described in terms of contrasting tendencies which represent personality traits that
individuals display in varying degrees over the remainder of their lives.
Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral reasoning is another example of a discontinuous
development model that results in fundamental, qualitative changes in characteristic
behaviour. Weiten (2007) cites research which shows that young people generally
progress through Kohlberg’s stages in the order originally proposed.
It can therefore be argued that broader stage theories such as Erikson’s stage theory of
personality development and Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral reasoning are more

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 Psychology Assignment 3 – Term 3

comprehensive, if not better, psychosocial development theories when compared to

Bowlby’s attachment theory.

Attachment and Culture in the South African context

South African is diverse nation in terms of culture, tradition, religion and socioeconomic
considerations. As such, it would be difficult to assume that any one theory regarding
psychosocial development could be generally applied across the population. Senior
(2002) notes that Bowlby’s emphasis on attachment as species-specific has led to
criticism about his assumption regarding the universality of attachment across cultures.
Similar criticism regarding the generality of findings using the Strange Situation
procedure has also been highlighted due to the fact that Ainsworth worked mostly with
white, middle-class subjects in the United States (Weiten, 2007). Weiten (2007) cites
studies conducted in Japan and Germany that yielded different estimates of the
prevalence of attachment types compared to the United Sates.
Weiten (2007) does however comment that separation anxiety seems to emerge in
children at approximately the same time in cultures around the world. This suggests that
while the types of attachment identified in the Strange Situation procedure may not
currently allow for the diverse ways in which cultures incorporate attachment
relationships, attachment is a universal feature of human development applicable to the
South African context.

Conclusion

Although a fair amount of criticism has been elicited for each of the theories discussed
in this essay (Senior, 2002; Weiten, 2007; Weston, 1999), psychosocial development
theories provide a framework within which we can better understand the development of
human development. Newman (2005) suggests that all life-stages, including end-of-life
topics such as death, dying and bereavement offer the opportunities for psychosocial
growth.

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References

Maier, M.A., Bernier, A., Pekrun, R., Zimmerman, P. and Grassman, K.E.
(2004). Attachment working models as unconscious structures: An experimental
test. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 28 (2), 180-189

Newman, B.M, Newman, P.R (2005). Development Through Life: A

Psychosocial Approach Ninth Edition. Thompson Wadesworth

Senior, Lee. (2002). Attachment Theory. In D. Hook, J. Watts, and K Cockcroft.

(Eds.) Developmental Psychology. Pp. 247-264

Weiten, W (2007). Psychology Themes & Variations, Seventh Edition.

Thompson Wadesworth

Weston, D. (1999). Attachment. Psychology: Mind, brain and culture. NewYork:

John Wiley & Sons Inc. 623-634

Zimmerman, P., Maier, M.A, Winter, M. and Grassman, K.E. (2004).

Attachment and adolescents’ emotion regulation during a joint problem-solving
task with a friend. International Journal of Behavioural Development, 25 (4), 331-
343

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