Chapter 9

Beer-Lambert and Kubelka-Munk Theory

or

Controlling Reflectance Images with Colorants

 Absorption and Scattering of Light:
Kubelka-Munk Theory of Optical Density

Reference: "Color Science", 2nd Edition, by Wyszecki and Stiles, p221, John Wiley & Sons,
1982.

The scattering of light in most hard copy images is an important part of the optics of
these systems. Most substrates, such as paper, scatter light, and many colorants (colorants are
dyes, toners, and pigments) also scatter light. Thus, both absorption of light by colorants and
scattering of the light are important to the appearance of images. (We are currently ignoring
"gloss".) While many theories have been advanced to describe the combined effects of
scattering and absorption, the most commonly applied theory for most practical images
composed of inks and dyes is "Kubelka-Munk" theory, first published in 1993 (Z. Techn.
Phyusik, 12, 593).

(I) The Beer-Lambert System

We begin by considering a system that absorbs light but does not scatter light. This is
called the "Beer-Lambert" system after two early scientists who studied light absorption. The
absorption of light is a "first order" process. This means the rate at which irradiance decreases
(-dI/dx) depends on the magnitude of irradiance, I(x), at location x. Equation (1) describes the
process. The proportionality constant, K, is a characteristic of the material that is absorbing
the light. If we solve this first order differential equation, we obtain a more familiar
expression of the Beer-Lambert law, shown if various forms in equations (2).

I0
x=0

I(x) dx

x=L
I

-dI/dx = K.I (1)

-dI/I = Kdx or -ln(I/Io) = Kx or I/Io=e-KL (2)

If x is in mm, the constant, K, is in units of mm-1 and is called an absorption coefficient. It

can be described as a probability constant. The larger the value of K, the greater the
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probability a photon will be absorbed.

As is common in physical science, many other people in many other disciplines have
different names for the same phenomenon. We will use the term "Beer-Lambert" to describe
the above absorption phenomenon, and refer to the corresponding equations as the "Beer-
Lambert Law". While we might call the constant K a "Beer-Lambert" constant, we will use a
more popular convention. We will call K a Kubelka-Munk absorption coefficient. You will
see why later. For the moment, just consider it an arbitrarily chosen name.

The value of K depends on the material through which light is being passed. Often, a
non-absorbing material will be made to absorb light by dissolving dye molecules in the
material. If c is the concentration of the colorant (in units of grams/mm^3 for example,
moles per liter, or etc.) then the value of K is typically observed to increase in direct
proportion to c. This is expressed in equation (3) with the constant k called an extinction
coefficient.
K = ck (3)

so, -ln(I/Io) = kcL (4)

The term -ln(I/Io) is often called the optical density of the material. More commonly,
however, the optical density is defined in terms of base-10 logarithms and is symbolized by D.
Note that T, called transmittance, is defined as the ratio I/Io.

D = -log(T) where T = I/Io (5)

Density is a very useful way to describe darkness of an image, and it is more nearly linear with
respect to vision than is transmittance, T. We often express Beer-Lambert equation (4) in
terms of D as shown in equation (6).

D = -Log(I/Io) = εcL where ε= k/ln(10) (6)

The term ε is called the extinction coefficient, and equation (6) is the most common form of
the Beer-Lambert law.

If concentration, c, is in units of moles/liter, ε is called the molar extinction coefficient.

Note that ε is in units of inverse distance times inverse concentration. "Liter/mole/cm" is a
commonly used unit for reporting experimental values of the extinction coefficient. In reading
the literature, pay attention to the units, AND the base of the log that is assumed for extinction
coefficient. We refer to the product εcL as the absorbance of the material, A.

A = εcL (7)

(II) The Kubelka-Munk System

First consider ONLY the flux of light in the DOWN direction. Without scattering,
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the change in irradiance would be dI = -KIdx according to the Beer-Lambert law. But
scattering also decreases the flux of light in the down direction. Kubelka and Munk (Z. Techn.
Phyusik, 12, 593) suggested the scattering phenomenon, like the absorption phenomenon, is a
first order phenomenon. Thus, we expand the first order differential equation to include two
other terms, as follows.
I0
Ij

x=0
J(x)
dx
I(x)

x=L
It

dI = -KIdx - SIdx + SJdx (8)

S is the Kubelka-Munk scattering coefficient and has the same units (inverse length) as
the Kubelka-Munk absorption coefficient. I is the flux in the DOWN direction and is a
positive value when the flux is going down. According to Kubelka-Munk sign conventions, J
is the flux of light in the UP direction. The value of J is positive when light is going up. The
term +SJdx simply tells us that UP moving flux is scattered to add to the DOWN moving
flux. So, to describe the rate of change in UP moving flux, we have a second differential
equation.

dJ = -KJdx - SJdx + SIdx (9)

Notice that we ignore light flux in the horizontal direction. In a bulk material of infinite lateral
extent, the lateral dimensions are assumed to be much larger than the mean free paths, 1/K and
1/S, for absorption and scattering in the material. This means no light leaks out the edges of
the material due to lateral scattering. We will see later, however, how lateral scattering has a
significant impact on image tone reproduction by halftone processes.

Equations (8) and (9) are two differential equations with two flux terms, I and J. If we
consider the value of I = It at the bottom of the material, then we can define a transmittance.

T = It /Io (10)

Similarly, we can define a reflectance factor, R, in terms of the UP flux at the surface of the
paper.

R = Jr/Io (11)

Clearly, it would be nice to solve differential equations (8) and (9) to obtain analytical
expressions for R and T. While the differential equations are simple in differential form,
finding useful analytical solutions made Kubelka and Munk famous. You won't have to solve
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these equations in this course. Some of the solutions for particularly useful boundary
conditions will be discussed, and you should know them.

(III) Useful Solutions to the Kubelka-Munk Differential Equations

Wyszecki and Styles {"Color Science", 2nd Edition, 1982} give solutions in terms of R
and T. The solutions are rather complicated transcendental functions. However, when you
look at the functions for R and T, remember they are functions in terms on only FOUR
parameters of the system. These are S= scattering coefficient; K= absorption coefficient, L
= thickness of the layer; and Rg = reflectance of the material (if any) behind the layer.

R = f1(S,K,L, Rg) and T = f2(S,K,L,Rg) (12)

The particular form of the functions, f1 and f2, depend on the boundary conditions of the
system. The general solutions can be expressed as follows.

(S + K)
a= (13)
S
2
b = a -1 (14)
1 - Rg[a - bCoth(bSL)]
R= (15)
a - Rg + bCoth(bSL)
b
T= (16)
aSinh(bSL) + bCosh(bSL)

Recall (or look up) the definitions of the hyperbolic trigonometric functions Sinh(x), Cosh(x),
Tanh(x) and Coth(x).

It is a common practice to define an image density as the negative log of R or T. Thus,

we have reflection density and transmission density.

Dt = -Log(T) and Dr = -Log(R) (17)

These are empirical definitions of the observable lightness/darkness of the material. Image
density is convenient to define in log terms in this way because the visual appearance of
lightness/darkness, as the average human observer experiences it, relates logarithmically to the
photometric flux of light reflected from or transmitted through a material. However, note that
for a scattering material, the image density is NOT the same thing as absorbance, A = εcL.
Thus equation (6), D = εcL, only applies to a non-scattering, Beer-Lambert system.

(IV) Some Important Special Cases

(A) Let Rg=0 and S=0, and K >0

Here we have a system that absorbs light but does not scatter. We already know the
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answer to this. It is the familiar "Beer-Lambert" case. Indeed if you start with equation(16)
and derive the limit as S approaches zero, you can show relatively easily that equation (16)
does converge to the Beer-Lambert law, equation (1). In this case, image density, D, is the
same as Absorbance. D = εcL .

(B) Let Rg > 0 , K > 0 , but S=0

This is essentially a Beer-Lambert system placed against a Lambertian scattering

reflector. Ink on paper and photographic emulsion on paper are examples.

I0 Ir

x=0

x=L

For a diffuse, Lambertian reflector as a background, one can show that equation (15) reduces
to the following.

R = Rge-2KL or R = Rg10-2εcL or R = Rg.10-2Dt (18)

In other words, the reflectance looks much like the Beer-Lambert law with a path length of 2L.
The Density, D, in the above expression is the Transmission Density, Dt, one would observe
if the reflective backing were removed and the transmittance was measured. The Reflection
Image Density, Dr, is always defined as the negative log of R. Thus, the density of the image
is given as follows,

Dr = 2Dt -Log(Rg) or Dr = 2Dt + Dg (19)

where Dg =-log(Rg).

Equations(19) seem at first to be somewhat counter intuitive. If one were to put a

mirror on the back of a Beer-Lambert absorber, then the observed reflectance would depend on
the Snell Law angle of incidence and reflection of the light. This is because the path length of
the light through the material would be 2L ONLY if the incident and reflected angles were
zero (from the normal), and would be greater than 2L for other angles. However, the
Kubelka-Munk equations, especially in this limiting case, assume a diffuse backing, and the
assumption is that the reflected and transmitted flux is measured by collecting light at every
angle with an integrating sphere. In this case, the Kubelka-Munk equations do indeed
converge to equations (19) in the limit as S approaches zero.

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 It is worth noting that many practical imaging processes deposit images which can be
described by the limiting case of equations (19). Examples include many offset lithographic
images and thermal transfer images. Electrophotography and ink jet produce images that can
vary from equations (19).

(C) The "Complete Hiding" Case: S>0 and K>0, and L = infinity.

This is the case of an infinite thickness of a scattering/absorbing material. It is a system

that is sufficiently thick that it reflects the same amount of light with a background of Rg = 1
or Rg = 0. The thickness required in order to approximate the complete hiding case is often
quite small. Most commercial paints are formulated to have sufficient scattering and absorbing
powers so that only a thin coating will be needed to completely hide the color of the object you
want to paint. In such systems, the following form of the Kubelka-Munk equation applies.

2
K (1 - R ∞ )
= (20)
S 2 R∞

We use the term R∞ to remind us that this is the reflectance when the sample is infinitely thick.
It is in fact R of equation (15) in the limit of L ---> ∞ .

Solving equation (20) for R∞ leads to the following expression, in which a and b are
defined as in equations (13) and (14).

R∞ = a - b (21)

(V) How Dyes and Colors Add Up

A common concern in printing systems is to understand how the quantity of colorant in

the image relates to the observed imaged density. What happens, for example, if you double
the amount of dye? What is the relationship between density, D, and colorant concentration, c,
in the imaging system? The answer depends on the nature of scattering of light in the system.
If the system is a Beer-Lambert transmission system described by equation (1), then the image
density (always defined as -Log(T)) is proportional to εcL. Here, c is the concentration of
colorant and L is the layer thickness, so image density is proportional to the coverage, cL, of
colorant in units of grams/meter2. Double this amount and the image density will double.

The concept of ink coverage important. If the same quantity of dye (grams for
example) is added to a thin and a thick layer (both with zero scattering), and if the dye in both
cases is distributed uniformly throughout the layers, then they will have different
concentrations but identical image densities.

(A) A Beer-Lambert Transmission Image: The Beer-Lambert transmission system is

the system composed of a Beer-Lambert layer of colorant on top of a scattering substrate of
reflectance Rg, and is described by equations (1) through (5). If the system contains a colorant
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at concentration c1 and another colorant at concentration c2, and if the extinction coefficients
are ε1 and ε2, respectively, then the total image density of the system would be as follows.

D = [ε1c1 + ε2c2].L (22)

Colorant number 2 may be a second colorant molecule OR a chromophore (light absorber)

within the layer itself. For example, gelatin, waxes, and synthetic polymer films are often
used as binder materials to hold the dye molecules. However, these materials can themselves
contain light absorbing chromophores that can contribute to image density.

(B) A Beer-Lambert Reflection Image: The reflection Beer-Lambert system of equation

(19) also is easy to describe in terms of the way colorants add. From equation (18) and (19), it
is easy to show that the image density of the system with colorants 1 and 2 in the layer, L, is
given as follows.

D = 2.[ε1c1 + ε2c2].L + Dg (23)

Here, colorants 1 and 2 are in the layer of thickness L, and their effects add. Again, colorant
may be a dye that is added to the layer or a chromophore that is part of the structure of the
binder material.

Additivity of density is a characteristic of transparent (non-scattering) images. If

scattering is present, density is not linear in concentration of colorant. Note that the density of
the background material, Dg = -Log(Rg), is linearly added to the density contributions from the
colorants in the non-scattering layer. However, the density of the background material will
not be linear with regard to colorants in the background material if the transparent image layer
scatters light.

(C) A Scattering Image: If the transparent image layer scatters light, then the
relationship between image density and colorant concentration is governed by the Kubelka-
Munk equations, (13) through (16), with colorant concentrations adding linearly in the K term,
as shown in equation (24), which is an expansion of equation (3).

K = .[c1 + c2].k (24)

For such systems, increasing colorant concentration always increases image density in a
monotonic, but not a linear, fashion. One must put up with the complexity of equations (13)
through (16). However, if the system is a complete hiding system, then equations (20) and
(21) provide a relatively simple relationship between colorant concentration and reflectance
because K is proportional to concentration. Equation (20) is often used to predict the effects of
colorants on images and is often found to be a close approximation to the behavior of many
real images.

(D) Adding Colors: Adding up colors is not the same as adding up colorants. The
spectrum of the image density (D vs λ) is governed by the spectrum of the absorption
7
coefficient K(λ) (or ε(λ)). If the system is a Beer-Lambert system, then the contribution of
the colorants to the overall image density of the image will be linearly additive at each
wavelength. If the system is a Complete Hiding system, then the density is not additive, but
the (K/S) ratio is additive at each wavelength since K(λ) = ε(λ)cL.

The utility of Equation (20) for adding up colors and colorants is illustrated in the
following example. Suppose you have an image layer with a scattering coefficient, S.
Suppose this layer has dye molecule #1 at concentration c1. If, in the first approximation, S is
not significantly changed by the presence of colorant #1, then we can measure the reflectance
spectrum R1(λ) of the image. If another sample of the layer has dye #2 at concentration c2, we
can measure the reflectance spectrum of that system as R2(λ). If both dyes are present in the
layer at c1 and c2, then the reflection spectrum of the system would be given by the following
equation.
2
K1(λ ) + K2(λ ) (1 - R ∞ (λ ) )
= (25)
S 2 R ∞ (λ )

The experimental measurement of reflectance and/or transmittance is often used as a

means of measuring the image colorant in a system. Often spectral density, D(λ), is measured.
However, it is often easier to use a simple trichromatic densitometer with narrow spectral
sensitivities in the red, green, and blue part of the visible spectrum. Density values measured
with narrow spectral bands are generally more additive than density values measured with broad
spectral bands. Thus colorimeters are generally not as useful as a narrow band densitometer for
measuring colorants.

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 Summary of Kubelka-Munk Equations
(ref: Judd & Wyszecki, 2nd Ed., 1975, p. 785)

1. Beer-Lambert Transmission: T=I/Io, K = k·c = 2.303εc, A=εcx.

x

Io I

I=Io.10-εcx I=Io.e-kcx I=Io.10-A

2. Beer-Lambert Reflection: S=0, R = I/Io

x

Io
I paper, Rg
I=RgIo10-2εcx I= RgIoe-2kcx I= RgIoe-2Kx R=Rg·T2

3. Kubelka-Munk Transmission: S>0, T=I/Io

x

Io I

K + S b = a 2 −1
a=
S
b
T=
a ⋅ Sinh (bSx ) + b ⋅ Cosh (bSx )
This function does not work for S=0 or K=0

4. Kubelka-Munk Reflection: S>0, R = I/Io

x

Io
paper, Rg
1 − Rg ⋅ (a − b ⋅ Coth (bSx ))
I
R=
a − Rg + b ⋅ Coth (bSx )
This function does not work for S=0 or K=0

5. Kubelka-Munk Complete-Hiding: S>>0 so R ≠ f(Rg), R = I/Io

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 x=

00
Io
I
K (1 − R )
2
= and R = a - b
S 2R
In all cases:
c = concentration of light absorbing material in the layer
K = absorption coefficient in mm-1
S = scattering coefficient in mm-1.
x = thickness of layer
Rg = reflectance of surface behind the layer.
D = -log(I/Io)
A Review of Beer-Lambert Images

Part I: The Transparency Image

A Beer-Lambert transparency contains a colorant at a concentration C. The units of

concentration can be, for example, mg/m3.

Io Irradiance onto the layer.

Colorant concentration, C. } Layer thickness, L

Transmittance is defined as T=I/Io

I

Light of irradiance Io enters the transparent material. Some is absorbed by the colorant in the
material, and some, I, exits the other side. The fraction that is transmitted to the other side is
called the transparency of the material, T.

T = I/Io (1)

The value of T is related to (1) the amount of colorant in the layer, C, (2) the thickness of the
layer, L, and (3) the absorption power of the colorant, ε, called the extinction coefficient of the
colorant. The product of these three factors is called absorbency, A.

A = εCL (2)

If there is no scattering of light in the layer, then the value of T is related to these three factors by
equation (3), often called the "Beer-Lambert" law.

T = 10-A (3)

Part II: The Reflection Image

A Beer-Lambert reflection image is composed of a Beer-Lambert transparent layer on top

10
of a highly scattering (Lambertian) substrate such as paper. Photographic prints, magazine
images, and images from a desk top printer are examples.

Io Irradiance onto the layer.

I
Reflectance is defined as R=I/Io

Colorant concentration, C.
} Layer thickness, L
Paper reflectance, Rg.

Light of irradiance Io enters the transparent material. Some is absorbed by the colorant in the
material, and some is absorbed by the paper of reflectance Rg. Some light, I, returns to the
surface and exits as reflected light from the system. The fraction that is reflected by the system,
R, is the ratio in equation (4).

R = I/Io (4)

For a layer transmittance T on paper of reflectance Rg, the system reflectance is given by
equation (5).

R = Rg.T2 (5)

The value of T is related to the values of ε, C, and L as before.

Image density, D, is often defined as the -Log of R for reflection images and -Log of T
for transparent images.

Dr = -Log(R) and Dt = -Log(T) (6)

For a Beer-Lambert system, Dt = A, and so it is easy to show that density is additive,

Dr = 2.Dt + Dg (7)

where Dg is the image density, -Log(Rg), of the paper. But remember, the additive nature of
density ONLY applies to Beer-Lambert systems. If there is scattering of light in the system, this
no longer applies.

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