Evaluation Rehabilitation Pavement

Interim Guide To Evaluation And
FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Rehabilitation Of Flexible Road pavements.
INTERIM GUIDE TO EVALUATION

AND REHABILITATION OF FLEXIBLE
ROAD PAVEMENT
IKRAM can accept no responsibility for mis- performance under Malaysian climatic condi-
appropriate use of this manual. Engineering tions will make it of interest to those engaged
judgement and experience must be used to in the research aspects of road engineering and
properly utilise the principles and guidelines in teaching the subject.
outlined in this manual taking into account
available equipment, local materials and condi- Some of the practical experiences on which the
tion. guide is based have been gained under
Photographs and drawings of equipment in this

publication are for illustration only and do not
imply preferential endorsement of any particu-
lar make by IKRAM.
PREFACE Malaysian climatic conditions. However, due

to limitations, some references were drawn
This guide is written primarily as an interim from various overseas agencies in particular the
guideline for practising road engineers and Transport and Research Laboratory (TRL),
those who are involved in road maintenance U.K.
activities. An attempt has been made to draw
together all the information required in the Although it is the intention of the authors to
evaluation and rehabilitation of flexible road make this guide as comprehensive as possible,
pavements within one volume. it has not always been possible to do so as the
performance of flexible road pavements in
It is hoped that the background information Malaysian environment is not yet fully under-
given, together with the review of current stood. However, to facilitate the early under-
research work carried out at IKRAM, particu- standing of the present practices, this interim
larly in relation to the pavement behaviour and guide has been produced. The authors are
Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1

aware of the necessary work still needed to felt thanks to the Director General of Public
complete this guide and are, at present, under- Works Malaysia for his permission to publish
taking research to make this possible. this guide. Thanks are also due to Tan Kee
Hock and Mooi Jiann Liang for their assistance
The chapters have been written so that they can in preparing this guide. Finally, special thanks
be read and understood largely independent of are due to C. R. Jones of the Overseas Centre,
each another, but where necessary cross-refer- Transport Research Laboratory, U.K. for his
encing to specific paragraphs should make the advice on specific topics of the guide.
reader's task easier.
CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION
This guide aims to be factual but some expres-
sion of opinion is inevitable where gaps in 1.1. BACKGROUND
knowledge exist.
1.1.1 Brief history of Malaysian road
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS pavements 1.1
This guide is prepared by the Pavement 1.1.2 The need for engineering
Research Unit evaluation of the road
pavement 1.1
Head: Ir. Mohamed Shafii Mustafa
lnstitut Kerja Raya Malaysia (IKRAM). 1.1.3 Economic analysis as a part of the
engineering decision
The authors of this guide are : making process 1.2
- Mohd. Sabri Hasim 1.2 SCOPE OF THE GUIDE 1.3

- Abd. Mutalif Abd. Hameed
- Ir. Koid Teng Hye 1.2.1 Limitation of the Guide 1.4
- Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Malek
- Ir. Mohamed Shafii Mustafa. 1.3 OBJECTIVES 1.4
This document forms part of a series of guide- CHAPTER 2 : PAVEMENT BEHAV-

lines on the design, construction and mainte- IOUR AND PERFORMANCE
nance of flexible road pavements which the
Pavement Research Unit is producing as part of 2.1 PAVEMENT COMPONENTS AND
their studies. MATERIALS
This guide was reviewed by a Committee 2.1.1 Surfacing 2.1

headed by the Director of IKRAM :
2.1.2 Road-base 2.1
Ir Ng Chong Yuen. Other members of the
Committee were : 2.1.3 Sub-base 2.1
- Ir Han Joke Kwang (IKRAM) 2.1.4 Subgrade 2.2

- Ir. Aik Siaw Kong
- Ir. Tai Men Choi 2.2 FUNCTIONS OF FLEXIBLE
- Ir. Zainol Rashid Zainuddin PAVEMENT 2.2
Of Roads Branch (JKR Headquarters) and 2.2.1 Road users requirements 2.2
Ir Abdul Shokri Mohd. Dalian (JKR Selangor).
The authors would like to express their heart- 2.2.2 Engineering requirements 2.2

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Rehabilitation Of Flexible Road Pavements.
2.3 FAILURE DEFINATIONS 2.3 3.1.6 Cost analysis 3.3
2.3.1 Failure modes 2.3 3.1.7 Implementation 3.3
2.3.2 Failure manifestation 2.3 3.2 INITIAL ASSESSMENT 3.3
2.3.3 Failure mechanisms 2.3 3.2.1 Surface condition assessment 3.4
2.4 PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR 2.3 3.2.2 Drainage assessment 3.4
2.4.1 Behaviour of thin surfacing 2.5 3.2.3 Prelirninarv analysis,

sectioning 3.7
2.4.2 Behaviour of component lavers in a
typical flexible pavement 2.5 3.3 DETAIL ASSESSMENT 3.8
2.5 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE 2.9 3.3.1 General 3.8
2.5.1 Terminal condition 2.9 3.3.2 Choice of NDT devices 3.9
2.5.2 Users requirements 2.9 3.3.3 Choices of NDT analysis

techniques 3.14
2.5.3 Engineers and managers
requirements 2.9 3.3.4 Test interval, variability and
accuracy level for structural
2.5.4 Empirical interpretation assessment 3.24
of performance 2.12
3.3.5 Surface evaluation 3.25
2.5.5 Mechanistic interpretation
of performance 2.12 3.3.6 Other key factors to consider
during evaluation 3.26
2.5.6 Future undertakings 2.15
3.3.7 Detail material investigation 3.29
2.6 REFERENCES 2.15
3.4 REFERENCES 3.31
CHAPTER 3 : PAVEMENT
EVALUATION CHAPTER 4 : TRAFFIC LOADING
ASSESSMENT
3.1 GENERAL 3.1
4.1 GENERAL 4.1
3.1.1 Project initiation 3.1
4.2 TRAFFIC CATEGORIES 4.1
3.1.2 Physical condition assessment 3.1
4.2.1 Normal traffic 4.1
3.1.3 Non-destructive testing (NDT) 3.1
4.2.2 Generated traffic 4.2
3.1.4 Analysis and rehabilitation
design 3.3 4.2.3 Diverted traffic 4.2
3.1.5 Selection of remedial 4.2.4 Special traffic 4.2

measures 3.3

4.3 TRAFFIC AND AXLE LOAD Figure 1.3 Cross-section of a typical

SURVEYS 4.2 flexible 1.4
4.3.1 Specific survey method 4.2 Figure 2.1 Typical serviceability require-
ments for different class of road
4.4 FORECASTING FUTURE (AASHO Road Test) 2.2
TRAFFIC 4.4
Figure 2.2 Stresses and strains in a bitumi-
4.4.1 Base data 4.4 nous pavement (Asphalt
Institute) 2.4
4.4.2 Methods of predicting
growth and compounding 4.4 Figure 2.3 A typical rate of binder
hardening in service 2.7
4.4.3 Estimating damaging effect 4.4
Figure 2.4 Hardening of binder in the top
4.4.4 Sensitivity and accuracy 4.4 3mm of the road surfacing 2.7
4.5 EXAMPLES 4.6 Figure 2.5 Typical strain-life relationship

for bituminous unixes 2.10
4.6 REFERENCES 4.10
Figure 2.6 Typical strain-life relationship
CHAPTER 5 : METHODS OF for subgrade (SHELL) 2.10
REHABILITATION
Figure 3.1 Flow chart of pavement
5.1 SELECTION PROCEDURE 5.1 evaluation process 3.2
5.2 REHABILITATION OPTIONS 5.1 Figure 3.2 Schematics of Benkelman

Beam 3.11
5.3 RESTORATION 5.4
Figure 3.3 Schematics of the Dynamic
5.3.1 Rejunevating 5.5 Cone Penetrometer 3.11
5.3.2 Crack Sealing 5.6 Figure 3.4 Schematics of the Road

Rater 3.15
5.3.3 Cutting and Patching 5.7
Figure 3.5 Schematics of the Falling
5.3.4 Thin asphalt overlay 5.11 Weight Deflectometer
arrangements 3.16
5.3.5 Surface recycling 5.15
Figure 3.6 Reduction in deflection after
5.4 RESURFACING 5.17 overlay 3.19
5.5 RECONSTRUCTION 5.20 Figure 3.7 Distribution of cracking

and rutting 3.19
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Elements in pavement Figure 3.8 Deflection bowl and
evaluation 1.2 materials characterisation 3.20
Figure 1.2 Decision making levels in road Figure 3.9 DCP test results 3.23
pavement maintenance 1.3

Figure 3.10. Typical plot of the DCP Table 3.5 Estimates of structural
results 3.23 coefficients, based on DCP
in-situ CBR values. 3.22
Figure 3.11. Micro and macro-lextUre 3.25
Table 4.1 Typical HPU traffic survey
Figure 5.1 General Process for Selecting results 4.3
Appropriate Rehabilitation
Alternatives 5.2 Table 4.2 Axle load survey results for
direction 1, Southbound. 4.6
Figure 5.2 The Spectrum of Pavement
Rehabilitation Alternatives 5.3 Table 4.3 Axle load survey results for
direction 2, Northbound. 4.6
Figure 5.3 Replacement of Loss
Chemical Constituents by Table 4.4 Traffic count results for
Rejuvenation 5.5 direction 1, Southbound. 4.7
Figure 5.4 Proper methods of cutting Table 4.5 Distribution of yearly

and patching 5.9 damaging effect 4.8
Figure 5.5 Surfacing Recycling Using Table 4.6 Summary of traffic counts
Hot Milling Method 5.16 results obtained from HPU.4.9
Figure 5.6 Methods of Reducing LIST OF PLATES

Reflection Cracks Using
Interlayers 5.18 Plate 3.1 Rut depth measurement 3.6
Figure 5.7 Full Reconstruction Plate 3.2 Surface condition survey 3.7
Options 5.23
Plate 3.3 The Road Rater 3.12
LIST OF TABLES
Plate 3.4 The Falling Weight
Table 2.1 Failure modes, manifestations Deflectometer 3.13
and mechanisms 2.4
Plate 3.5 The Heavy Weight
Table 2.2 Examples of formula and Deflectometer 3.15
coefficients for strain-life
relationship 2.11 Plate 3.6 Pendulum Skid Resistance
Tester 3.26
Table 3.1 Surface condition survey
form. 3.5 Plate 3.7 The Griptester 3.27
Table 3.2 Classification of cracks 3.6 Plate 3.8 Sand Patch test 3.27
Table 3.3 Material condition Plate 3.9 TRRL Minitexture meter 3.28
intrepetation 3.20
Plate 3.10 The Friction Tester 3.28
Table 3.4 Estimated values of structural
coefficients for various conditions Plate 4.1 Axle load weighing 4.3
of asphalt. 3.22

Plate 5.1 Rejuvenating aged Asphalt of the upgrading works carried out were either
Surfacings in Progress 5.7 not designed or designed using methodologies
imported from the various western countries.
Plate 5.2 Crack Sealing 5.8 An engineering-based road management sys-
tem was only introduced in Malaysia in 1974
Plate 5.3 Cutting and Patching 5.10 when a Benkelman Beam survey of 2291 km
of Federal and State roads was carried out by_
Plate 5.4 Cold Milling 5.11 KAMPSAX International.
Plate 5.5 Surface Dressing 5.13 1.1.2 The need for engineering evalu-
ation of the road pavements.
Plate 5.6 Slurry Seal 5.13
In order to ensure that the road network is able
Plate 5.7 Application of Geosynthetic to satisfy the ever increasing demand placed on
Materials 5.19 it due to increased traffic, there is a need for a
systematic approach to the maintenance of the
Plate 5.8 Reconstruction Works 5.21 road network. The lack of proper engineering
records on past construction and maintenance
Plate 5.9 Recycling for Base 5.21 works now . necessitates the need for full
engineering evaluation to be carried out before
CHAPTER l : the design of further road improvements or
INTRODUCTION rehabilitation.
1.1 BACKGROUND By using definitive and sound engineering

decisions, appropriate solutions for pavement
1.1.1 Brief history of Malaysian road pave- maintenance problems can be found.
ments. Comprehensive evaluation on distressed pave-
ments can fulfill this requirement. This allows
Bituminous pavements were first constructed in the most appropriate method of rehabilitation to
Malaysia some time before the Second World be selected thus nninimising long term total
War. In those years, the road pavements were expenditure.
constructed using block stone pitching on sand
or laterite sub-bases covered with a layer of tar After a new pavement is constructed, both
or bitumen stabilized aggregates. Since the war, environmental and traffic stresses will cause it
road pavements have been constructed using to deteriorate. The rate of deterioration will
crushed stones road bases and sand sub-bases depend on the severity of the traffic loads and
with dense bituminous surfacings. This con- the variability of the road materials. In the eval-
struction method is still being practiced today. uation process, the identification and classifica-
tion of the type of failure is necessary if correct
To ensure the smooth operation of the road net- remedial treatments are to be undertaken.
work, the road pavements have been constantly
maintained and upgraded. Invariably, the road Pavement engineers are faced with the difficult
networks along the main trade routes were task of evaluating pavements that have been
given more attention than the others. As such subjected to varying traffic loads under variable
the road pavements along these routes are environmental conditions and material proper-
thicker than those along the minor roads. Even ties (Figrure 1.1). Field measurements are valu-
though the roads were regularly maintained and able practical tools in the evaluation of road
upgraded, there were, generally, a lack of performance and in the identification of the
record keeping, on the conditions of the roads causes of failure. The task becomes more diffi-
and the type of maintenance carried out. Most cult if the pavement has gone through a series

Figure 1.1 Elements In Pavement Evaluation
Fugure 1.2 Decision Making Levels In Pavement Maintentenance

of previous unrecorded maintenance treat- able solution is necessary.

ments.
The introduction of the BS(M) Management
1.1.3 Economic analysis as part of engi- System in 1983 was an attempt by the govern-
neering decision malting process. ment to use engineering-based criteria to main-
tain and upgrade the road networks. With the
To ensure a good return on the investment in introduction of the Pavement Appraisal and
road construction, a cost benefit analysis is Management Suite (PAMS) in 1992, this was
needed to ensure that the most cost effective extended to balance the engineering and the
method of maintenance is employed. If the economic needs of the country.
future performance of the road is not correctly
predicted, then large sums of money may be 1.2 SCOPE OF THE GUIDE
wasted.
This guide covers the processes needed in car-
The details to which the engineering and eco- rying out an engineering evaluation on flexible
nomic needs are considered are dependent on pavements that allows a better decision to be
the level at which decisions are made (Figure made at the Project Level. It incorporates brief
1-2). The considerations on economic needs are and relevant discussions of behaviour, perform-
more important at the Network Level than at ance and deterioration of flexible pavements
the Project Level. subjected to local climatic and
traffic conditions. It subjected the evaluation
In most cases, road improvement projects are process and discusses the most appropriate
identified after due economic consideration are solutions in rectifying pavement deficiencies.
taken at the network level. At all levels of deci- This guide should be used in conjunction with
sion making, a simple, systematic and work other
Fugure 1.3 Cross-section Of A Typical Flexible Road Pavement

facing overlying the natural ground or sub-

grade.
IKRAM guidelines on road pavements
and existing JKR Standard Specifications for 2.1.1 Surfacing
Roadworks.
]The surfacing is the upper layer of the pave-
1.2.1. Limitations of the Guide ment which fulfils the following requirements :
Even though it is the intention of the authors to a) To provide an even, non-skidding and
provide comprehensive and accurate informa- good riding quality surface
tion in this guide, the users are cautioned that b) To resist wear and shearing stress imposed
the procedures and remedial measures by traffic
described in this guide are interim. On-going c) To prevent water from penetrating into the
research work at IKRAM in this field will be underlying pavement layers
able to add more information to the guide in d) To be capable of surviving a large number
the next revision. The behaviour and perform- of repeated loading without distress
ance of the pavements addressed in this guide e) To withstand adverse environmental condi-
is for flexible pavements only. A typical flexi- tions
ble pavement is as shown in Figure 1.3.
The form of bituminous surfacing commonly
1.3 OBJECTIVES used can either be thick or thin. Thick bitumi-
nous surfacings nornally consist of crushed
The aim of this guide is to provide a procedure mixed aggregates. bitumen and filler. Most
for the engineering evaluation of flexible road common types of plant mixed surfacings in
pavements. The objectives are : Malaysia are asphaltic concrete or bituminous
macadam. Currently constricted thin surfacings
(i) To provide a systematic method of pave- are surface dressings and slum seals.
ment evaluation.
Thick bituminous surfacings provide additional
(ii) To assist engineers in identifying primary strength to the pavement and seal the pavement
modes of pavement deterioration. from water ingress. Thin surfacings do not give
direct additional strength. They merely protect
(iii) To assist engineers in selecting appropriate the pavement from water and provide a skid
methods of rehabilitation. resistant riding surface.
This guide is structured in a manner to provide 2.1.2 Road-base

simple, systematic and workable solutions to
the users. It is aimed at engineers at the project The road-base is the main structural layer of
level. the pavement which spread the load from
heavy vehicles thus protecting the underlying
CHAPTER 2 weaker layers. Its functions are to reduce the
compressive stress in the subgrade and the sub-
PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR base to an acceptable level and to ensure that
AND PERFORMANCE the magnitude of the flexural stresses in the
surfacing will not lead to cracking. Unbound
2.1. PAVEMENT COMPONENTS AND crushed mixed aggregate has been widely used
MATERIALS as a road base material throughout the country.
Granite and limestone are readily available in
A flexible pavement is a layered structure con- most areas in Malaysia and have historically
sisting of the sub-base, road-base and the sur- been the major sources of aggregate for road-

bases. provide a safe and comfortable riding surface

for the road users. Its condition with respect to
2.1.3 Sub-base these characteristics is normally assessed by
two groups of people, namely the users and the
The sub-base is the secondary load-spreading road engineers.
layer underlying the road-base. It will nornally
consist of lower grade granular material as
compared to that of the road-base. Sand and 2.2.1 Road user requirements
lateftes are commonly used and are easily
available. This layer also serves as a separating A safe and comfortable riding surface is what
layer preventing contamination of the road- the road users nontially require. The aesthetic
base by the subgrade and also acts as a prepara- aspect of it is also a concern but will receive
tory layer for road-base construction. It can considerable attention only on heavily traf-
also act as a drainage layer. ficked pavements. The life of the pavement
perceived by the users will be primarily relate
to its riding quality. Road pavements that do
2.1.4 Subgrade not provide a safe and comfortable riding sur-
face will trigger the road users' awareness as to
The subgrade refers to the soil under the pave- the increase in vehicle operating cost.
ment within a depth of approximately 1 meter
below the subbase. It is the upper layer of The users requirement for a road pavement can
earthworks prepared for subsequent construc- be quantified in ternis of serviceability index
tion of the pavement layers described above.It (1). The terns serviceability was first intro-
can either be natural undisturbed soil or com- duced during the AASHO Road Test to repre-
pacted soil obtained from elsewhere and placed sent pavement performance. The road pave-
as fill material. The strength of the subgrade ment was given a rating in terms of riding
layer is important as the thicknesses of the comfort by various drivers, with a value of 5 as
upper layers are dependent on it. the highest index of serviceability and 0 as the
lowest. A terminal serviceability of 2.5 was
2.2. FUNCTIONS OF FLEXIBLE suggested as the condition when major road
PAVEMENT rehabilitation works. For the rehabilitation of
minor roads, a terminal serviceability of 1.5
The general function of a road pavement is to mvas suggested by AASHO (Figure 2.1).

2.2.2 Engineering requirements Western nations, there are dangers in applying

those rehabilitation solutions that have been
The engineer is mostly concern with whether obtained elsewhere as they may not suit condi-
the road will achieve its design life. The rate of tions in this country without some modifica-
deterioration is also a major concern. A rapid tion.
rate of deterioration requires immediate inter-
vention. The road user may not be aware of the Road user and engineering needs must be prop-
occurrence of early deterioration since the rid- erly balanced to suit budget requirements and
ing quality may still be acceptable. In contrast maximise benefit through appropriate methods
the engineer must be alert to such problems as of maintenance. Experience elsewhere has indi-
early maintenance enhances the road perform- cated that prompt maintenance can indeed save
ance. expensive reconstruction costs.
It is thus necessary to understand the behaviour 2.3 FAILURE DEFINITIONS

and performance of road pavement under
Malaysian condition. In evaluating and rehabil- 2.3.1 Failure modes
itating a road pavement in this country, where
the environmental factors are different from The predominant failure modes are fracture,
Mode Manifestation Comman Mechanisms

Excessive loading Repeated loading
Frature Cracking
Moisture changes Age hardening
Excessive loading Creep Densification
Distortion permanent Deformation
Consolidation Moisture changes
Lack of adhesion Chemical aggression
Disintegration Stripping and ravelling Abrasion by traffic Degradation of
aggregate.
Table 2.1. Failure Modes, Manifestations And Mechanisms
Figure 2.2. Stresses And Strains In A Bituminouns Pavement

distortion and disintegration. Fracture nornially tion methodology, it is necessary for a road
occurs in thick bituminous layers. Distortion engineer to understand pavement behaviour
manifests itself in any of the pavement layers especially under local environmental condi-
and will normally appear on the bituminous tions.
surface as netting or other forms of deforma-
tion. Disintegration will normally take place on Repeated axle loading, the environment, soil
the bituminous surfacing. Loss of aggregates is characteristics and drainage, are some factors
a common manifestation of this failure mode. that affect pavement behaviour. Stresses and
strains are induced in the pavement layers by
2.3.2 Failure manifestations both the influences of traffic and environmental
stresses, an example of the latter being diurnal
Each component of the pavement layers may temperature changes (Figure 2.2).
contribute to failures. The most difficult task is
to identify which layer is the cause of primary The bituminous surfacing suffers from tensile
failures of the road. Failure in flexible pave- strains at the bottom and the top of the layer
ments most commonly manifests itself as (2). The road-base, the sub-base and the
cracking or deformation. These defects can subgrade are mainly subjected to compressive
be visually identified and measured using stresses.
appropriate techniques.
Theoretically, pavements will only behave as a
2.3.3 Failure mechanisms composite material under go ideal condition.
This condition exists only when the pavement
Extensive research has established the various materials are homogenous and isotropic and the
mechanisms that cause road failures. Some adhesion between the component layers is per-
common mechanisms are : fect.
i) Repeated axle loading A point on the pavement subjected to a moving

ii) Excessive loading load will deflect temporarily. The elastic prop-
iii) Thermal and moisture changes erties, characteristics of the component materi-
iv) Material densification als and the loading nature and magnitude will
v) Consolidation of subgrade determine the size of the deflection. The tem-
vi) Shear in subgrade porary deflection will rebound after the load
vii) Time dependent deformation (creep) has been moved away from the spot. This
viii)Abrasion by traffic deflection is usually referred to as the transient
ix) Chemical degradation deflection.
x) Degradation of aggregate
xi) Hardening of the bitumen Deflection measurements had been used as an
overall pavement strength indicator. Field
Early detection of these mechanisms during the experiments from other authorities have shown
evaluation process can help in identifying the significant relationships between deflection val-
probable remedy. Suitability and accuracy of ues and pavement life. Deflection test results
evaluation procedures and analysis are depend- can be used to predict the performance of pave-
ent on accurate identification of actual modes ment and to design overlay thicknesses.
of failure. The relationship between failure The behaviour of individual pavement layers
mode, their manifestations and probable mech- under traffic loadings can be very different.
anisms is as shown in Table 2.1. Each has its own significant role in the overall
behaviour of a pavement.
2.4 PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR
2.4.1 Behaviour of thin surfacings
Before moving further into pavement evalua-

Surface dressings mid slurry seals are the com- area that must be emphasised during evaluation
mon types of thin surfacings used to seal road on the performance of this type of road pave-
pavements in Malaysia. These surfacings do ment.
not provide direct structural strength to the
pavement. 2.4.2 Behaviour of the component layers in
a typical flexible pavement.
Bituminous sealed road pavements are normal-
ly used in Malaysia for roads with low traffic Bituminous laver
volumes and axle loads (low class road). There
is limited field experience and knowledge of The deflection experienced by the bituminous
the behaviour of thin surfacings constructed on layers due to a loaded wheel induces tensile
high volume roads in the country. strains underneath the bituminous layer. Under
repeated loading this layer is liable to experi-
Surface dressing have been used by many ence fatigue. Permanent deformation of the
developed countries for highways and high subgrade and fatigue failure of the road surfac-
class road pavements. Theoretically, if the road ing are the two major characteristics that are
base layers can be made to spread the load normally used to predict flexible pavement per-
imposed upon a pavement and meet the expect- formance.
ed structural requirement, then a thin layer is
sufficient to fulfil the functional requirement of The elastic behaviour of the bituminous mix is
a good riding surface. This is the adopted prin- mainly governed by the properties of the bitu-
ciple behind the successful use of surface men. Bitumen in the mix is visco-elastic and its
dressings in developed countries. behaviour is highly dependent on temperature
and the rate of loading (3). At low temperatures
Thin bituminous seals, and in particular surfac- and short times of loading they are essentially
ing dressings, have high bitumen contents that elastic but at high temperatures and long load-
leads to high bitumen film thickness. They are ing times the material undergoes viscous flow.
very flexible and are able to withstand high The effective modulus is defined as the ratio of
pressures from heavy wheel loads if construct- stress to strain at a particular temperature and
ed properly. Furthermore, they should be able loading time and is usually referred to as stiff-
to withstand environmentally induced stresses. ness. In practice, high stress areas such as
Bituminous surfacings with high bitumen con- climbing lanes and junctions suffer long load-
tents will have improved resistance against age ing time at high temperature therefore reducing
hardening. These properties cannot be obtained its modulus value (2). Deformation in the form
from thick bituminous mixes since stability, of shear failure in the surfacing is normally
skid resistance and texture depth decrease with prominent in these areas.
increased bitumen content.
Laboratory tests have been carried out for vari-
Strong adhesion with the road-base is another ous types of bituminous mixes under repeated
important factor which determines the life of loading to estimate fatigue failure. Apart from
thin seals. The proper application and curing of the test procedures (e.g. testing temperature,
the bituminous prime coat on the road base is loading method or cycles), bitumen type, bitu-
therefore vital to its perfornance. men content and air void content in the mix
also influence the fatigue behaviour.
Water can have a deleterious effect on this type
of construction. Serviceability will be reduced The time lapse between loading cycles is also
if water is allowed to penetrate the surfacing. known to affect the test results. The type of
The condition of surface and side drainage will aggregate used is a secondary variable, and is
significantly affect the pavement behaviour and assumed to have negligible effect. Laboratory
performance. Therefore drainage is a major fatigue tests under fully controlled conditions

can produce more repeatable results compared i) Oxidation

to those observed in empirical experiments. ii) Loss of volatiles
iii) Physical hardening
In the field, cracks starting from the bottom of iv) Exudative hardening
the bituminous layer due to repetitive tensile
strain is normally called the traditional fatigue Oxidation is the main cause of hardening that
failure. This form of failure slowly manifests can occur at storage, during mixing and on the
itself in the form of crocodile cracking in the road. The bitumen viscosity of the top few
wheel-path and is easily identified by a surface imillirnetres of the exposed surfacing changes
condition survey. rapidly in our environment (6). Figure 2.3
shows a typical rate of hardening of binder in
The factors that affect fatigue failure in the service. The hardening is more severe in the
field are loading pattern, channeling and mate- top 3 mm of the road surfacing and decreases
rial properties. Laboratory fatigue values can with depth. Figure 2.4 shows that the rate of
shift between 20 to nearly 700 times when hardening is more rapid during the first 20
compared to those observed in the field (3). months. After this period, the rate decreases
This indicates that the behaviour of the individ- until the binder viscosity reaches approximately
ual materials under laboratory conditions is 6.2 log Poise. At this point, environmental age-
unfortunately not a good substitute for a thor- ing apparently ceases to have any further sig-
ough knowledge of the behaviour of the mate- nificant effect. Suitable considerations and
rials when combined within a pavement. allowances must be made to deal with this criti-
Improvement in this area can only come from cal problem.
the study of the behaviour of bituminous sur-
facings using empirical tests. On bituminous roads, cracking and rutting are
usually more severe in,the verge-side (near-
Additional compaction under repeated traffic side) wheel-path compared to the off-side
loading contributes to permanent deformation (outer-side) wheel-path. On the other hand, pol-
that is normally manifested as rutting. Mixes ishing of the road surface by vehicle tyres is
with high bitumen contents and are subjected normally seen to be more severe on the off-side
to loading at high temperatures are liable to wheel-path.
result in permanent deformation.
Unbound layer (road-base and sub-base)
Environmentally induced stresses and strains
also affect bituminous surfacings. Temperature Vertical compressive stresses affect the
changes will cause the bituminous material to unbound granular layer. The strength of this
expand and contract. If the material is tempera- layer is dependent on its elastic properties,
ture susceptible, the stresses and strains thicknesses and subgrade strength. The elastic
induced will cause thermal cracking. characteristic of this layer under repeated load-
Another common factor that hasten the deterio- ing is difficult to model. The modulus in the
ration process significantly within the bitumen vertical direction can be different from that in
surfacing in the tropics is the hardening of the the horizontal direction which suggest that it is
bitumen primarily at the surfacing (4). The top anisotropic.
layer of the bituminous mix can become brittle
and may crack easily under traffic loading or The intrinsic properties of the material and
temperature changes. This is common in surmy problems in setting up samples for laboratory
and hot regions where the oxidation process is tests have resulted in the use of the term
rapid. The principal causes of bitumen harden- 'resilient modulus' instead of the usual ‘modu-
ing are (5) : lus' for this material. It is defined as the quo-
tient of repeated axial stress in triaxial com-
pression divided by the recoverable axial strain.

Figure 2.3. A Typical Rate Of Binder Hardening In Service
Figure 2.4. Hardening Of Binder In The Top 3 mm Of The Road Surfacing
In the laboratory repeated loading triaxial tests layer.

can be used to studv the individual deformation
characteristic and resilient modulus of this Subgrade layer
layer. The Poisson ratio can also be obtained.
The subgrade layer bears the final compressive
The subgrade strength and the road-base layer stress. The top one meter is the most critical
thicknesses affect the actual field properties of since it suffers almost all the transmitted load.
the sub-base. This is common for all pavement Properly designed and constructed road base
layers. Apart From individual properties, and sub-base layers will spread the load and
surrounding properties affects actual field per- reduce the stresses induced by the vehicle on
formance. It was found in the United Kingdom the subgrade. The aim is to limit the compres
that nearly two thirds of the total permanent sive stress to an acceptable level so that the
deformation of the combined layer was con- subgrade will not fail or move under repetitive
tributed by the surfacing and the unbound loading.

The strength of a road subgrade is commonly behaviour of the subgrade throughout its serv-
assessed in ternis of the California Bearing ice life. High standards of drainage provision
Ratio (CBR). New pavements are mostly govern the longevity of pavement life at these
designed using subgrade CBR values as the areas.
primary soil strength indicator. It's popular use
in Malaysia has prompted development of rela- 2.5 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
tionships to other useful soil-strength indica-
tors. The CBR and in general, the soil strength 2.5.1 Terminal condition
is dependent on the type of the soil, its mois-
ture content and its density. Terminal pavement condition or the end of
pavement life is used to describe its condition
During pavement evaluation, the moisture con- when major maintenance is needed. This con-
ditions primarily govern assessment decision. A dition is predicted to occur at the end of the
well-constructed pavement would have a sub- design period.
grade in equilibrium moisture condition most
of the time and there will be no change in The residual life of a road pavement is depend-
behaviour. This scenario however is not achiev- ent on the definition of the terminal condition.
able in most areas in Malaysia. The subgrade is A pavement will have a residual life if its con-
subjected to variable conditions in the dition has not reached terminal level.
Malaysian environment. Two most common
conditions are : In Malaysia, definition of terminal condition
and prediction of residual life were very
i) Where the water table is near or possibly dependent on experience from other countries.
higher than the formation level. This There are no standards on 'end of life' criteria
water table will influence the subgrade for Malaysian pavements as yet.
moisture content and also the pavement
layers above it. 2.5.2 Users requirements
ii) Where the water table is far from the As mentioned in para. 2.1.1, the users' require-
formation level but seasonal variation ment is for safety and comfort. Only serious
and drainage efficiency will influence its pavement failure can be felt or measured in
moisture conditions. relation to this. The AASHO road test in the
United States suggests a serviceability level of
Pavements under condition (i) above, will be 2.5 as the terminal condition (1). At this level,
weakest when the water table is at the highest riding on the road will be uneconomical and
point. This may happen diurnally (tidal change) uncomfortable. However, the choice of this
or seasonally (monsoon season).Nondestructive level to be used locally needs careful study,
measurements that simulate pavement behav- taking into consideration local pavement
iour taken at these locations should consider behaviour.
this. Measurements are best taken at the wettest
time, when the pavement is probably at its 2.5.3 Engineers and managers requirements
weakest.
Two forms of distress modes can normally be
Heavy rainfall during wet weather allows mois- identified from the road pavement surface (i.e
ture to enter the pavement layers and the sub- cracking and rutting). The degree of cracking
grade through the shoulder and at the edges. or rutting or both are normally used as a gener-
This is more pronounced where earth shoulders al indicator of the overall pavement condition.
are used. Sealed road shoulders substantially These failure manifestations can be used as a
reduce the ingress of water. Drainage is the criterion to quantify an empirical terminal con
most important factor that determines the

Figure 2.5. Typical Strain-life Relationship For Bituminous Mixes
Figure 2.6. Typical Strain-life Relationship For Subgrade (SHELL)
dition. One of the empirical terminal condition and the formulae adopted are shown in Table
known (7), suggests the existence of both the 2.2. This terminal condition can be accepted if
the mechanistic model used depict exact field
initial cracking and ten millimetres rutting as behaviour.
failure criteria.
The effect of age hardening in the field that
Theoretical or mechanistic terminal condition induce top-down cracking is not included in
will be based on asphalt strain or subgrade those models. Allowance for this effect must be
strain criteria. The minimum permissible strain made if the above terminal criteria are to be
level is currently based on laboratory findings used. At this juncture, empirical terminal condi-
that can be reduced to mathematical formulae. tion seems to be more realistic and therefore it
Typical examples are shown in Figures 2.5 and is more reliable.
2.6.
2.5.4. Empirical interpretation of
Various authorities had perform similar tests performance

Empirical definitions and constraints local field condition can be very different from
what had been experienced in the road test.
Predicting the field performance of visco-elas-
tic materials under variable loading patterns Environmental effects
and environmental conditions is not a simple
and straight forward task. Material strength and The major constraint in using experimental
behaviour are dependent on many variables results carried out from other countries is the
and involve the combined effect of other mate- existence of different soil types and environ-
rials. The combinations of bitumen and aggre- mental conditions. Local experience is still
gate, on top of other unbound layers makes the regarded as the best guide for the right solution.
material difficult to model theoretically.
Fluctuations in moisture level within the pave- These points had been proven from the various
ment create further uncertainties. Most theoreti- findings from the AASHO road test. Studies
cal models assume an equilibrium moisture carried out by TRRL had shown that common
condition. modes of failure in the tropics are often differ-
ent from those encountered in temperate
Empirical experiments are best carried out regions. These indicate that pavement behav-
where the variables can be measured and con- iour and performance in Malaysia would be
trolled. The performance can be monitored and different and require different treatment and
recorded. The recorded experience can be used emphasis.
for future construction work or to assess exist-
ing pavement conditions provided similar Research work carried out at IKRAM shows
materials and specifications are used. that cracking is the major failure mode on
asphaltic concrete overlays (8). Rutting is not a
The empirical approach has been used widely major problem and only occurs on highly
to design new road pavements and to assess stressed areas. Observations made over four
maintenance needs. The results are absolute but years on pavement o~7erlays throughout the
are only applicable locally and its usage is lim- Peninsular Malaysia have produced sufficient
ited to similar materials and construction speci- data to predict pavement performance in this
fications. Adaptation of this methodology country.
beyond its defined scope needs in-house verifi-
cation and modification especially if the envi- 2.5.5 Mechanistic interpretation of
ronment and materials used in the experiment performance
are different.
The constraints of the empirical design
Past experiments and findings approach have resulted in other methods being
developed to make it possible to predict other
The AASHO Road Test is perhaps the most modes of failure and possible usage of different
comprehensive pavement experiment ever material types.
undertaken. Field behaviour and performance
of bituminous material were studied with con- The structural analysis is to consider the pave-
trolled repeated loading pattern under a specific ment, consisting of different materials. to be
environment. Results from this test have been characterised' by their elastic parameters which
accepted world-wide. One of the major find- are typical of dynamic load conditions. The
ings of the road test was the pavement fatigue layered system concept (or multilayer elastic
life definition in terms of repetition of a stan- system) is normally used. Many assumptions
dard axle load. This principle had been extend- must be made to model field behaviour to a
ed and various other studies on bituminous mechanistic model that can be computed math-
road pavements relate to these findings. ematically. The major assumptions used in the
However, the modes of failure in a particular model are (9) :


i. The component layers are homogenous respond and produce a temporary deflection
and isotropic (the property at a point is known as transient deflection. The deflection
similar to that at another point and is the can be measured in the field by various means
same in any direction) which will be discussed later in Chapter 3.
ii. Complete friction between layers at each If the measured deflection is similar to the the-
interface oretical deflection, then the elastic properties of
the material in the model could be used as an
iii. The stress solutions are characterised by estimate of its actual values in the field. The
the materials Poisson Ratio and modulus analyses use the method of equivalent thick-
values ness, normally required to analyse composite
structures under loading. Comparing the theo-
iv. Each layer has a finite thickness and is retical deflections to the actual field deflection
in ideal condition values is normally ternied 'backcalculation'.
This is an iterative process. Convergence accu-
v. Surface shearing force are not present at racy of the iteration can be chosen as required.
the surface The initial elastic properties for each laver have
to be estimated. The elastic properties of com-
vi. The material is infinite in the horizontal ponent layers obtained are then used to esti-
direction mate the condition of the material.
These assumptions are made clear in this guide It must be emphasised that the theoretical
to caution users on indiscriminate use of the model must be able to predict the actual failure
theoretical methods. Specialised laboratory test mode in the field for it to be used with reason-
needs to be undertaken to support its proper able confidence. Failure to do so may result in
use. Field verification experiment governs the erroneous predictions.
validity of the approach.
Material fatigue problems have been investigat-
Pavement response and model ed in great detail in the laboratory by various
authorities and attention has now been directed
The most common model used to date is the to the relationship between these results and the
three layer model. The road pavement is divid- fatigue performance of bituminous materials on
ed into three component layers : the road. It has been found that the fatigue life
of the bituminous materials under traffic condi-
i. the bituminous surfacings tion in flexible pavements is considered longer
ii. the unbound granular layer and than that found in the laboratory. It is believed
iii. the subgrade that these resulted from the. differences
between conditions in the road and the test pro-
More detailed four layer models that separate cedure adopted in the laboratory. As an exam-
the unbound layer into two layers can also be ple, it has been suggested that a factor of 100
used. However, the practicality and accuracy times is appropriate for condition in the U.K.
obtained is still very subjective. More effort i.e. the field fatigue life is 100 times that in the
should be given in handling variability in the laboratory.
analysis (thickness of material and subgrade
condition) so that the accuracy of the It is also very difficult to model climate related
interpretation can be improved. failure in this approach. At this juncture, practi-
cal application of this approach may remain
In the multilayer model, the pavement acts as a conjectural.
composite structure. In theory, when the pave-
ment is subjected to a wheel load it will Theoretical modes of failure

The most common theoretical mode of failure ships. The strain level closest to the allowable
adopted in the model are fatigue failure at the strain for a given type of material will indicate
bottom of bituminous laver and deformation the critical residual life.
failure on top of the subgrade. Additional fail-
ure on top of the unbound base is often includ- Most stress-strain relationships available are for
ed. Theoretical deflections, stresses or strains at materials that were obtained overseas. There
these locations can be calculated using the are many different variables in the Malaysian
method of equivalent thickness. Research in the environment that must be simulated in order to
laboratory can be used to measure stresses and present actual loading and material conditions.
strains .at which pre-detennined failure condi- A recent research finding indicates a rapid
tions occur and relationships established. change in asphalt properties for the top layer
that are exposed to the environment. These
These failure modes were considered based on impose another consideration in the testing.
experience overseas. Care must be taken in Laboratory fatigue test should also simulate
accepting these as the only failure criteria. field loading frequency, otherwise a discrepan-
Local research work carried out shows that the cy of the length of rest period between loading
top of the bituminous surfacing exposed to will distort simulation.
environmentally induced deterioration should
be considered. On-going research at IKRAM is Uncertainty
looking into this problem.
The major uncertainties using the mechanistic
Materials characterisation approach are :
In multilayer analysis the material characteris- i. The validity of predicted failure

tics namely Poisson Ratios, thicknesses and conditions,
elastic moduli are the main parameters to be ii. The discrepancy between conditions in
considered. The Poisson Ratio can be assumed laboratory experiments compared to
to be of a certain value based on laboratory and those in the field,
engineering experiences. Layer thicknesses can iii. The limitation and validity of the
be obtained from construction as built drawings assumptions used,
or measured directly in the field. The Elastic iv. The deficiency in the model that may
modulus of each liver is the property that nor- ignore actual field condition.
mally needs to be predicted.
The above uncertainties can be overcome by
Mechanistic terminal condition full-scale experiments under local conditions.
In the mechanistic approach the terminal condi- Computerised solutions

tion will be based on the calculated stresses and
strain levels. The terminal conditions are pre- The mechanistic approach demands extensive
determined from laboratory experiments. The calculations and iterative computations whick
stresses and strains described in para 2.-1.2 are require time. Many computer programs exist in
measured by repeated loading cycles applied in the market. However, in principle almost all
laboratory conditions. The relationship between will use the method of equivalent thickness and
repeated load cycles and strain level at failure back calculation procedures to estimate the
is plotted. Equations for the strain-life relation- modulus values. Some packages have
ships of the particular material can be obtained. advanced with full mechanistic bituminous
Residual life is determined by comparing the overlay design. The accuracy and reliability of
strain estimated from the interpretation of estimates from the computerised solution still
deflection measurement with the allowable remain conjectural unless the problems in
strain obtained from the laboratory relation- mechanistic interpretation as described earlier

can be overcome. Performance of Road Pavements,

Department of Environment,
JKR currently have a number of computer pro- Department of Transport, Transport and
grams undergoing tests. Recent developments Road Research Laboratory, HMSO,
have found that the use of PHOENIX can pro- London 1977.
duce reasonably practical estimation of modu-
lus values. These values are sensitive to pave- 4. ROLT, J. 'Flexible Pavement Design
ment layer thicknesses. A study carried out by Methods' Overseas Unit, Transport and
TRRL found that the moduli estimations using Road Research Laboratory, Crowthorne,
back-calculation procedure by four pavement Berkshire, United Kingdom, 1987.
consultants were nearly similar. However, sub-
stantial differences in treatment recommenda- 5. THE SHELL BITUMEN HAND
tions and bituminous overlay thicknesses indi- BOOK, Shell Bitumen U.K., 1990
cate a general uncertainty over the evaluation
concepts. 6. PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT,
The Deterioration of Bituminous
Verification of mechanistic interpretation Binders in Road Surfacings, Research
Report 5, Institute of Training and
Controlled field experiment is the best method Research, PWD Malaysia, 1991.
to verify mechanistics performance prediction
methods. Such work is now being undertaken 7. KENNEDY, C.K. and N.W. LISTER.
by IKRAM. The task is to develope a realistic Prediction of pavement performance and
model depicting actual field conditions. the design of overlays. Department of
the Environment, Department of
2.5.6 Future undertakings Transport, TRRL Report LR 833.
Crowthorne, 1978 (Transport and Road
There is understandable interest in the full Research Laboratory).
mechanistic approach that will result in greater
flexibility in the choice of materials. However, 8. PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT,
this demands comprehensive laboratory and Long Term Performance Study of
field experiments for Malaysian materials and Overlays, Institute of Training and
environment. Suitable field deflection testing Research, PWD Malaysia, 1989.
equipment has been identified. Improvements
in the interpretation and modelling methodolo- 9. YODER. ,E.J, WITCZAK. M.W.,
gy coupled with field verification is still in Principles of Pavement Design, 1975.
progress.
CHAPTER 3 :
2.6 REFERENCES
PAVEMENT EVALUATION
1. AASHTO Guide for Design of
Pavement Structures 1986, American 3.1 GENERAL
Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, The pavement evaluation processes practised in
Washington D. C. the JKR road pavement maintenance are at
three levels. These was described earlier in
2. SHELL PAVEMENT DESIGN MAN- Chapter 1 as the System Level, Network Level
UAL, Shell Petroleum Company Inc., and Project Level. For the network level, pave-
London, 1978. ment evaluation requires a different methodolo-
gy and equipment. The scope of evaluation
3. DAVID CRONEY, The Design and methodology is described in detail elsewhere.

This chapter deals with pavement evaluation at task. This can be done visually or using a sim-
project and detail level. The choice of equip- ple and cheap methods. A general condition of
ment, information quality requirement, accura- the pavement is recorded. A decision should be
cy, methods of analysis and techniques used are made at this juncture whether the pavement is
given. suffering from structural or non-structural fail-
ure. If it is structurally sound, its functional
The main steps of the evaluation can be sum- condition should be queried. If the pavement is
marized as follows : both structurally and functionally adequate then
the pavement is considered sound, otherwise
i) To divide the road into suitable lengths detail testing will be needed.
of design sections
ii) Predict the mode of failure 3.1.3 Non-destructive testing (NDT)
iii) Identify failure causes and delimit the
failure area Non-destructive testing is currently the state-of
iv) Select suitable short or long term reme the-art method for detailed pavement
dial solutions investigation. The selection of NDT devices is
described in para 3.3.2. NDT allows more data
The above can be carried out efficiently by collection along the road and provides a more
dividing the tasks into two assessment tiers, ini- confident representation of the pavement con-
tial and detail assessments. The scope of work dition. It is necessary not to miss any weak
in the process is shown in Figure 3.1. Brief areas at this level of testing. This testing will
description of the flow of the work is given provide the base data for analysis and rehabili-
below. tation design.
3.1.1 Project initiation 3.1.4 Analysis and rehabilitation design
There are two normal mechanisms that initiate The base data from the NDT tests together with
pavement evaluation at the project level : other information that was taken previously is
compiled and analysed at this stage. Additional
i) From network level priority listing tests may be required if the information is not
ii) Specific evaluation request when a sufficient. Suitable methods of analysis are
pavement requires upgrading due to applied to produce recommendations of reme-
special reasons dial measures and the procedure of choosing
the appropriate method is described in para
After a specific budget has been allocated for a 3.3.3.
project in a network priority list, a detailed
pavement evaluation is normally required to 3.1.5 Selection of remedial measures
optimise the budget. This evaluation exercise is
necessary as the condition of the pavement This can be the most important part of the eval-
may have changed since it was evaluated dur- uation exercise. A detailed description and
ing the network level pavement survey. For interim guide for this task is explained in
accurate results, the time lapse between the Chapter 5. The first step is to understand and
evaluation exercise and the commencement of diagnose the pavement problem. This will then
the rehabilitation construction must be min- help to provide the solution. The correct solu-
imised. tion is not always easy to achieve. Longtenn
3.1.2 Physical condition assessment
engineering solution should be chosen at this
Simple physical condition assessment of the juncture. It must be assumed that budget is not
pavement at the beginning of the evaluation a constraint at this stage.
exercise helps efficient organisation of this

3.1.6 Cost analysis of the remedial measures may provide suffi-

cient answers to the problem.
With budget constraints, the balance between
engineering or non-engineering driven solution The costing analysis should provide informa-
must be considered carefully. This scenerio is tion to ascertain the budget requirements. If the
common in Malaysia. A simple costing analysis cost of actual rehabilitation requirement exceed

tire allocated budget, the rehabilitation solution The results from this initial assessment will be
may require changes. Short terns and long term used to :
remedial measures are selected depending on
the allocated budget. Staged constriction is i) Decide preliminary lengths and loca
another option worth considering in order to tions of `design sections'
reduce initial rehabilitation costs but still fulfills ii) Plan for the frequency and interval of
the engineering requirement. detailed tests
The feasibility of various remedial measures Optimum and economical data collection and
may involve discussions with the appropriate sampling can be carried out following the
authorities before the final options are selected. selection of the design sections. The final rec-
Other feasible remedial methods can be applied ommendation of rehabilitation measures should
if the conventional method are not appropriate be adiusted to suit these individual sections.
or slow.
A minimum length of a selected design section
3.1.7 Implementation should not be less than one kilometre to allow
for efficient construction operation. Preliminary
Projected actual time of implementation of the design sections are chosen first from the initial
evaluation proposal should be considered dur- assessment results. At a later stage, other infor-
ing the evaluation exercise. The estimates of mation such as soil type, topography, hydrolo-
remedial works normally increase if the time gy, deflection and traffic data can influence the
lapse between the evaluation period and the final selection of the design sections. The engi-
implementation phase is expected to be long. neer should carefully review all the available
This is common in Malaysia. where contractual data to judge whether a particular treatment is
arrangements are often lengthy. Allowance for suitable over the entire project length or
this problem should be considered in the evalu- whether shorter design sections using separate
ation exercise. treatments are necessary. Changing remedial
treatments too frequently may result in difficult
3.2 INITIAL ASSESSMENT and expensive construction.
Pavement evaluation at project level starts by 3.2.1 Surface condition assessment

carrying out an initial assessment of the physi-
cal condition of the pavement. The principle is The surface condition survey provide a means
to use cheap equipment and simple method of of quantifying the failures of the pavement,
assessment. More expensive and detailed tests shoulder and drainage. Using appropriate tech-
can be scheduled if and when required. niques, the extent of the failures can be classi-
Engineers nonually carry out or supervise this fied and quantified. A standard surface condi-
work. The scope of work involves two main tion survey method has been used in JKR. The
tasks : main parameters recorded are cracking and rut-
ting as well as shoulder and drainage condi-
i) Surface condition assessment tions. Details of the information recorded is
ii) Drainage assessment. shown in Table 3.1.
Other information related to the surroundings Visual assessment of cracks using a classifica-
of the pavement helps to ensure a comprehen- tion system simplified in Table 3.2 provide suf-
sive evaluation work. Historical data of the ficient information for further analysis. It is
pavement would be very useful if available. easier to divide each section into short 10
However, it is not mandatorv to have this data metres block for accurate and efficient data col-
to accomplish the pavement evaluation task. lection. Alternative lengths of sections can be
used. A straight edge and a wedge are used to

measure the rut depth within the block expected.

(late 3.1). The maximum rut depth in the block
is measured. The location of the maximum rut Surface drainage is judged by the ability of the
depth is estimated visually. The condition of pavement surface to drain water rapidly, not
shoulders and side drainage facilities are initial- allowing water to pond either on the bitumi-
ly assessed by visual judgement. A full assess- nous surfacing or on the road shoulder.
ment of the drainage condition can be made Observation is best carried out after or during
separately if necessary. This will be described rainfall when the road surfacing is still wet. The
in more detail in para. 3.2.2. results of these observations should provide an
indication whether it is necessary to improve
The personnel needed to carry out the surface the cross section profile of the pavement and
condition survey vary depending on the traffic the road shoulder. This is critical if the probable
intensity of the site. Plate 3.2 shows the com- maintenance measures would only need minor
mon personnel layout on a low volume road treatment such as sealing or cut and patch.
with fast traffic. Four persons are required to
collect the data and two persons are needed to The structural drainage condition is more diffi-
control the traffic flow. Safety requirements cult to assess. Past construction records will be
vary from site to site. Safety jackets must be helpful if available. This assessment is more
worn. Police assistance is recommended at critical in hilly areas where the pavement is
locations with very heavy traffic. constructed on cut slopes. The engineers need
to judge with reasonable confidence by obser-
Surface condition surveys must be carried out vation whether a particular area requires sub-
during the day time. It should not be carried out soil drainage, side drains or interceptor drains
at night unless proper lighting is provided. or whether existing drains are sufficient
and functioning properly to safeguard the pave-
3.2.2 Drainage assessment ment. Failure as a result of drainage deficiency
would have been very obvious by the time the
The condition of surface and side drainage of pavement undergoes investigation. Comparison
the pavement will contribute significantly to its to similar pavement construction on adjacent
performance. A classification of its condition areas that have good drainage provision can
will indicate whether this is the primary or con- assist on the judgement of the drainage condi-
tributory cause of damage to the pavement tion.
structure. Some existing road pavements have
been upgraded from previous construction that 3.2.3 Preliminary analysis, sectioning
may not have emphasised on drainage provi-
sion. Sometimes the drainage has disappeared The existing pavement construction and the
through sequence of widening work. It is underlying condition of the pavement structure
important to remedy drainage problems before govern the initial selection of homogeneous
any pavement rehabilitation work is imple- sections within a road length having a uniform
mented. Water is the most important environ- traffic loading. Visual surface condition data
mental factor that influences pavement per- and deflection results can be used to refine the
formance. Prediction of moisture condition sections. Statistical analysis can be used to
and the resulting variation in pavement define representative characteristics and homo-
response is still a major unsolved problem that geneity of key parameters within the sections.
has not deen defined precisely in any pavement
design method.
Adequate provision of drainage facilities will
minimise this area of uncertainty. Keeping
water away from pavement materials is still the
best solution especially where heavy rainfall is


Crack Type Crack Width Crack Extent

0 - No Cack - -
1 - Single crack < 1 mm <1m
2 - Many cracks 1 - 3 mm 1-5m

3 - Interconnected cracks > 3 mm >5m
4 - Crocodile cracks > 3 mm and spalling -
5 - Crocodile cracks and
- -
spalling
Table 3.2 Classification of cracks
Plate 3.1. Rut Depth Measurement
Plate 3.2. Surface Condition Survey Confidence level of 85%,

or more is recom may effect the pavement performance.

mended for statistical representation. Adjacent Drainage and ground water condition influence
sections must not contain significantly similar the performance and stability of cuttings.
attributes. Significant tests should be carried Drainage deficiency could provide further evi-
out to resolve this problem. dence to justify division into sections. Distinct
differences in failure at different formation
The distribution and population mean of the types indicates the suitability of sectioning by
deflection, rutting, cracking and other quanti- formation types.
fied failures highly influence the proposed
method of treatment. The primary mode of fail- 3.3 DETAILED ASSESSMENT
ure often dictates preliminary sectioning.
3.3.1 General
Sectioning by evidence of cracking
The next stage in the evaluation process is the
Cracking suggests that predominant failure detail assessment of the road pavement. The
mode is either by traditional fatigue or age assessment can be either the structural condi-
hardening. If the road has been overlaid the tion or the surface characteristics of the road
cracking can often be reflective cracking from pavement. In most project level assessments
an overlaid surfacing. Pavement strength that is that lead to major rehabilitation, the structural
mostly defined by the layer thicknesses can condition assessment is vital. The surface func-
influence the degree of cracking and its distri- tional requirement may not be critical since
bution. Information on pavement layer thick- major reconstruction requires the existing sur-
ness will help in the selection of the sections. face to be removed.
This method of sectioning is not suitable for a
road pavement that has been inadequately The strength of the existing pavement needs to
maintained and has extensively failed. be measured. The results from those tests will
assist in identifying the mode of failure.
Sectioning by rutting severity
The current interest world-wide is to use Non
Severity of rutting can sometimes be used to Destructive Testing (NDT) devices. NDT is a
assist preliminary sectioning. Areas with uni- preferred approach that is fast and reduces or
form problems of material stability can be iden eliminates laborious and expensive destructive
testing (1).
tified. Rutting normally indicates evidence of
asphalt instability or weak underlying layers. Destructive testing can give a more accurate
Rutting alone is not the predominant failure indication of the condition and performance of
manifestation where weak underlying layer pavement materials at a specific location.
exists. Cracking and rutting normally appears However, it is likely that high variability of
in this area. Sectioning by rutting alone will pavement layer thicknesses and material condi-
suggest the predominant role of asphalt insta- tions over a long stretch of road exists. This is a
bility. common situation along most roads in
Malaysia. It is therefore more important to con-
Sectioning by formation type centrate the evaluation effort in achieving accu-
rate true mean characteristics of the materials
The contribution of the strength of the subgrade from adequate sampling over the stretch con-
to road failure can result in variations in either cerned. Putting emphasis on achieving an accu-
cracking or rutting or both. Distinct formation rate single sample characteristics could distort
types exist in hilly areas and are common in the overall scenario.
this country. Fill areas are prone to construction
deficiency where quality of imported subgrade NDT surveys for the structural assessment

should be conducted at the time of the year must be emphasised here that the accuracy of
when the pavement is at its weakest due to sea- the results will depend on the experience of the
sonal environmental condition. Relationships user in handling all evaluation information
between environmental factors and deflections described earlier including the NDT results. No
need to be established to know when the pave- in-house study has compared the results pro-
ment will be at its weakest. For a start an duced by each device and its approach.
assumption can be made that the pavement is at Preference in the choice of equipment will
its weakest after the monsoon season. Diurnal depend on speed of test, safety, cost of equip-
temperature variation must be considered as ment, maintenance, reliability and case of use.
well. Deflection reading is best taken close to Another factor that could be important is the
the standardised temperature of 40°C to reduce authority's requirements and emphasis for spe-
temperature correction error. Proper tempera- cific aspects of testing. Safety of the public
ture correction relationships for different types during any testing on the road is of paramount
of surfacing should also be established. importance. Test vehicle sometimes may be
Temperature susceptibility of bituminous mixes disallowed from stopping on the road. A mov-
varies with mix types and conditions. Different ing test equipment (such as Deflectograph)
temperature corrections are required for differ- could be preferred for such case. However, this
ent mixes. Temperature correction becomes type of equipment can be very, expensive and
more significant as the pavement gets hotter not easily maintained.
during the day whereby the deflection response
becomes more sensitive as the surfacing gets Comprehensive understanding of the elements
softer. It is not significant if the surface has involved in the detailed pavement assessment
severely cracked. is critical. Over-emphasizing certain aspects of
the elements can lead to uneconomical deci-
NDT equipment is available in many forms. sions. It inav be necessary to carry out cost-
Broadlv, they can be divided into two major benefit analyses when choosing the most suit-
groups : able NDT equipment for the pavement evalua-
tion.
i) Deflection-based equipment
ii) Non-deflection-based equipment 3.3.2 Choice of NDT devices
There are three mechanised deflection-based Benkelman heam.

systems most commonly used in Malaysia.
Non-deflection based systems are equipment This is the original NDT deflection device and
using radar sensors, nuclear devices, ultrasonic was developed in the United States. The princi-
devices, laser sensors and penetrometers such ple used by this device is to iueasure the maxi-
as die Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. mum relative pavement surface deflection
under a moving wheel load. Direct measure-
Currently JKR uses four types of NDT equip- ments using an aluninium beam and dial gauge
ment to evaluate structural condition of pave- are made (Figure 3.2).
ment. The sophisticated machines are the
Falling Weight Deflectomcter (FWD) and the This equipment is included in this manual
Road Rater. The simpler devices are the because it is accepted world-wide and had been
Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) and the use extensively over 30 Nears. JKR had used
Benkelman Beam. Description of this equip- this equipment for the last 1 years. Because of
ment and its usage is covered in para. 3.3.2 its simplicity. the confidence in its results is
below. higher than others. The portability of the equip-
ment is also an added advantage. The latest
The background to the NDT approach of stnic- version can be modified such that it measures
tural assessment was explained in Chapter 2. It the complete dellectionn bowl.

There are two ways io measuring the ntaxim- asphalt layer is required. Therefore in principle,
turt dellection using the Benkelman Beam. the test could be considered as destructive.
namely the 'rebound' and the 'transient' method. However, it can be accepted as an NDT since
The transient method is recommended. the damage caused by coring is minimal.
Maximum deflection is measured on the near-
side wheeltrack. Temperature, rut depth meas- The DCP can be used to establish :
urement and visual inspection is also carried
out simultaneously. The deflection is then cor- i) the strength of the granular pavement
rected to a standard temperature of 40°C. layers
ii) pavement layer thickness
Deflection tests should be carried out at regular
intervals. 20 to 50 metre intervals can be cho- The DCP is a penetrometer, suitable for road
sen. The deflection values at those intervals can pavements with unbound granular bases. A
then be plotted along the test chainages to steel rod with a 60° cone is driven through the
check the deflection profile. Simple stastistical unbound pavement layers by using a steel ham-
calculations can be used to find a representative mer applied at constant force (Figure 3.3).
deflection over a selected section. This deflec-
tion value is then compared to a prerecorded The rate of penetration is inversely proportional
deflection history of similar pavements in simi- to the strength of the material. The relationship
lar environments. The residual life of the pave- between the rate of penetration and CBR
ment can then be predicted and the required enables the strength of granular pavement to be
surfacing overlay thickness can also be deter- determined.
mined.
A complete set of DCP costs between
The use of Benkelman Beam is recommended RM1,00000 to RM3,000-00. Maintenance cost
in places where expensive equipment cannot be is low. Only the cone needs frequent replace-
justified such as small rehabilitation projects. ment. A coring machine and a light truck are
needed if testing is done on existing asphalt
Where traffic is light the deflection beam can pavement. The cost of a fully operational
also be used to assess in-situ pavement equipment costs ranges between RM50,000-00
strength. However, it may not be suitable for to RM70,000-00.
testing on a busy road. Some fatal accidents
involving the beam operators have occurred In a typical 8 hours day work on asphalt pave-
when using the Benkelman Beam on such ment more then 10 points can be carried out.
roads in Malaysia. This is the main reason for Cost of testing per point is estimated between
JKR preference for other deflection devices. RM50-00 to RM150-00.
The cost of a Benkelman Beam ranges from Road Rater

RM10,000-00 to RM50,000-00. A loaded lorry
is needed which add to another RM50,000-00 The Road Rater is a vibratory NDT device
to RM10O,00O-00 for a complete and opera- (Plate 3.3). A steady state harmonic vibration is
tional equipment cost. Maintenance cost is low applied to the road pavement by a dynamic
depending mostly on the lorry efficiency. In force generator through a circular loading plate.
full operation, 1 skilled staff and 3 unskilled The frequency of the force function remains
staff are required. Minimum of 2 more constant with depth. A static pre-load is applied
unskilled staff is needed to control traffic. to the pavement to provide a reaction during
the vibratory phase. The transient deflections
Dynamic Cone penetrometer (DCP) are measured during the steady-state loading
phase.
Before a DCP test is carried out coring of the

Figure 3.2 Schematics Of A Typical Benkelman Beam
Figure 3.3 Schematics Of The Dynamic Cine Penetrometer
Four velocity transducers are placed at the cen- not require an external reference point for the
tre of the circular loading plate, and at offset measurement of deflection that is needed for
distances of 300, 600 and 900 millimetres. An FWD or Benkelman beam (Figure 3.4).
analogue computer is used to convert the out-
put of the velocity transducers into deflections The Road Rater produces a steady state har-
using a measuring technique normally referred monic loading and a static preload. It induces a
as inertial system. This measuring system does stiffened response of the pavement subgrade

Plate 3.3. The Road Rater
system and can possibly overestimate its true Falling Weight Deflectometer
strength. Allowance for this can be made with
engineering judgement and field experience in The FWD uses an impulse loading system. A
using the device. Previous direct use of the transient force is delivered to the pavement sur-
Road Rater has shown correct results where the faces. The transient pavement response is
deficient aspects of the pavement has been recorded electronically.
accurately identified and repaired.
The force is applied by a mass falling on a cir-
The Road Rater deflections and the FWD cular plate that is connected to a baseplate by
deflection are highly correlated. For this reason a set of rubber springs. There are three ways
and for the purpose of standardising procedures of changing the force amplitude :
it is recommended to convert the Road Rater
i). Changing the mass
deflection into an equivalent FWD deflection ii). Changing the drop height
which is then used for the evaluation analysis. iii). Changing the spring constant (a linear
The relationship to convert the Road Rater spring constant is assumed)
deflection values is :
The force amplitude is measured by a load cell
FWD = 0.0246 + 6.87 Road Rater placed at the baseplated sandwiched between
two steel plates.
At the time of writing, the Road Rater is not
widely manufactured and has become less pop- The transient deflection is measured by geo-
ular as compared to the FWD. Moreover it is phones. A geophone has an internal mass that
cheaper and faster than most FWDs and has moves relative to the casing. The mass velocity
the advantage of low operation cost. Similar to generates an output signal that is integrated to
the FWD it must stop when taking measure- obtain a deflection. One geophone is normally
ments. Therefore adequate traffic control must placed at the centre of the loading plate. The
be provided during testing for maximum safety. other offset geophones can be adjusted accord-
ing to one's own preferences or the manufactur

Plate 3.4. The Falling Weight Deflectometer
er specifications (Fir ure 3.5). porating suitable allowance factors.
The pavement deflection induced by the FWD Heavy Weight Deflectometer

is typical of that produced by a single heavy
vehicle which passed through a point on the The principle behind this model is similar to
pavement surface. However. this fact must not that of the FWD except that it has been specifi-
be confused with the final requirement of the cally designed to fully meet the needs of both
testing that the device must indicate accurate highway and airfield pavement deflection test-
condition of the existing material. It is not nec- ing, up to and including the effect of very
essary that accurate simulation of actual vehicle heavy aircraft loads. This model is called the
provide accurate indication of materials condi- Heavy Weight Deflectometer (HWD) (Plate
tion. 3.5).
The results from the FWD are used to estimate The HWD spans a loading range of 30 - 240
the pavement layer moduli. The estimated kN, thus covering the half-axle load imposed
modulus values may indicate the current by a moderately heavy truck upwards through
condition of the pavement materials. the single wheel load of a loaded BOEING 747
aircraft.
Bituminous overlay can be design from these
estimated parameters. Various approaches using HWD generalised data, combined with other
the FWD deflection readings have been devel- related parameters can be used in structural
oped to design bituminous overlays. None of analysis to determine such informations as the
these has been verified in the field or supported bearing capacity of a pavement.
with sufficient laboratory test for confident use
in the Malaysian environment. However, exten- Availability of equipment in Malaysia.
sive work by SHELL laboratories have present-
ed a more convincing approach in the analysis The equipment described above is available at
which was supported by extensive laboratory the Pavement Unit, Research Centre, Public
testings. Other researchers have carried out Works Institute Malaysia (IKRAM). The
field tests to verify the approach. The result Institute is currently undertaking pavement
shows that reasonable estimates of the fatigue research and evaluation prgjects. There are 2
life of asphalt can be obtained from the SHELL sets of Benkelman Beams, 3 units of Road
fatigue curves incor Raters, six sets of the DCP and 3 units of the

Plate 3.5. Heavy Weight Deflectometer
Figure 3.4. Schematics of the Road Rater
light weight Falling Weight Deflectometer. A range between RM30-00 to RM80-00 per test
heavy duty version of the FWD is also avail- point and is capable of covering an estimated
able for further research and the evaluation of 250 points daily in a normal 8 hours working
airport pavements. day. Comparatively the FWD is the more cost-
ly to operate and maintain. However, it is gain-
A Benkelman Beam test costs ranges between ing popularity world-wide with the growing
RMIO-00 to RM40-00 per test point. Road interest in using the mechanistic engineering
Rater testing costs between RM30-00 to approach of pavement analysis.
RM5000 per point for an estimated 300 points
per day work. The FWD testing costs normally

FWD, Road Rater or Benkelman Beam maximum deflection readings.
3.3.3 Choices of NDT analysis technique Deflection-life relationship can be developed

from field experiments and historical measure-
An interim evaluation method using the Falling ments. The observations and measurements of
Weight Deflectometer or Road Rater and the all failure manifestations take into account all
DCP is given below. The mechanistic or empir- the failure modes by default. Terminal condi-
ical approaches will bo improved by further tions can be chosen that balance both users' and
research. It is anticipated that changes to this engineers' requirement. It can also follow
methodology will be necessary in due course exactly the basic concept of overlaying; that it
when comprehensive field test results are avail- is only applicable for non fractured or seriously
able. deformed road conditions.
Empirical structural assessment using the Long term monitoring of pavement overlays in
JKR roads has successfully resulted in the
Standard deflection refers to FWD central development of a deflection based performance
deflection at the verge-side (near-side) wheel- prediction. Several design curves have been
path under 700 kPa pressure on a 150 mm developed by IKRAM. The curves depict real
radius plate at 40°C pavement temperature. field situation of current material and construc
tion standard of asphaltic concrete overlays
The temperature is taken at 40 mm depth throughout the country. Terminal condition is
below the riding surface. Deflections obtained defined as crack type 2. Pavement with crack-
from Benkelman Beam and the Road Rater ing more serious than this is deemed unsuitable
requires conversion of their maximum deflec- for resurfacing. These areas can easily be iden-
tion to standard deflection. tified from the surface condition survey.
Standard deflection had been used as a basis of The reduction in deflection before and after
pavement performance prediction. Pavements overlay indicate the improvement of strength if
with similar deflection levels and application of asphaltic concrete or similar overlay is used.
repetitive axle loading will reach terminal con- The required strengtening overlay for the
dition at the same time. High deflections indi expected design traffic can be derive from the
cate weak pavements whilst low deflections relationship as shown in Figure 3.6.
indicate strong pavements. The steps to be adopted for this approach are :

Step 1. Deflection survey structural adequacy of the pavement respective

to terminal failure conditions. The pavement is
Deflection measurement is first carried out in suitable for application of bituminous overlay if
the field using the FWD, Benkelman Beam or it nearly reaches its end of life. Other methods
the Road Rater. The reading must be reduced to of treatment should be selected if the pavement
the standard deflection values. The frequency has significantly past its life (Chapter 5 .
and interval of tests may depend on the prelim-
inary sections. Deflection measurements should Summary.
not be restricted to specific testing intervals.
Simple checks on the variability of the deflec- The simple approach of this method had made
tions should be made by comparing groups of it practical and simple for use by engineers.
ten consecutive values. The maximum and Historical observations ascertain all failure
minimum values in the group should not differ modes are included for better and more realistic
from the mean by one-third of the mean. This prediction of performance. The accuracy of the
procedure may reveal all possible weak and results largely dependent on the accuracy of the
highly variable areas. More tests may be need- historical data, the deflection measurements
ed at highly variable areas. and the estimates of traffic loading.
Step 2. Sectioning Examples
The road can be divided into representative The road between Muar to Tangkak with a con-
sections with respect to the deflection levels nection to the North South Expressway is to be
and checked with the preliminary sections. The upgraded. The last rehabilitation exercise was
standard deflection data is plotted against the carried out five years ago. Surface condition
chainage. Confidence level at 85% is normally survey was carried out during an initial visit to
used to select representative mean deflection the site. The results of cracking and rutting sur-
values within a selected section. Mean deflec- vey was plotted as shown in Figures 3.7.
tions from adjacent sections must not be signif-
icantly similar at 95% confidence level or else Preliminary sections were selected from the
they have to be merge to make up a longer sec- above results. The survey was done at the right
tion. time depicted by the level of rutting and crack-
ing. Cracking is more prominant than rutting. It
Step 3. Traffic estimates is expected that an application of a suitable
thickness of bituminous overlay is a reasonable
Past traffic information provides estimates of solution provided pre-treatment is carried out in
the number of axle loadings that have traversed areas which have localised failure.
the pavement since the last major rehabilitation
exercise. This requires a review of past traffic Traffic is similar throughout the length of the
data collected by the Highway Planning Unit road since there are no major intersections in
(HPU), Ministry of Works. Traffic survey between. Traffic loading estimations have been
records dates to more than 10 years back and is explained in Chapter 4. Traffic would not influ-
sufficient to estimate accurate past traffic load- ence the earlier selected sections.
ing. Estimates of the load equivalency factor
can be made using procedures described in Deflection survey was carried out at 50 and
Chapter 4. 100 metres intervals depending on the condi-
tion of the pavements.
Step 4. Estimate residual pavement life
Inspection and statistical analysis of the deflec-
Estimate the pavement residual life from the tion data normally result in a revision of the
deflection life curve. The residual lives define preliminary sections. The representative deflec-

tion is estimated over a section by statistical the interpretation with respect to the other
calculation. The required overlay thickness can shortcomings of the mechanistic model
be design for each section from this deflection desribed earlier. An interim condition criterion
value. is given in Table 3.3.
Mechanistic structural assessment using the The stresses and strains in the pavement layers
Falling Weight Deflectometer or the Road can also be calculated. The tensile stress below
Rater the surfacing and the compressive stress on the
subgrade are the two critical stresses normally
The deflection readings at the various offsets consider. The calculated stresses in the analysis
when plotted, produced a bowl shape diagram are compared to their respective allowable
shown in Figures 3.8, normally termed as the stresses pre-determined in the laboratory to
deflection bowl. This response from the load- estimate their residual life. The material with
ing system is the basis of a theoretical approach the lowest residual life is normally assumed to
that leads to the estimation of pavement layer represent the residual life of the pavement. This
moduli and residual life described earlier in calculation also requires traffic loading
information that provides an estimate of the
Chapter 2. number of repeated axle loading.
The materials characteristics, such as the mod- In summary, the steps involved in determining
uli of each layer, Poisson ratios, layer thick- the moduli are as follows :
nesses are first estimated. A deflection bowl is
predicted using the multi-layer elastic theory. i) Input parameters are measured deflec
The predicted deflection bowl is compared to tions, layer thicknesses and loading
the actual deflection bowl measured by the characteristics and geophone arrange
FWD. When they are equal or within a prede- ments
termined identical range, the layer moduli satis- ii) Estimate the moduli of surfacing (El),
fying this condition is taken as the estimated base (E2) and sub-base (E3) and the
moduli of the layer. These modulus values can sub-grade.
be used to estimate the condition of the materi- iii) Transform the layers to equivalent
als in the pavement. The ratio of moduli of dif- homogeneous structures using the
ferent layers in the pavement (modular ratio) Method of Equivalent Thickness (MET)
may also be used to interpret its condition. The iv) Calculate a set of deflections.
moduli values can be translated to CBR using a v) Compare computed and measured
relationship given by : deflections.
vi) If the differences in deflections are less
CBR = E/10 ...... (after SHELL than + 5 %, then the moduli values can
International) be accepted, otherwise repeat iteration
Where, CBR = California Bearing Ratio from step 4 onwards.
E = Modulus of material
Many computer programs are available in deal-
The modulus of asphalt surfacing may vary ing with the above computation. Currently
from as low as 500 MN/mm- to more than there are more than 10 available packages.
10,000 MN/mm-. For the Federal Route These programs need proper evaluation and
Network it may be assumed that asphalt modu- verification for correct use and interpretation. It
lus greater than 3500 MN/mm- is sound. Easier is important to bear in mind that the pro-
and clearer interpretation can be made if there grammes demand full understanding of its
are available relationship between modulus of input and output procedure. Most importantly,
asphalt against traffic damage. Research work its approach must be correct for local environ
by IKRAM is currently studying this aspect of

Figure 3.6. Reduction in deflection after overlay
Figure 3.7. Distribution of cracking and rutting
ment and its limitations are clearly outlined. loading and actual field conditions are covered.
At IKRAM, specific focus is given on the
JKR is currently using the PHOENIX program development of a cornputer package called
that was purchased with the FWD and is fully SERF (System for Evaluation and
documented. This program was design com- Rehabilitation of Flexible Pavements) using
plete with moduli estimation, residual life pre- local performance models. These models are
diction and overlay design. The output modulus derived from research at IKRAM and are veri-
values was found to be reasonable and practical fied against established computer packages.
for pavements in Malaysia. Further develop- This package has two main modules on evalua-
ment and verification of the program are in tion and rehabilitation. The evaluation module
progress. is currently in use while the rehabilitation mod-
ule is being designed to incorporate the expert
Areas related to local temperature, moisture, system.

Figure 3.8. Deflection bowl and material characterisation
Estomated Structural
Pavement Layer Strength Indication Rating
Coeffecient
CBR < 5% (50MN/m2) Poor 0.10
Subgrade 5 - 10 % Satisfactory 0.20
> 10 % (100 MN/m2) Sound 0.23
Modular ratio (E3/Esg)
< 1.5 Poor 0.23
Sub-base
1.5 - 2.0 Satisfactory 0.30
> 2.0 Sound 0.32
Modular ratio (E2/Esg)
< 1.5 Poor 0.25
Gramular Base
1.5 - 2.0 Satisfactory 0.30
> 2.0 Sound 0.32
Modular value (MN/m2)
< 1500 Very poor 0.60
Bituminous 1500 - 2500 0.70
Poor
Surfacing 2500 - 3500 0.85
Satisfactory
> 3500 Sound 0.95
Table 3.3. Material condition interpretation

The PHOENIX program produces estimated simulate field behaviour. This is a subject of
modulus values of each pavement layer and further research at IKRAM on the application
suggests an overlay thickness. A reasonable and of the multi-layer model.
practical overlay thickness can be obtained by
this method. However, it is still not certain There are several precautionary measures to be
whether the overlays can achieve the design taken when using the multi-layer elastic theory
life when age hardening effect govern the per- to estimate pavement residual life. This theory
formance. There are lack of fatigue studies of can be used to estimate the dynamic behaviour
Malaysian pavement materials that closely of relatively stiff pavement. However, devia-
tions occur under high temperature conditions

where it is difficult to establish an effective indicating its strength. Detailed methods of

modulus for biturninous materials and for operating the DCP are given in a Guideline
pavements that derive a large part of their being prepared by IKRAM. The penetration
structural stiffness from granular materials (2). resistance is measured in millimetres per blow
Non-linear behaviour of pavement material is (DCP number). The DCP number is often cor-
an added problem (3). The limitation of using related to other established strength parameters
multi-layer theory must be rnade clear and the commonly used in pavement engineering. Such
engineer must not rely exclusively on results parameters are the CBR values, structural num-
from the analysis alone. Reasonable results are ber and unconfined compressive strength. It is
achievable if four major areas listed below are necessary to calibrate the parameters to the
covered and supported with adequate laborato- DCP number for local condition. DCP Number
ry or field testings : relationship with in-situ CBR had been estab-
lished for use in Malaysia. The following rela-
i) Laboratory fatigue testing on various tionship was developed for quick estimate of
type of materials the CBR at each layer :-
ii) Major evidence of failure indicated by
traditional fatigue failure CBR = 269/DCP
iii) Temperature effect on modulus values
can be adjusted according to local con This estimate is limited for subgrade strength
ditions between 5 to 100 % CBR (6, 7, 8). Research in
iv) Field verification of fatigue perform developing specific a DCP evaluation method-
ance. ology for local use is still in progress. In this
guide, the approach using the structural number
The first three areas are covered in the SHELL to evaluate structural strength is considered.
method. Accelerated field fatigue testing has The procedures outlined below make use of the
been carried out elsewhere. The results suggest current Arahan Teknik (Jalan) on pavement
a factor of 10 or 20 is used when using the design which uses a similar technique.
SHELL fatigue curves for estimating residual
pavement life (4). However, there is evidence The steps are :
that age hardening may dominate actual field
behaviour in hot climate (5). If these modes of Step l.
failure are dominant the isotropicity and homo- The road stretch is first divided into uniform
geneity of bituminous materials will slowly sections determined by the visual survey results
cease to exist thus distorting the multi-layer from the initial assessment. The test locations
model. Cracked pavements also alter the above and intervals should be representative of the
conditions. Application of the multi-layer theo- sections.
ry to estimate residual life under this condition
may deviate frorn the original assumptions and Step 2.
must be treated with caution. These problems DCP tests are carried out on the near-side
are now under study at IKRAM. At present, the wheel track. The frequency of tests depends on
PHOENIX program is considered applicable the length of sections and the uniformity of the
but it should be supported by adequate engi- pavement. A typical DCP test result and DCP
neering judgement. plot is shown in Figure 3.9 and 3.10.
Structural assessment using the DCP A summary plot of the results will show the
variability of the pavement thickness and esti-
The DCP is portable and lightweight and can mated strength. Similar simple variability
be operated easily. It is a penetration test equip- check procedure can be used as described earli-
ment that directly measures the ability of the er in para. 3.3.3.
material to resists penetration thus indirectly

Structural Laboratory test need to be carried out on the

Condition asphalt layer. A 100 mm size core is normally
Coefficient
1. Sound, stable, uncracked. extracted at the verge-side wheel-path. The
Little deformation in the 0.6 asphalt core can be tested to estimate its exist-
wheel path. ing structural coefficient. Resilient modulus
2. Crack type 1 and < 5mm test, if available, is recommended to estimate
rutting. 0.7 structural coefficients. The condition of the
3. Crack type 2 - 3, 5 -10 mm core sample can also be used to estimate the
0.5 layer coefficient. This coefficient can be used
rutting
to calculate the structural number of the pave-
4. Crack type 4 or greater,
0.4 ment (Table 3.4 . If the above method is used,
> 10 mm rutting.
it is best to include an estimate or a measure of
Table 3.4. Estimated values of structural the void content in the mix. High void content
coefficients for various conditions of asphalt may reduce the
Step 4.
Estimated of Estimate the existing layer thicknesses and the
CBR structural respective CBR values. The procedures given
coefficients
in the IKRAM DCP guideline, includes meth-
Sub-base ods of determining the layer thicknesses and
> 30 % 0.3 CBR values. A uniform section consists of sig-
20 - 30 % 0.2 nificantly similar layer thicknesses. If the layer
< 20 % 0.1 thicknesses are significantly different, the sec-
Road-base tioning may be adjusted. Pavement layer thick-
> 100 % 0.32 nesses are normally critical in selecting the
80 - 100 % 0.30 remedial measures.
< 80 % 0.25
Table 3.5. Estimates of strictural coefficients,

based on DPC in-situ CBR values.
ROUTE NUMBER : 1 DATE : 1/1/1993

SECTION NUMBER : 238 METREAGE : 50
DIRECTION : UP CORE THICKNESS : 120 mm
No.
No (sum) Pen.
Pen No.
No (sum) Pen.
Pen No.
No (sum) Pen.
Pen
Blows Blow ( mm ) Blows Blow ( mm ) Blows Blow ( mm )
0 0 0 10 90 180 10 180 420
10 10 20 10 100 190 5 185 443
10 20 50 10 110 200 2 187 486
10 30 90 20 130 220 2 189 525
10 40 90 10 140 250 1 190 590
10 50 105 5 145 280 1 191 643
10 60 120 5 150 320 1 192 695
10 70 140 10 160 350 1 193 748
10 80 160 10 170 380 1 194 800
Step 3. Figure 3.9. DPC test results

Figure 3.10. Typical plot of the DPC results

Step 5. pavement will experi-
Estimate the base and sub-base structural coef- ence within the design period. The CBR values
ficient based on the in-situ CBR values from from the DCP tests can be used as a basis of
the DCP test. Their in-situ CBR obtained is selection.
indicative of the structural coefficient of the
base and sub-base layers. Available estimates Step 9.
are based on overseas research. Verification Estimate the required structural number and
of the values suiting localmaterial is in overlay thickness using the design chart in
progress. The estimate can be made using Arahan Teknik (Jalan) on pavement design.
Table 3.5. The required structural number should be high-
er than the existing pavement structural num-
Step 6. ber. The difference is converted to asphalt layer
Calculate the existing pavement structural thickness taking" structural coefficient of
number. The structural number of the existing asphalt as 1.0.
pavement can be found by using structural
number equation as follows : The accuracy of this approach relies very much
SN = h I x C I + h2 x C2 + h3 x C3 Where hl, on the accuracy of the structural number con-
h2 and 10 are the thicknesses of the asphalt, cept and estimation of the structural
base and sub-base respectively. Cl, C2, coefficient of each material. Field testing of the
and C3 are their respective structural layer material has an advantage of determining actu-
coefficient. al condition of each layer. A low CBR values
indicates a weak layer. This evidence provide
Step 7. valuable clues in determining the deficiency
and failure causes of the pavement.
Calculate the desired design traffic level. The
design traffic loadings for the required design 3.3.4 Test interval, variability and accuracy
period should follow the examples given in level for structural assessment
Chapter 4.
The frequency and accuracy level needed for
Step 8. this assessment is primarily based on the results
Estimate the design subgrade CBR that is from the initial assessment. Poorly deteriorated
expected to represent the worst condition the pavements may require closer intervals of data
collection compared to a sparsely deteriorated

pavement. The final selection of sampling fre- 3.3.5 Surface evaluation

quency depends also on the uniformity of fail-
ure conditions. Less samples need be taken General
from a more uniformly failed pavement.
Sampling interval of 10 to 100 metres are nor- Pavements without structural deficiency or do
mally selected. Each preliminary section not need crack sealing require only surface
requires a uniform interval of testing. A varia- evaluation. Slipperiness of the surface is the
tion in sampling interval allows more data col- guiding criteria for road surface evaluation. The
lection at uncertain areas with dominant failure road surface can be assessed by testing two
manifestations. Simple variability checks attributes of the surfacing that relates to slipper-
described earlier allows variation of test fre- iness :
quency.
i) The wet skidding resistance
The engineers need to employ suitable statisti- ii) The surface texture
cal technique to analyse the data and make use-
ful interpretation of the information. The select- The micro-textures of the surfacing contribute
ed testing interval will determine the sample largely for skidding resistance at low speed.
sizes that should be sufficient to produce at Both the micro and macro texture are relevant
unbiased estimate of the population mean of for high speed skid resistance, but the role of
parameters under study. Extravagant tests fre- rnacro texture is critical under wet conditions.
quencies could result in wasted expensive Figure 3.11 shows the micro and macro-tex-
deflection or other NDT testings. Useful basic ture.
statistical calculation such as mean, standard
deviation, variance and range improve interpre- To date, the skid resistance of a road surface
tation of each parameter along the road under can be assessed by using the Pendulum Skid
study. Resistance Tester (PSRT) developed by TRRL
(8) (Plate 3.6 . The tester yields Skid resistance
The accuracy of the structural assessment values (SRV) standardised at 35°C for local in-
depends on the engineers experience in han- service pavement condition. This value simu-
dling and interpreting available data. Each lates the wet tyre resistance of a vehicle travel-
length of road under study may have unique ling at 50 kph. The other device that is avail-
problems. The variable standards of previous able to meet this need is the Griptester (Plate
construction method could pose further diffi- 3.7 Studies in U.K. have shown that the
culties. The choice of assessment approach Griptester could produce accurate results if
must be made with due regards to these prob- used correctly. However, it has limitations in
lems. accuracy of testing at difficult road geometries
(9).
Surface texture
It is important for the engineer to know that

skid resistance is critical not only for low speed
driving but also for high speed driving. Surface
texture of the surfacing plays a more important
role for high speed driving under wet condi-
tions. Adequate surface texture is needed to
provide channels for the bulk water trapped
between the road surface and tyre to drain
Figure 3.11 Micro and macro-texture quickly to reinstate contact between the tyre
and road surface. If this is not achieved a phe

Plate 3.6 Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester
nomenon called aquaplaning is highly likely to slipperiness of both highways and airport run-
occur and will cause skidding. There is at pres- ways (10).
ent no mandatory minimum surface texture
requirement for new or in-service road surfac- 3.3.6 Other key factors to consider during
ings in Malaysia. A review of the subject is pavement evaluation
being undertaken by IKRAM whereby an
interim specification will be prepared. Moisture variation; drainage and shoulder,
rainfall intensity, seasonal variation
Surface texture can be measured conventional-
ly using the Sand Patch method (Plate 3.8 or Pavement cross section should be design to
the more advanced TRRL Minitexture meter eliminate water from entering the component
(Plate 2.9). The sand patch is cheaper, easily pavement layers at any time. In Malaysia, new
available and simple to use. road pavement would normally have these fea-
tures. However, for old pavement, this seldom
The texture measurements define indirectly the happens and consideration of moisture varia-
probability of the removal of bulk water tion in the pavement layers during the evalua-
trapped between the tyres for safe high speed tion period should be noted. Seasonal variation
driving under wet condition. There are circum- plays a major part in the estimation and predic-
stance where the water film thickness under the tion of performance. Investigation measure-
Malaysian condition can reach a level where ments have to be corrected for seasonal varia-
even the best surface texture will still be flood- tions.
ed with water. Heavy rainfall would normally
lead to this phenomenon. Direct skidding test Environmental effects; rainfall, tempera-
simulating this condition at high speed may be ture, humidity
required. The Friction Tester is an example of
such equipment that can measure skid resist- The main environmental elements perculiar to
ance under such conditions (Plate each country that can affect pavement perform-
ance are temperature, rainfall and humidity.
Figure 3.11 Micro and macro-texture Skid Bituminous material is known to be sensitive to
resistance temperature and other environmental factors.
3.10). IKRAM will be equiped with this equip- Most laboratory standards of testing for this
ment in the near future which can measure the material are at 25°C depicting moderate service

Plate 3.7 The Griptester
Plate 3.8 Sand Patch Test
Plate 3.9 TRRL Minitexture Meter

Plate 3.10 The Friction Tester
temperature conditions. This should have been bitumen hardening at the surface. Research is
35°C or 40°C that realistically depicts local still in progress to understand and quantify its
conditions. Research findings by TRRL have role. However, at this juncture the combined
shown that there is a significant increase in the effect of environment in relation to ageing is
rate of pavement deterioration during the sum- the best and most practical to consider.
mer period. However there is insufficient Hardening by oxidation plays a more critical
recorded experience in field performance pre- role in the ageing process.
diction above 35°C, covering the Malaysian
range of pavement service temperature. With 3.3.7 Detailed Material Investigation
this difficulty in hand the use of the simplified
approach must be carefully reviewed with General
experience in the field.
Direct material assessment is only necessary if
The average yearly rainfall in Malaysia is 2000 the non-destructive approaches fail to provide
millimetres, higher than any other country sufficient information that confidently guides
known to have full research in pavement per- treatment selection. This scope of works falls
formance. Within the country itself there are under the category of detail material investiga-
differences in rainfall intensity. Hilly areas and tion that usually arise from premature pave-
the eastern region of the country are known ment failures or very serious failures.
to have high rainfall especially in the monsoon.
Due recognition of this must be made. The usual approach to this is to dig a test pit in
Accelerated deterioration of the surfacing in the pavement at selected locations determined
these areas can be expected with the presence from results of the initial assessment. The
of more water. The rate of change of deteriora- materials are sampled for laboratory testing.
tion is also expected to be faster especially Insitu tests that could indicate actual material
those related to cracking. condition on site can also be carried out. The
JKR Standard Specifications for pavement
Little is known of the effect of humidity on material govern the suitability criteria of exist-
pavement performance. However it is predicted ing material. Detailed requirements of material
that the effect of heavy rainfall and temperature standard should also follow this specification.
are more to performance rather than humidity.
Ultra Violet (UV) radiation is an additional fac- Surfacing
tor contributing to pavement deterioration. UV
radiation is thought to accelerate the rate of The strength and weakness of bituminous sur-

facing are its behaviour sensitivity with temper- spreading the traffic load. It must be strong and
ature. The bitumen used in the mix is the main sufficiently thick. Unbound crushed stone, dry-
controlling factor that determine the properties bound macadam and wet-bound macadam
of the mix. The primary functions of the bitu- have been the major types of granular road
men are : base materials used in Malaysia. The specifica-
tions and requirements for strength have been
i) Binding agent described fully in the standard specifications.
ii) Waterproofing The thickness of the road-base layer is the most
iii) Stable important information that must be known in
iv) Durability and oxidation resistance pavernent evaluation. It is mandatory if a
mechanistic analysis is used.
The condition of the existing mix may indicate
deficiency of some of the above requirements. Granite and limestone has been the major type
Bitumen penetration grade 80/100 is normally of aggregates used for road construction in
specified for use in JKR road pavements. Malaysia. There has been no experimental evi-
Laboratory tests can be carried out to investi- dence stating the better types for use as a road-
gate the condition of the bitumen in the exist- base. Compliance to the requirements laid
ing mix. The viscosity and the penetration down in the Standard Specifications is suffi-
value of the bitumen can provide sufficient cient to judge the suitability of the material.
information on the condition of existing During the evaluation, investigation of the den-
asphalt. sity and aggregate grading of the material may
be sufficient to check the quality of the road-
Apart from bitumen, the aggregates used in the base material used.
surfacing mix should be sufficiently strong to
withstand traffic loading and construction oper- In-situ density test can be carried out to meas-
ations. It should also have adequate polishing ure the field density of the road base layer.
resistance. Requirements of the Standard Adequate samples should be taken for laborato-
Specifications should be met. ry CBR test to check the material properties.
DCP tests provide a simpler and cheaper alter-
In summary, the key information related to the native to estimate the in-situ bearing capacity
surfacing that may be required during evalua- of the road-base.
tion are: -
Sub-hase
i) Type and composition of mix
ii) Thicknesses of each layer As a secondary load-spreading layer, thickness
iii) Properties and percentage of bitumen is important, apart from other requirements
iv) Temperature adjustment conditions given in the standard specifications. In-situ
v) Fatigue or deformation relationship with CBR Of the sub-base can provide an accurate
repeated loading indication of its existing strength. Laboratory
vi) Hardening characteristics of the mix tests could indicate its properties and suitability
vii) Aggregate grading, properties and pol - as a sub-base material. DCP tests can also be
ishing resistance used to estimate the bearing capacity of the sub
base layer.
The condition of the existing pavement and the
choice of evaluation techniques govern the Subgrade
necessity of the above information.
The subgrade material that mainly consists of
Road base compacted soil is best studied using conven-
tional soil testing procedures. In-situ tests such
The primary function of the road base is for as density determination, CBR and the DCP

test may not be sufficient to asses the quality of neering judgement is required before digging a
the soil. Laboratory compaction test, moisture trial pit which is normally not recommended.
content, soil classification and CBR provide a Localised reconstruction area could be identi-
clearer indication of the soil compliance to fied from experience and historical evidence.
requirements in the Standard Specification. Rutting and cracking intensities are best used
as a guiding criteria. This will be explained fur-
Samples for moisture determination can be ther in Chapter 5.
taken at various depths below the formation
level to check for the existence of any moisture 3.4 REFERENCES
gradient. Bulk samples can be taken for labora-
tory tests. The testing procedure and the quality 1. M.S HOFFMAN, M.R THOMPSON.
requirements are stated in the JKR Standard Mechanistic interpretation of nondestruc-
Specifications. tive pavement testing deflections.
In-situ measurements Transportation Engineering Series No. 32.
Illinois Cooperative Highway and
hi-situ density of the soil indicates the field Transportation. Illinois 1982.
condition of the compacted soil. The field den-
sity can be compared to the maximum density 2. N.W LISTER, The transient and long term
achieved in the laboratory. Poorly compacted performance of pavements in relation to
soil can be found by this method. Soil density temperature, Proceeding of the 3rd Int.
measurement by the sand replacement method Conference on the Structural Design of
is normally used. Asphalt Pavements, Vol. 1, London, 1972.
In-situ CBR is slow an expensive. The DCP 3. OVERSEAS UNIT. Deflection mesure-
can be used to measure the penetration resist- ments and road strengthening. Department
ance of the subgrade. The CBR values can be of Transport, Overseas Unit Information
estimated using established DCP in-situ/CBR Note. Crowthorne 1986. (Overseas Unit
relationship. TRRL)
Laboratory measurements 4. G.WJAMESON, K.G.SHARP, N.J.

VERTESY, R. YEO. The fatigue perform
Undisturbed samples can be taken to the labo- ance of asphalt and cement treated crushed
ratory for density tests or the CBR tests. rock under accelerated loading. Proceedin,,
Disturbed sample should undergo compaction 16th ARRB Conference, (Part 2). Australia
and the CBR test for better representation of 1992.
the soil condition. Determination of the
Atterberg's limit will further reveal the true 5. HASNUR I. The Deterioration of
properties of the existing soil. These properties Bituminous Binders. M. Phil Thesis,
will indicate the current condition of the soil. University of Birmingham. 1990.
Selection of appropriate remedial action should
consider the condition of the existing soils. Full 6. SABRI M., ZAIN A., SHAFII M. Quick
reconstruction normally requires justification to in-situ CBR for Road engineering from
proof that existing soil is unacceptable and Insitu-CBR/DCP relationship developed in
needs replacement. Malaysia. Proceeding 6th REAAA
Conference, Kuala Lumpur 1990.
Summary
7. FAUZI A, SHABRI S, DCP/CBR
Detailed material investigation is only neces- Relationship for soft soils in Malaysia.
sary when NDT has failed to provide answers Proceeding, 7th REAAA Conference,
to remedy the ailing pavement. Sufficient engi- Singapore 1992.

8. ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY. (gross weight) will not cause any significant
Instructions for using the portable skid damage to the road pavement. Heavier vehicles
resistance tester. Ministry of Transport, normally fitted with large axles will cause the
Road Research Laboratory, Road Note 27, damage. The weight of an individual axle is
London 1969 (H.M.S.O). called an axle load. A standard axle has been
defined as having an axle load of 8 160 kg
9. SABRI M. Skid Resistance and Surface (8.16 Tonne). The repetition of this standard
Texture of Wearing Courses. MSc. Thesis, axle is used as the quantitative measure of
University of Birmingham 1991 (unpub- damaging effect to the road pavement.
lished).
The extent of the final rehabilitation measures
10. SAAB Friction Tester, Workshop Manual. recommended depends on the expected usage
SAAB Car Division. S-61181 Nykoping. of the improvement. Accurate traffic assess-
1993. ment is needed to study and forecast the impact
resulting from the road improvement. The
BIBLIOGRAPHY changes in traffic movements will determine
the future life of the pavement. Effects of traf-
1. DAVID CRONEY, The Design and fic volume and loading to the pavement service
Performance of Road Pavements, life have been established since the AASHO
Department of Environment, Department road test. It was shown that the pavement life is
of Transport, Transport and Road Research dependent substantially on the amount of heavy
Laboratory. HMSO, London 1977. axle load passes. Prediction of the accumulated
standard axle load requires high degree of
2. YODER E.J., WITCZAK M.W. Principles accuracy. The number of axle loads depends on
of Pavement Design. 1975. the commercial vehicle activities and types of
goods transported along the road.
3. THE SIIEL1, BITUMEN HANDBOOK,
Shell Bitumen U.K.1990. 4.2 TRAFFIC CATEGORIES
CHAPTER 4 : It is highly likely that due to change in land use

and other factors, the traffic using the road will
TRAFFIC LOADING ASSESSMENT change once the pavement is upgraded.
Origindestination surveys coupled with axle
4.1 GENERAL load surveys are the best methods that can be
used to predict the traffic volume and type and
The assessment of pavement performance and also the axle load spectrum within the study
maintenance needs requires the use of traffic area. Although it is expensive and time con-
information. Pavement behaviour and perform- suming to perform this task, it is necessary to
ance are dependent on repeated axle loadings achieve an accurate prediction of future pave-
that can be derived from traffic and axle load ment service life and performance. It should be
information. It is most desirable to have both carried out if resources are available.
current and historical traffic data. This manual
covers structural and surface evaluation Apart from normal traffic using die road, there
aspects, therefore the main focus will be given will also be generated and diverted traffic.
to heavy vehicle traffic. Normal traffic can be counted by traffic survey.
Origin destination surveys can be used to esti-
The magnitude and number of individual wheel mate the amount of generated and diverted traf-
load passes both cause deterioration to the road fic.
pavement. Research elsewhere has found that
light vehicles weighing less than 1500 kg

4.2.1 Normal traffic road transportation activities. Heavy materials

or goods in transit have significantly increased
This category of traffic will pass along existing the damaging effect to the pavement. If the
road even if no improvement is carried out. development can be forecast or known earlier,
The existing traffic count by the Highway it is best to include some of this future effects
Planning Unit (HPU) consists primarily of this in the design. In certain cases, a specific direc-
category of traffic. tion of travel has a very large difference in
damaging effect compared to the other direc-
4.2.2 Generated traffic tion. Rehabilitation design must consider this
phenomenon especially if the probable damag-
Road improvement will increase the efficiency ing effect is very significant.
in transportation and would result in additional
traffic. This category of traffic is difficult to 4.3 TRAFFIC AND AXLE
forecast accurately. It will only be significant if LOAD SURVEYS
the reduction in transport cost is high. In many
cases, generated traffic on the existing Federal The Highway Planning Unit (HPU) carries out
road networks can be ignored. two traffic counts yearly at designated road
links throughout the whole country in the
4.2.3 Diverted traffic months of April and October. Results of the
counts can be obtained in the following year.
When the pavement condition has improved, However, axle loading and origin-destination
there will be traffic diverted from another route information are not included. For immediate
(or mode of transport) preferring to use the and effective traffic information for pavement
improved facility. This is- an important consid- evaluation, specific surveys need to be carried
eration in the design. Most traffic survey would out. These specific surveys may include origin-
not only measure normal traffic, it includes the destination surveys and axle weighing.
amount of possible deviated traffic. In this case, However, if generated or deviated traffic is pre-
it is necessary to carry out origindestination dicted to be small, the origin-destination survey
surveys that could provide data on the traffic can be ignored.
diversions likely to take place. This survey
should be carried out for projects with large 4.3.1 Specific survey methods
sums of money allocated for improvements.
Assumptions can be made that all vehicles will To reduce errors in estimating traffic and axle
divert to the improved facility if time or money loading, it is recommended that for specific
can be saved, otherwise they will remain using surveys, consecutive seven-day counts or
the same route or mode. In Malaysia, changing weighing during normal period be carried out.
modes of transport as a result of road improve- The 24-hour count is preferred since heavy
ment is negligible since the choice of other vehicles are more active after dusk. If this is
modes of transport is limited. It can be signifi- too difficult or costly, a 16-hour count or
cant if other main transportation modes, espe- weighing can be carried out coupled with at
cially railways, are improved. Rail services least a full 24-hour count or weighing so that
have the capacity to carry heavy loads and pos- adjustments can be made to gross up the 16-
sibly reduced pavement loadings. However, in hour values. More accurate results can be
view of the higher quality of service provided obtained if this procedure is repeated several
by road, only small allowance can be made. times during the analysis year. A representative
daily traffic volume or loading can be calculat-
4.2.4 Special traffic ed from this method of sampling.
In Malaysia, there has been cases where new For specific surveys, traffic counts can be car
economic development has introduced extra

Plate 4.1 Axle load weighing
16 HOUR TRAFFIC COMPOSITION BY

VEHICLE TYPE OCTOBER 1990
Percentage Vehicle Compositions

Section No. 16-IIr Peak Hr (Period) Cars & S. Vans & Medium Heavy Buses M'cycles Heavy
(Old) (New) Trailic Traffic Trucks Utilities Lorries Lorries Vehicles
DISTRICT BATU PAHAT
OS29 (JR105) 9630 845 (1700 - 1800) 18.3 13.3 15.0 6.2 3.1 14.1 24.3
S28R (JR107) 18121 1703 (1300 - 1400) 38.4 14.2 10.0 4.0 6.5 26.8 20.5
OS29 (JR105) 11510 1381 (0700 - 0800) 45.3 11.3 12.8 6.1 3.5 21.0 22.4
DISTRICT KELUANG
0042 (JR305) 12100 1024 (1800 - 1900) 42.6 10.4 16.8 14.8 3.5 12.0 35.1
F54R (JR306) 26695 2111 (1700 - 1800) 44.2 12.7 8.4 5.0 2.9 26.8 16.3
0043 (JR304) 1164 7878 (1700-1800) 43.5 8.5 19.7 17.2 4.0 7.1 40.9
DISTRICT MUAR
F42R (JR61 I) 6016 452 (1800 - 1900) 51.3 9.8 12.0 6.0 3.0 17.9 21.0
OF-41 (JR601) 10596 881 (1700 - 1800) 50.4 9.8 12.7 2.5 2.8 21.8 18.0
S26R (JR609) 5055 410 (1500 - 1600) 39.6 8.7 23.8 7.6 3.1 17.3 34.5
DISTRICT SEGAMAT
0038 (JR801) 6444 488 (1400 - 1500) 40.3 12.9 10.9 12.3 2.1 21.6 25.3
0052 (JR802) 5614 442 (1700 - 1800) 43.4 15.4 11.2 12.9 2.0 15.0 26.1
0039 (JR803) 6583 556 (1400 - 1500) 44.7 11.8 10.2 18.3 1.6 13.4 30.1
OS22 (JR804) 4444 416 (1900 - 2000) 42.3 12.5 9.2 4.7 1.5 29.8 15.4
Table 4.1 Typical HPU Traffic Sutiey results

ried out manually using hand-held traffic coun- equivalence single axle load factor for each
ters. The counting operation can be divided into axle weighed is calculated using the relation-
a few groups to count specific vehicle types in ship :
both directions of travel.
EF = (N/8.16)4.55
Portable axle weighing devices can be used to
weigh the axle loads of heavy vehicles Plate Where :
4.1 Weigh-in-motion technique is also available N = Axle load (in Tonnes)
and this could be a better choice since full sam- EF = Equivalent factor of the damaging
pling of heavy vehicles can be made. Both effect
types of equipment normally measure the 4.55 is the load equivalency exponent
wheel load of each axle. The axle load will be 8.16 is the standard axle load in Tonnes
twice the wheel load.
The axle equivalency exponent of 4.5 can be
4.4 FORECASTING FUTURE TRAFFIC used as an interim value. This value was rec-
ommended for use in Malaysia based on over-
4.4.1 Base data seas experience (2). It is sufficient to use this
value to assess the damaging effect.
The base data for forecasting future traffic can If axle load surveys are not possible, estimates
be taken from the specific traffic and axle load of the damaging effect can be chosen from past
survey results. If this is not available, traffic studies of similar survey. The estimates can
information from the HPU can be used (Table also be made using procedures given in Arahan
4.1) Teknik (Jalan) on pavement design.
4.4.2 Methods of Predicting growth and 4.4.4 Sensitivity and Accuracy

Compounding
The errors in traffic estimation for pavement
The year of survey is normally taken as the evaluation will come from areas described
base year. Refering to past historical traffic below. To reduce these errors some guidelines
data, the growth rate of normal traffic can be are provided: -
estimated. The baseline traffic can be calculat-
ed after making allowances for possible gener- i). Traffic counts
ated and diverted components. From the base-
line traffic, future traffic can be accumulated If the method of counting as described
over the design period using the standard com- in para 4.3.1 is used, then error in
pounding formula. obtaining representative daily traffic vol-
ume can be minimized especially if it is
CESA = YESA x {( 1 + r )" - 1 }/r repeated a few times. A specific survey
is better than relying on periodic count.
Where CESA = Cumulative equivalent stan
dard axles ii) Axle weighing and estimation
YESA = Equivalent standard axle of base year
r = Growth rate The accuracy in weighing will depend
n = Design life on the type of equipment used. Static
weighing is more accurate but slow and
4.4.3. Estimating Damaging Effect (Load only small samples can be obtained. The
equivalent factor) weigh-pad must be made level with the
surrounding test area otherwise a small
The axle load survey data is used to estimate tilt of the vehicle could introduce large
the damaging effect of heavy vehicles. The errors. Weigh-inmotion techniques could

be faster and produced more samples need to be made for these cases. Using
but it may not be accurate. Thus, it the results from the heavily loaded lane
requires skillful calibration. Any weigh only, can sometimes be adopted. Due
ing method can be used provided the consideration must be made if it is too
above considerations with respect to excessive and becomes uneconomical.
accuracy are carefully noted. Staged rehabilitation may be more
appropriate in such cases where the risk
iii). Conversion to damaging effect can be reduced.
The equivalency formula given in para 6. Seasonal variation

4.4.3 is subject to changes when more
local research results are available. This Traffic flow and transportation of goods in
is the best available estimate of damag- Malaysia in general have very small seasonal
ing effect being used by many countries. effect. The majority of the national agricultural
Each axle weight should be converted and industrial products are available throughout
individually using the relationship and the year. In most evaluation cases, error with
totalled for a specific class of vehicles. respect to this can be considered insignificant
The mean equivalent factor for each and ignored. However, in certain regions of the
vehicle class can then be determined by country seasonal variation due to the rice har-
dividing the total equivalent factor by vest may be significant.
the total number of vehicle in that class.
7. Abnormal cases
iv). Estimating growth
Malaysia being a multiracial nation has many
Estimating the growth rate of heavy festive seasons the dates of which change year-
vehicles can be the most difficult part ly. Care must be taken not to cam, out any
and could change the overall estimate stirvev at this time. othenvise, the result will
drastically. Some economic knowledge not be representative. Small allowances can be
of the country is thus helpful. Advice made to adjust these effects.
and discussions with economists are
invaluable. The growth rate of heavy There are cases when upgrading are needed for
vehicles is dependent on economic specific activities such as the construction of
activities and transportation of goods huge projects that requires transportation of
especially for semi-agricultural country heavy materials at using identified routes with-
like Malaysia. As a broad estimate an in specific or non-specific periods of time.
assumption can be made that the growth Information on the quantity of materials to be
rate is similar or twice the growth in transported and the type of vehicles to transport
Gross National Product (GNP). the materials will enable estimates of the
increase in damaging effect to be made. A typi-
v). Directional difference cal case is shown in Problem 2 of the following
examples.
On certain roads. traffic flow or damag-
ing effect due to heavy vehicles 4.5. EXAMPLES
travelling in one direction can be very
different to that of the opposite direction. Problem 1
Lorries using roads connecting logging
areas, quarries. docks, steel factories, In the year 1989, a road stretch from Muar
etc., are heavily loaded when they town to Tangkak leading to the North-South
leaves these areas but are mostly empty Expressway was to be upgraded. The
when coming in. Special allowances Expressway terminated at the Tangkak inter-

change and vehicles travelling southbound Heavy (sum)

would exit there. The next portion of the (sum)
Vehicle Equivalent Mean E.F.
Expressway, southbound, was projected to be Vehicle
Group Factor
completed in late 1992 where 50 per cent of
southbound heavy vehicles using the road was
A 7.38 225 3.28
expected to divert to that part of the
NorthSouth Expressway. The expected increase
in northbound heavy vehicle traffic was 20 % B 1000 350 2.86
due to increase activity towards the highway.
Estimate the damaging effect for rehabilitation
design for ten years for each direction taking C 270 125 2.16
the diversion into consideration and compare
the average loading if the diversion was
ignored. D 200 450 1.33
Solution 1: Table 4.2 Axle load survey results for

direction 1, Southbound.
A specific 24 hour classified axle load survey
was carried out where all the heavy vehicles Heavy (sum)
were weighed. The results obtained were as (sum)
Vehicle Equivalent Mean E.F.
shown in Table 4.2 and 4.3. Vehicle
Group Factor
Seven consecutive 24-hours count was carried A 124.32 112 1.11

out and the summary of heavy vehicles are
shown in Table 4.4. B 116.10 135 0.86
In 1989, the yearly damaging effect of the
southbound direction was 429,717 standard C 40 80 0.50
axles, 257 °" higher than the northbound traffic.
The above table shows that the vehicle loading D 26.25 75 0.35
is critical in producing the difference in damag-
ing effect. In this case commercial vehicles
travelling southbound were more heavily Table 4.3 Axle load survey results for
loaded. It is highly likely that these vehicles direction 2, Northbound.
contained raw products that are normally heav-
ier than processed products.
lowing traffic will be estimated :-
A similar trend of loading and damaging effect
is assumed in the 10 years' design period. The Southbound :
expected growth rate is 5 per cent throughout
the design period. To calculate the cumulative CESA = 429,717 x { (1 + .05)'° - 1}/0.05
loading for that period, the relationship in para. = 429,717 x 12.5778
4.4.2 can be used. However, the calculations = 5,404,934
shown below are for each year. to sho,,N the = 5.4 million standard axles (msa)
effect of diversion. This method of calculation
is also suitable for estimating past traffic when Northbound :
each yearly damaging effect will be known
more accurately. CESA = 120,337 x 12.5778
= 1,513,586
If the diversions were not considered the fol = 1.5 msa.

E HEAVY VEHICLES
GROUP A GROUP B GROUP C GROUP D

Directions South North South North South North South North
Day Bound bound Bound bound Bound bound Bound bound
1 125 112 212 202 95 76 45 41
2 186 156 255 215 72 82 56 51
3 172 190 189 172 88 98 62 64
4 144 124 156 144 86 66 52 59
5 131 123 178 128 67 67 55 57
6 122 132 119 111 66 56 49 42
7 91 77 120 122 30 43 12 5
AVERAGE
139 131 176 156 72 68 47 46
VEHICLES
STANDARD AXLE
PER COMMERCIAL 3.28 1.11 2.86 0.86 2.16 0.50 1.33 0.35
VEHICLE (SA/CV)
CUMULATIVE YEAR-
166410 53075 183726 48968 56765 12410 22816 5877
LY S. AXLE
Total yearly Southbond cumulative standard axles = 429.717
Total yearly Northbond cumulative standard axles = 120,337
Table 4.4. Traffic Count Results For direction 1, Southbond
COMMERCIAL VEHICLE
YEAR COMMENTS
Southbond Northbond
1989 429,717 120,337 Base year
1990 451,202 126,354
1991 473,762 132,671
1992 497,451 139,305 North-south Expressway (Completed)
1993 261,162 175,552
1994 274,220 184,300
1995 287,931 193,516
1996 302,328 203,191
1997 317,444 213,351
1998 333,316 224,018
1999 349,982 235,219 End of analysis period
TOTAL 3,548,798 1,827,477
Average cumulative yearly standard axles (CESA) = 2.69 msa
Table 4.5. Distribution Of Yearly Damaging Effect

Total Daily percentage Estimated

Damaging
Survey Date Commercial Commercial equivalent Factor
Effect
Vehicles Vehicles (Table 3.2)
April 442 23 % 3.0 1326
Table 4.6. Summary Of Traffic Counts Results Obtained From HPU
Average CESA = 3.45 msa activity, several assumptions were made, as

listed below :-
The average design accumulated loading is
nearly 30% higher if the diversion is ignored. i. The distribution of load in the trailer is uni
form and distributed within the trailer
Solution 2 : length with no overhang.
Without specific traffic or axle load survey ii. The distribution ratio of axle loading on
results the five wheel arrangement is
0.14:0.20:0.20:0.23:0.23 and remains
From the HPU traffic survey results in 1988, similar for lower or higher gross load.
the traffic results as shown in Table 4.8 were
obtained from a recent count in April. iii. Only trucks with minimum of five axles
will be used and trucks returning are
If similar count is available in October, the ennpty resulting in negligible damaging
average values should be used. The yearly effect.
damaging effect = 1326 x 365 = 483,990 stan-
dard axles. This will be the base year traffic. iv. The damaging criteria considered was
Accumulation procedure can be done similarly based on phenomenological theory of
as shown in the previous solution cumulative axle load damage only using
equation given in para. 4.4.3.
Problem 2: Abnormal traffic
Solution :
A road is to be upgraded to transport 900,000
tonnes of goods yearly, from one end to the The gross weight of each vehicle was found to
other. The estimated maximum gross weight be 45 tonnes with maximum axle loads of
per vehicle that will be used is 45 tonne. The more than 10 tonnes, the loading that may be
specification and dimension of the vehicle are used.
available. The vehicle type is a five axle trailer.
The distribution ratio of axle loading on the Amount of goods to be transported yearly is
five wheel arrangement is 900,000 tonnes.
0.14:0.20:0.20:0.23:0.23 on the five axles and
remains similar for lower or higher gross loads. Gross weight of each vehicle = 45 tonnes pay
This additional commercial activity will load = 37 tonnes Maximum axle load will be
increase the damaging effect to the existing 10.35 tonnes.
pavement. Estimate the increase in damaging
effect on the pavement. Therefore number of vehicle trips per year =
900,000/(37) = 24,324
The damaging effect will depend on the config-
uration of the vehicles and the load that they The vehicle type is a five axle trailer that will
will carry. For the purpose of estimating the have an estimated axle load distribution ratio of
damaging effect of this additional commercial 0.14:0.20:0.20:0.23:0.23 on the five axles. It is

assumed that the distribution of goods in the loads in developing countries using a
lorry is uniform and distributed over the full portable weighbridge. TRRL Road Note
length of the trailer, otherwise this figure may No 40. Her Majesty's Stationery Office,
change significantly. For gross weight of 45 London.
tonnes , the damaging effect that this lorry
would provide is 9.33 times standard axle 3. ZAIN ARIFFIN, YOJIRO MIYAOKA,
weight of 8.16 tons or the nunnber of equiva- Axle load survey at Jalan Vantooren, Port
lent standard axles per lorry is 9.33. The accu- Kelang, Selangor. Cawangan Jalan Ibu
mulate yearly standard axle is therefore : Pejabat JKR, Kuala Lumpur 1983.
24,324 x 9.33 = 226,943 CHAPTER 5 :

or 0.227 million standard axles (msa). METHODS OF REHABILITATION
For each year, the additional number of axle 5.1 SELECTION PROCEDURE
loading that will be experienced by the pave-
ment is 0.227 msa. This additional loading will In the previous chapters, the sources of pave-
increase the rate of deterioration to the pavement problems, their failure modes and per-
ment. Other factors controlling the rate of dam- formance forecasting have been described. In
age will depend on the current structural condi- this chapter, the results of the evaluation carried
tion of the pavement and distribution of the out on the pavement are used to establish the
goods in the trailer. The existing condition of most appropriate method of rehabilitation.
the pavement could be evaluated by proper
pavement evaluation if deemed necessary The selection procedure depends heavily on
(Chapter 3). engineering judgement but other factors such
as costs, construction feasibility, effects on the
Existing pavements which have high traffic gradeline and the road user should be consid-
loading inay not experience significant increase ered as well. The general process of selecting
in axle loading or the damaging effect resulting an appropriate treatment is as shown in Figure
from the values calculated above. The normal 5.1.
traffic using the route is already high, therefore
the percentage increase would be small. Stage l: Identifying Prohlein
However for an existing pavement with low
traffic loading and weaker pavement, an As a first step, the mode of failure of the exist-
increase in the axle loading with the above ing pavement needs to be identified. At this
magnitude will accelerate the rate of deteriora- point, constraints on the projects such as the
tion. This is not favourable and due considera- design life of the rehabilitated section should be
tion must be made if the abhormal traffic is to identified.
utilise such roads.
Stage 2: Identifying Prohahle
4.6 REFERENCES Alternaties
1. The AASHO Road Test Report, Highway Based on the results of pavement evaluation. a
Research Board. Report 5: Pavement number of alternative methods of rehabilitation
Research.Special Report 61E. should be selected. These are tested against the
Washington, D.C., 1962 (National feasibility of design, construction constraints,
Academy of Science, National Research and requirement of service life.
Council), Publication No. 954. AASHO
Stage 3: Selecting the Preferred Solution
2. Transport and Road Research Laboratory
(1978) Guide to the measurement of axle Those alternatives which pass these criteria are

Stage 1 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

* Conduct pavement evaluation
* Identify constraints
Stage 1 IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEM ALTERNATIVES

* Select possible rehabilitation treatmrnts
* Chock design and constuction constraints
Stage 1 SELECTION OF PREFERRED SOLUTION
* Cost analysis
* Other constuctions
* Select preferred solution
* Detailed design
* Construction
Figure 5.1. General process For

Selecting Appropriate Rehabilitation Alternatives
Figure 5.2. The Spectrum Of Pavement Rehabilitation Alternatives
further analysed by considering their life-cycle bilitation for the whole project.
costs and other non-monetary constraints.
Finally, the preferred rehabilitation alternative Each alternative technique is evaluated first on
is selected for detailed design. The engineer the merit of its design and construction feasibil-
should not rule out using different techniques ity. Consideration should be given to the prob-
on one project. It may be more cost effective to lems of construction during monsoon periods,
do this than select a common method of reha for instance. Care must be taken where roads

pass under bridges. For traffic and safety pur- i) rejuvenating the aged surface using
poses, the vertical clearance underneath a chemicals
bridge should be maintained and this will limit ii) scaling the cracks
the allowable overlay thickness. Other factors iii) blinding polished and flushed surfaces
to consider include traffic control requirements, with hot aggregates
disturbance to the public, the need for staged iv) applying thin bituminous overlays
construction, and the availability of plants and v) cutting affected areas and patching with
materials. new bituminous mixes
vi) recycling the affected surface
5.2 REHABILITATIION OPTIONS
The surface recycling and cut and patch alter-
The rehabilitation of flexible pavements natives should be considered especially when
encompasses a broad range of activities which the deterioration of the pavement is more
could be grouped into three categories namely: advanced but has not reached the stage where a
structural overlay is necessary.
i) Restoration
ii) Resurfacing (strucl.ural) Successful restoration work achieves one or
iii) Reconstruction more of the following; it repairs the existing
distress, decreases the rate of increase of rough-
The choice of any specific rehabilitation tech- ness, and slows down the subsequent pavement
nique depends on the condition of the existing deterioration by arresting the mechanism caus-
pavement. The conditions which apply for one ing the distress. For example crack sealing will
project may be different from another. For this preN ent water from entering the pavement
reason, rehabilitation techniques will change thus preventing failure in the lower layers.
from one project to another or within one sin-
gle project. Although other factors are Resurfacing (Structural)
involved, theperformance and cost-effective-
ness of each type of rehabilitation technique As the cumulative traffic load increases the
will depends primarily on the existing pave- fatigue life of the surfacing is exceeded, which
ment condition. As a general guide, the differ- eventually manifests itself in the form of crack-
ent pavement rehabilitation options can be ing in the wheel path (crocodile cracking).
summarised as shown in Figure 5.2 where they When the pavement has suffered severe and
are related to the life of the road. extensive structural damage, restoration works
may not be cost-effective. Structural improve-
In the first phase of the pavement's life, its con- ment would then become a costeffective
dition is good and its rate of deterioration is option. It is therefore important to determine
normally low. At this stage, routine mainte- when a pavement requires structural improve-
nance should be considered as it may be more ments as opposed to restorative work. This can
cost-effective than carrying out major mainte- be done by carrying out a pavement evaluation
nance later in the life of the pavement. excercise to determine the structural integrity of
the pavement.
Restoration
Resurfacing is currently the most popular
As the pavement condition deteriorates further, method of rehabilitating distressed pavements
particularly when distress such as cracking and in Malaysia. It involves the placement of fresh
polishing of the aggregate become apparent, material on the existing surfacing which
the restoration rehabilitation option is warrant- improves riding quality and provides additional
ed. Some techniques that maintain the service- structural strength. It is necessary to design the
ability of the pavement include : overlay thickness in order to achieve the
desired design life.

Figure 5.3. Replacement Of Loss Chemical Constituents By Rejuvenation
The most commonly used resurfacing materials of the existing pavement condition. This can be
are: - done using non-destructive methods or by dig-
i) thick asphalt overlays ging trial pits to carry out a more direct exami-
ii) granular overlays nation of the conditions of the lower pavement
layers. However, digging trial pits should be
Resurfacing cm be applied to all types of dis- avoided as much as possible because the rein-
tressed surfacing, but pre-treatment is some- statement works usually do not bring back the
times necessary before resurfacing is pavement to existing conditions. This will
actually carried out. result in a depression on the road surface.
Reconstruction When the failure of the road base is very exten-

sive, the road base can be recycled along with
A pavement that is allowed to deteriorate fur- asphalt surfacing either by adding additional
ther will eventually reach a state where the aggregate or cement to stabilise the new road
deterioration is so advanced that even a thick base material.
overlay would be less cost effective than the
reconstruction option. Reconstruction of the The construction of recycled stabilised road
pavement layers will be necessary when any of bases requires specialised machinery. Standard
the layers has deteriorated beyond economical plant are not not suitable for this type of con-
repair. Depending on the layers needing repair, struction.
reconstruction can be categorised into full or
partial reconstruction. Full reconstruction is 5.3 RESTORATION
needed when the existing subgrade has deterio-
rated and become unstable. Partial reconstruc- Restoration is designed to restore the surface to
tion is carried out when only the road base or a suitable condition for placement of an addi-
the subbase layers have deteriorated. tional stage of construction or otherwise to
perform satisfactorily for a substantial period of
In order to determine the extent of reconstruc- time. These techniques include rejuvenation.
tion required, the pavement structure will have patching, cold milling, crack sealing and sur-
to be examined by carrying out an evaluation face recycling.

The restoration option is suitable for pavements should be compared to the increased life of
with good structural integrity of standard pavement to establish its cost effectiveness.
deflection lower than l).5 mm. It is best applied
to pavanents with distress limited to the surfac- Construction :
ing. Block cracking, stripping, cracks, ravel- The application of the rejuvenating chemicals
ling, polishing, bleeding and aged surfacing are is simple to carry out. There is no special
the typical types of failure suitable for restora- equipment needed for this work. On a larger
tion techniques. size job, it may be economical to use a
mechanical sprayer (Plate 5.1)
5.3.1 Rejuvenating
Since the chemicals used tend to-leave a layer
Description: Hardened or aged bituminous of residual oils on the road surface, slowing
surfacing can be restored by spraying a laver of down the traffic during the initial period is very
bitumen or polymer modified bitumen to important.
improve its existing condition. Rejuvenating
agents have been introduced as an alternative Cost :
as they can restore the original properties of the Currently, in Malaysia there are not many reju-
bitumen. Figure 5.3 shows the constituents of venating chemicals being marketed. The price
the bitumen in the bitumen suffering from range for a rejuvenating job is about RM 2.00
hardening and the effects of adding lost con- to RM 4.00 per square metre depending upon
stituents. The effect of rejuvenating agents has the area to be rejuvenated.
not been studied in the Malavsian environment.
Currently the available products claimed that Reliability :
the rejuvenating agents could replace the poly- The performance of the rejuvenating chemicals
meric constituents lost as a result of oxidation depends upon how deep the chemicals are
and loss of volatiles. Howevcr the correct drawn down into the bituminous layer. This is
choice of rejuvenating agent depends on care- dependent on the density of the surfacing. A
ful study on the bitumen condition in the exist- dense mix such as the Asphaltic Concrete
ing surface as it will dictate the type and Wearing Course will experience little draw
amount of rejuvenating chemicals to be used. down. Rejuvenating chemicals are useful when
used with other methods such as the surface
Conditions of use : recycling, where the chemicals are used to
AgeHardening had been described earlier as replenish the lost chemical constituents in the
a major cootributary factor to deterioration of asphalt.
bituminous surfacings.
5.3.2 Crack Sealing
The top few millimeters of the surfacing suffer
the most severe hardening. Thin surfacings Description: Crack sealing is a cheap restora-
which suffer from this effect will look dry. For tion alternative which would seal the cracks
thick asphalt, cracks may occur from the top from ingress of water. Small or fine cracks (<
where rejuvenating chemicals can be applied. 3mm wide) may be filled with crack fillers. In
Laboratory tests are needed to identify the addition, fine sand or fine aggregates may be
degree of improvement and thus the most cor- added to fill up larger cracks. The major benefit
rect use of rejuvenating chemicals. Excess to be gained from proper sealing is that it
introduction of polymeric constituents may reduces water infiltration into the cracks.
effect the bitumen properties. As such, precau-
tions should be taken to eliminate the possible Conditions of use :
introduction of other problems such as bleed- Crack sealing is normally carried out for
ing, a slippery surface and weakening of exist- environmentally induced block cracks where
ing asphalt. The cost of rejuvenating agents environment is the major controlling factor of

Plate 5.1. Rejuvenating Aged Asphalt Surfacings in progress
such failures. Fatigue related cracks which are Cost :

sealed only provide short term benefits. The The cost of sealing cracks depend on the type
performance of crack sealants will depend on of sealants used and the size of the job. The
the age of the pavements and traffic loading. It cost can range from as low as RM 0.50 to
is also best done where the road is structurally about RM 3.50 per square metre.
strong.
Reliability :
There are several different types of crack Crack sealants will not completely fill the full
sealants, and each has its own unique proper- depth of the cracks. Only the top few millime-
ties. Hot or cold bituminous products are gen- tres are filled. Because of this, the use of crack
erally used. Sealant materials available include seals is limited to those cracks which have not
rubber asphalt, low modulus silicone and petro- propogated completely through the surfacing.
leumbase sealants. Each of these materials has
different durability, bonding, extensibility and 5.3.3 Cutting and Patching
other properties. Only the best available sealant
should be used for long lasting performance. Description :
Crack sealing should be carried out as a means
of deterring ingress of water into the pavement Cutting and patching is the replacement of
layers. deteriorated asphalt surfacing with suitable
bituminous mix, placed and compacted to simi-
Construction:Before cracks are sealed it is bet- lar level to adjacent undeteriorated asphalt.
ter to remove dirt and loose materials from the There are two types of bituminous patching
cracks. These are done using air compressors. materials which are commonly used :
Care must be taken to ensure safety of vehicles
before opening to traffic. Any loose material i) hot-mix asphalt
must be swept away. If sand is used as addi- ii) cold mix asphalt
tional filler, allowing slow moving traffic can
help the embedment of the small particles into These mixtures vary widely in quality, compo-
the cracks. Excess filler material must be sition and cost.
removed since this could reduce the skid resist-
ance of the surface (Plate Bituminous patching mixtures must have suffi

Plate 5.2. Crack Sealing
ciently good properties. The required properties failure is mostly found on climbing lanes and at
are : junctions. The unstable layer must be removed
i) Stability - to resist shoving and rutting prior to being replaced with a stiffer mix.
ii) Cohesiveness - should stick to host
material Construction :
iii) Resistance to water - impermeable Even though the construction of patching does
iv) Durable - resist wear not require special equipment, proper construc-
v) Workability - easily handled and con- tion technique is still important. On many ocas-
structed sions, the construction is not carried out proper-
vi) Storageability - can be stored xvithout ly causing the patched area to fail early. The
deteriorating for immediate works correct construction method is described below.
See also Figure -5.4.
The performance of a bituminous patch
depends on quality of the materials and con- Marking
struction techniques. The boundaries identified to be patched should
be marked. Straight line markings are prefered.
Conditions of use : All deteriorated areas should be included with
For pavements with localised surface failures, allowance for joints. These boundaries can be
cutting out the failed areas and patching it with changed during cutting to allow for initially
new bituminous mix should restore the pave- undetected damage.
ment. The 'cut and patch' method is also a
means of pre-treating the existing pavements Cutting
before a resurfacing work. It is designed to The area marked for patching should be neatly
remove the existing cracks and thereby elimi- cut and removed using a proper asphalt cutting
nate reflection cracks. However, the cracks tools. A vertical unbroken cut will enhance
have to be removed totally as cracks in the adhesion and promote efficient compaction.
lower layers will eventually cause reflection
cracks on the new layer. Cleaning and drying
The surface under the new patch must be clean,
For pavements with rutting caused by the insta- dry and free from loose material. Air blowing
bility of the wearing course mix, the 'cut and followed by vacuum cleaning is recommended
patch' alternative is also suitable. This type of for efficient cleaning and drying.

Figure 5.4. Proper Methods For Cutting and Fatching
Tack Coating
A thin bituminous layer is normally sprayed Compaction
uniformly on the prepared surface prior to Vibratory rolling is the best method for com-
patching hot-mix to promote adhesion between pacting patched area. By rolling the edges
the new layer and the cut surface. For small first the filling will pinch into the hole. The
jobs, low pressure hand sprayer can be used, centre of the patch is rolled first, moving out-
whereas a bitumen sprayer is suitable for large wards towards the edges with each succeeding
areas. Tack coat materials available include : passes. This will tighten the adhesion around
the edges. The roller should rest completely on
i) cut-back bitumen the patched area and not partly on the old pave-
ii) bitumen emulsion ment.
iii) synthetic resin
Cleaning up and checking joints
Tack coating should not be applied if cold-mix
asphalt is used, unless the patch surface is Cleaning up is essential for a comprehensive
made of concrete. The tack coat can soften the patching ,job. Checking the finished product
coldmix and promote shoving and stripping. especially the joints should be carried out. The
edge or joints of the patch should be sealed
Filling using bituminous material similar to crack
sealants described earlier. The life of the
The material can be placed in several lifts. A patch is often dependent on how well the joints
single lift should not exceed 100 min thick. are made.
Filling is normally carried out manually.
Shovels should be used and raking is not advis- Cold Milling
able to reduce segregation. Hand tamping at
edges and corners can also be carried out with If extensive patching is required or if the pro-
a hand rammer. The surrounding surface must posed patches are too close to each other, then
be kept clean from spilled filling material. cold milling can be considered as an option. A

5.3.4 Thin Bituminous Overlays
Thin bituminous overlays provide a feasible

alternative for low cost pavement surface
restoration. It improves the surface riding con-
dition and can extend the service life of a pave-
ment. It can also be used as a short term meas-
ure to address specific distress condition. Most
commonly used thin asphalt overlays are :
i) Surface Dressings
ii) Slurry Seals (Thin seal mixtures)
iii) Thin Hot Mix Overlays.
Surface Dressings
Description :
A surface dressing is an application of bitumen

followed with an aggregate cover in a single or
multiple application. In double surface dress-
ings the larger sized stones are place in the first
application with the smaller sized stones in the
second application to fill in the voids in the first
Plate 5.3.Cutting And Patching
layer. The aggregates used have to be cleaned
and free from dust. This will facilitate cohesion
milling machine is required for this work. This between the aggregates and the bitumen. If
machine can cut the deteriorated surfacing to dusty aggregates are used, then pre-coating
the depth and width as required. The maximum them first is more suitable.
depth and width depends on the machine type
and specifications. The milled material can be Conditions of use :
salvage or recycled. Patching should then be
carried out using an asphalt paver. Surface dressing has been commonly used as a
wearing course on low volume roads. It has
Cost : also been used as a resurfacing technique to
treat surface failure on these types of roads.
The cost of cutting and patching pavements is The potential use of the surface dressings to
noNN- competitive. The cost ranges between restore distressed bituminous pavement has not
RM 8.00 to RM 10.00 per square metre. been fully demonstrated in Malaysia, even
though it is greatly used in Australia and the
Reliability : United Kingdom. Apart from being able to
restore the riding quality of the road surface, it
The performance of a patched area depends has other advantages. The high bitumen content
heavily on the type of mix used and the con- of a surface dressings layer means thicker bitu-
struction standard. If constructed properly, this men film will be coating the aggregates. This
alternative would be able to last the life of the will improve resistance to ageing making the
untreated sections. But if poorly constructed, surfacing more durable. At present, limited
this alternative can increase the roughness of local experience in the use of surface dressings
the road section. on asphaltic concrete surfaces restricts its appli-
cation on high volume roads because of the

Plate 5.4. Cold Milling
worry that loose stones may pose hazards to requires the binder to be sprayed using a
the traffic. Furthermore, the long construction mechanical sprayer and the aggregates to be
period may cause traffic distruption. As such it spread by a specially designed chipping spread-
is proposed that the use of surface dressings on er. These are inexpensive and are easily
asphaltic concrete surfaces be limited to low available locally.
volume roads with Average Daily Traffic
(ADT) < 5000. Traffic control immediately after the surface
dressings have been applied, is important. This
When using surface dressings on asphaltic con- is due to the loose chippings which still need
crete surfaces, a proper design needs to be car- kneading by the traffic tyres. During this peri-
ried out. The design guideline from the od, at least 2 hours after application for normal
Transport Research Laboratory Overseas Road bitumen, the speed of the traffic have to be low.
Note 3 specifies the rate of spray of the binder This period may be reduced if modified binders
and the aggregates as important to the perform- are used.
ance of the surface dressings. The hardness of
the existing asphaltic concrete surface and the Cost :
flakiness of the aggregates are important con- The cost of construction of surface dressings on
siderations too. The hard surface will not allow laterite surfaces (usually in the rural areas) is
any penetration of the aggregates for embed- less than half that for Asphaltic Concrete. But
ment and because of this, a suitable binder is to construct it on existing bituminous pave-
needed to ensure the stones are not whipped off ments may cost more since the binders are dif-
by traffic. ferent and the traffic control is more elaborate.
At present, the cost ranges from RM 3.00 to
The use of modified bitumen, fibres or special RM 8.00 per square metre.
aggregate may improve the construction proce-
dure and. enhance the performance of surface Reliability :
dressing. This improved performance will If the surface dressings is constructed on a road
increase its applicability on high volume roads. that is structurally sound,
it will last a long time. The thicker bitumen
Construction : film thickness ensures the flexibility of the
The construction of the surface dressings layer and would reduce age hardening. Because

of this, the use of surface dressings as a restora- It has potential for both corrective and preven-
tion alternative should be encouraged. In tive maintenance of asphalt surfacings.
Malaysia where the intense sunlight does create However, it is not a structural layer.
problems with the rate of ageing, the surface Application of slurry seal is known to retard
dressings wearing course may last longer than the hardening process of the top portion of
a thin asphaltic concrete layer. asphaltic concrete surfacing.
Slurry Seals There are three types of slurry seals, namely.

Type 1, 11 and III as specified by the interna-
Description: Slurry seals are a mixture of tional Slurry Seal Association (ISSA).
aggregates, water and filler (usually cement)
bound with bitumen emulsion, and mixed insi- The aggregate size, filler and the residual bitu-
tu prior to laying using specialized equipment. men from the emulsion govern the classifica-
Plate 5.5. Surface Dressing
Plate 5.6. Slarry Seal

tions. Nominal 4.75 mm aggregate size is spec- RM 4.00 per square metre, whereas the modi-
ified for Type I whilst size 9.5 mm for Type 11 fied slurry seal costs about RM 4.00 to RM
and 111. The emulsion specified should be 8.00 per square meter depending on the size of
checked for compatibility with the aggregate the job.
and the desired setting time. Slow setting
cationic emulsion is normally used. Reliability :
Slurry Seals are effective in areas where the
Conditions of use : primary problem is excessive oxidation and
The nature of the existing surfacing and the hardening of the existing surface. They may
expected traffic level govern the appropriate also be used to improve the friction characteris-
use of slurry seals. It is not suitable for shape tics of polished surfaces at low traffic levels.
correction or for use at heavily loaded pave- However, when used in areas where the pave-
ments with interconnected cracks or more ment deflections are high and the surface is
advanced cracks. Slurry seal should not be suffering from cracks (block and crocodile
applied on structurally, weak areas. cracks), the slurry seal will crack very quickly
Conventional slurry seals using slow setting and should not be used.
emulsion need a long curing time, therefore
application is not advisable when rain is Thin Hot Mix
expected. Rain water can wash away the emul-
sion, breaking aggregate bondage and destroy- Description :
ing the slurry. Localized pavement defects such Thin hot mix asphalt is an asphalt mix which is
as cracks, nits, humps, low pavement edges normally less than 40 mm thick. Any type of
must be repaired before applying the slurry hot asphalt mix or modified mix can be used.
seals. The thin asphalt layer is mainly to correct sur-
face deficiencies and will not add much struc-
Modified emulsion, fibres or special aggregates tural strength to the road.
can improve the properties and performance of
slurry seals. Their conditions of use is similar Apart from the normal asphalt concrete, fibr-
to the surface dressings described above and ereinforced ultra-thin mix and the porous
may be extended to higher class of roads. asphalt mix fall into this category. The fibre-
reinforced ultra-thin mix is popularly used in
Construction : Europe with success. The introduction of the
Constriction of the slurry seals require a special fibres increases the fines in the mix, thereby
paving equipment. A more powerful and faster allowing more binder to be added. This addi-
mixer is required if the modified emulsions are tional binder in the mix will help in preventing
used. It is also desirable to have experienced ageing of the binder.
contractors to do the job.
The porous asphalt mix is also popular in
The long curing tirrnc of about 3 to 4 hours for Europe. This mix is designed with high void
the normal slurry seal makes it necessary for contents to allow for free draining of surface
the provision of proper traffic control. This is water. The high voids are also able to absorb
especially difficult to carry out in built-up traffic tyre noise which makes it popular in
areas. Usaull_v, sand is used to blind the areas built-up areas. To ensure stability of the mix,
where traffic may be travelling over the wet the use of modified binders may be ncccssan-.
slurry. The inclusion of modifiers to the emul-
sion usually shortens the curing time to about Conditions of use.
30 minutes. Thin hot mixes can be applied at areas subject-
ed to low deflection. It is not meant to correct
Cost : structural failures and severe rutting. Surfacing
The normal slurry seals costs about RM 2.00 to that suffer from polishing, stripping, bleeding

Figure 5.5. Surfacing Recycle Using Hot Milling Method
can be overlaid with thin hot mixes. Suitable for a couple of hours before opening to traffic.
tack coats must be used prior to laying the thin
overlays. Strong adhesion with the existing sur- Cost :
face is necessary, otherwise delamination and The cost of constructing the thin hot mix vary
flaking can occur. according to the types and mix design. For the
normal asphaltic concrete thin mix, it cost
The present practice of providing a thin overlay about RM 5.00 to RM 8.00 per square metre.
(up to 40 mm overlay) without giving due con- Tlie fibre-reinforced ultra thin mix costs about
sideration to the structural needs is not a good RM 6.00 to RM 8.00 per square metre. But for
practice. If laid on top of the existing asphalt the porous asphalt mix the use of polymer
layer without prior treatment to the cracked modified binders can increase the cost to about
surface, the cracks reflect through the new RM 10.00 to RM 18.00 per square metre.
layer as early as within 3 months depending on
the deflection and the traffic intensity of the Reliability :
road. It is therefore very important that cracked The aggregate gradings and bitumen type and
surfaces must be treated before overlay. amount used in this mix will affect the per-
formance of the layer. Because of its thin
The fibre-reinforced ultra thin mix and the nature, bigger sized aggregates would be
porous asphalt mix are applicable on road sur- crushed by the steel roller resulting in loose
faces with good structural intensity. These aggregates. Apart from that, the bitumen film
mixes are usually used to enhance the surface thickness will influence the life of the layer.
properties of the pavement. In addition, the
porous asphalt mix can drain surface water fast. In Malaysia pavement constructed with porous
asphalt have performed very well. Its reliability
Construction : depends on the design of the mix and the type
No special equipment other than that used in of binder used. The clogging of this type of
the construction of normal hot mixes is neces- mix with time may reduce its ability to drain
sary. Traffic can run on the mix as soon as the water.
rolling is completed. But in the case of the
porous asphalt, it is necessary to leave the mix 5.3.5. Surface Recycling

Description: Pavement surface recycling is the of surface failures provided the causes and
reworking of the pavement surface to improve extent are known. Effectiveness of its applica-
its performance and correct surface failures tion is highly dependent on the accuracy of the
particularly surface cracking. It is a growing pavement evaluation . Surface recycling does
field in pavement rehabilitation but must be not provide a substantial increase in the struc-
used with care. Suitability of its application will tural strength of the pavement. It is a method
depend primarily on the structural conditions of for treating the surface distresses.
the existing pavement. Normally it can be
applied only when the pavement is structurally It is a known fact that heating of fresh bitumen
sound and the mode of failure is corned to the during manufacture of the asphalt causes age
top of the surfacing. hardening, and re-heating it during hot milling
will induce further hardening. Recycling the
In this method, the surfacing material is scari- pavement surface using the hot milling method
fied or pulverized by using a hot milling with the heat application being higher than 200
(heater-planer or heater-scarifier) or cold- deg C, will cause the condition of the bitumen
milling device. The scarified materials are in the asphalt to deteriorate further. To counter
mixed and relaid in a number of ways, either in this, it is advisable to add rejuvenating chemi-
a continuous single pass or in separate opera- cals to the remixed layer apart from the addi-
tions (Figure 5.5). tion of bitumen.
In using the hot milling method, two types of Available equipment in the market today is
heating devices are available ie. the open flame only capable of heating and softening the top
heating or the radiant heating. Various manu- few centimetres, which restrict the depth of cut
facturers have developed equipment for the for a single pass. The usual depth per pass is
above processes, some of which are used as a approximately 25 mm. With this limitation, the
heating unit on its own, while the more sophis- method would be able to eliminate cracks
ticed ones can carry out the heating, remixing which are of the top-down nature and have pro-
and laying in a single pass. The benefit from gressed to a depth of 50 mm. If the cracks have
the use of the equipment is subject to field gone down through the full depth of the surfac-
investigations of their actual pavement per- ing layer, and these are not removed, then there
formance. is a possibility the remaining cracks will reflect
upwards through the new layer.
Another method of recycling the pavement sur-
face is termed as cold recycling. Cold recycling Construction :
is the reworking of a pavement surface by pul- Specialized equipment is necessary for the
verising the top layer using a milling machine recycling of the pavement surface. The size and
followed by reshaping and compaction. The cost of this equipment depend on the nature of
reshaping and mixing can be done in the Field the operations it can carry out. The most expen-
or at a central plant. Stabilisers and additional sive would be the plant which is capable of car-
materials can be included. The top 25 mm is rying out the recycling, re-laving and addition
normally recycled. This is the critical portion of fresh mixes in a single pass.
where surface failures such as ravelling, bleed-
ing, polishing and weathering occurs. This The use of gases to heat the pavement surface
method is only suitable for correcting surface and the intense heat generated during the oper-
distress. The structure of the pavement must be ation may pose a hazardous situation to the
intact and capable of accepting an overlay with road users. Thus proper traffic control is need-
a standard life expectancy. ed during construction. Care should be taken to
ensure that no pedestrians are allowed to come
Conditions of use : near the heating equipment. The operators of
Surface Recycling can be applied for all types the equipment need to be specially trained.

Cost : ble of carrying increased traffic. It also

The cost of recycling the pavement surface improves riding quality. The thickness of the
depends on the type of equipment used and the asphalt resurfacing depends on the strength of
extent of work involved. It ranges between RM the existing pavement and the expected traffic.
6.00 to RM 13.00 per square metre. It is necessary to carry out a proper design to
establish the thickness of the surfacing.
Reliability :
Surface recycling is a rehabilitation alternative There are two methods of resurfacing popularly
suitable for restoring pavement surface distress- used in Malaysia, namely, thick asphalt over-
es only. If used on full-depth cracked pave- lays with or without a prior granular overlay.
ments and with pavement deflections in excess The foriuer involves the construction of a
of 0.5 mm. there is a possibility, of the crack crushed aggregate layer on the existing pave-
reflecting early. ment before laying the asphalt layer. The use of
granular overlays reduces the need for pre-
5.4 RESURFACING treatment works.
Description : Conditions of use :

Resurfacing is the placement of fresh material Resurfacing without a prior granular overlay
on an existing surfacing to enhance its structur- can be applied to rectify many types of pave-
al strength. Asphalt resufacing is the most pop- ment failures. However, pre-treatment works
ular method of pavement rehabilitation in such as patching and reconstruction should be
Malaysia. When done properly, this method is carried out at localised failed areas prior to
appropriate since the addition of new layers resurfacing. Resurfacing can be applied on sur-
strengthens the road pavement making it capa facings that are cracked, rutted, polished,
Figure 5.6. Methods Of Reducing Reflection Cracks Using Interlayers

raelled, and those that are bleeding. Proper materials available in the market, the grid and
evaluation of the existing pavement condition the non-woven geotextiles. When using the
is neccessary to determine the extent of pre- grid, care should be taken to reduce the
treatment required. The following paragraphs possibility of the picking up or stretching the
describe some of the aspects that should be grid by lorry tyres. When this happens, the
considered prior to resurfacing. grids will warp and the resultant displacement
of the grids will lead to poor compaction of the
Resurfacing on Cracked Surfaces asphalt layer. This leads to cracking. On the
other hand, if the non-woven materials are
Cracks occur frequently on roads in Malaysia. used, care should be taken on the amount and
These cracks should be treated early to stop type of tack coat used. If used in excess, the
ingress of water into the road base layer there- nonwoven material will become saturated and
by weakening it. The common practice of over- will lead to bleeding. If the bitumen tack coat is
laying the cracked pavements without prior too soft the material can slide at the exsiting
treatment to the cracked surface. causes the road/material interface.
cracks to reflect through the new layer as early
as within 3 months depending on the deflection Other types of Stress Absorbing Membrane
of the road section and the traffic level. It is Interlayers (SAMI) are also available. These
therefore very important that cracked surfaces can be in the forms of aggregate interlayers
must be treated before overlay. Alternatively, (e.g. surface dressings) or modified bitumen
more expensive techniques such as using inter- with or without chippings. At 1KRAM studies
layers to absorb the stresses and strains of the are being carried out on the use of some of
crack tips can be used. these interlayers. Laboratory experiments are
also being carried out on the manufacture of
One common pre-treatment method is to 'cut SAMIs using natural rubber blended into bitu-
and patch' before overlay. This results not only men.
in delaying reflective cracking but it also gives
a slight increase in the strengnh of the pave- Crushed aggregates have also been used as an
ment. interlayer. This method has perform positively
even with crack movements of l.5mm. In one
The rate of progression of the cracks reflecting of the trials constricted by IKRAM, the crushed
through the new asphaltic layer depends on the aggregates were laid on top of segmented con-
structural strength of the pavements. Pavements crete pavement where the movements at the
with higher deflection. causing higher crack joints were substantial. Previously, asphalt
movements, tend to be the first to crack. overlays without prior treatment Nvould only
last about 2 months. But with this method, the
Another method of reducing reflection cracks cracks from the concrete.joints have vet to
is by introducing a separating layer (Figure 5.6) come through after a couple of years.
to absorb the stresses from the crack move-
ments. An example of this stress-absorbing Resurfacing on Rutted Surfaces
layer is the geosynthetic material. There are
many types of geosynthetic materials available, Resurfacing ou existing pavements with sur-
and most of them claimed to be effective in face nits require special considerations. Dense
mitigating reflection cracks. However, the con- bituminous surfacings nit when it loses its sta-
struction procedures have to be properly looked bility properties. These usually occur in areas
into to ensure that the geosynthetic materials where there are prolonged loading periods
are laid in accordance to the manufacturer's of slow moving or stopped heavy vehicles,
specifications. namely at climbing lanes and at intersections.
The high stresses imposed on the asphalt layer
There are basically two types of geosynthetic causes it to densify and with the reduction in

If the existing pavement surface which needs

strengthening is suffering from bleeding, it is
advisable to consider the possibility of the
excess bitumen migrating into the new layer.
The application of hot sand should be consid-
ered.
Resurfacing on Corrugated Surface
If corrugations are the result of unstable surfac-

ing materials, it should be replace before resur-
facing. If it is due to unstable granular pave-
ment layers then partial reconstruction will be a
better solution.
Resurfacing on Ravelling or
Weathered Surfaces
If the existing surface is experiencing ravelling

and loss of aggregates, no pre-treatment is nec-
essary.
Cost :
voids in the mix, the mix becomes unstable. A major portion of the cost in carrying out a
This layer must be removed by milling prior to structural resurfacing job goes to the pretreat-
overlaying it with a fresh asphalt layer. ment works. The cost of the asphaltic concrete
itself is around RM 10.00 per square metre,
Bituminous mixes designed by the Marshall whilst the costs of pre-treatment such as the use
method have been shown to perform poorly in of grid geosynthetic materials may push the
high stress areas. To counter this, polymer cost up by between RM 8.00 to RM 20.00 per
modified bitumen can be used in asphaltic con- square metre. The use of fabric geosynthetic
crete on climbing lanes and junctions. The rate materials would reduce the total construction
of rutting of these mixes are slower than the cost as the fabrics may add about 30-40% more
normal asphaltic nixes. However, the use of the to the cost.
polymer modified bitumen can increase the
cost of the asphalt to double its normal cost. Reliabilitv :
Structural resurfacing can last the design life if
In an effort to find a cheaper solution to the proper pre-treament work is carried out. Most
above problem, IKRAM has introduced a new of the resurfacing works which show early
mix for the surfacing, called the HCM signs of distress are due to improper pre-treat-
Bituminous Surfacing. The mix was tried in a ment works.
trial at the Bukit Tinggi climbing lanes along
the Kuala Lumpur - Karak Highway. In the 5.5 RECONSTRUCTION
same trial, other mixes using polymers and
additives were also tried. After nearly 3 years Description: Reconstruction is the removal
in service, the HCM Bituminous Surfacing has and rebuilding of all (including subgrade) or
performed on par to the more expensive poly- part of the road pavement using fresh material
mer modified wearing courses. and new construction specifications. Pavements
that have failed Beverly are usually those
Resurfacing on Bleeding Surface where deterioration has been allowed to occur
without maintenance. The condition of thee

Plate 5.8. Reconstruction Works
Plate 5.9. Recycling For Base
lower granular layers of the pavement is best tion method is uneconomical, it is advisable to
determined by destructive testing. carry out recycling. Recycling of the road base
is a partial reconstruction alternative where the
There are two types of reconstruction, namely, existing surfacing and/or part of the road base
full reconstruction and partial reconstruction. is pulverised, and replaced as a new road base
Full reconstruction is needed when the sub- layer. The process breaks up the existing
grade layer as well as the pavement layers has asphalt layer into small pieces thereby remov-
deteriorated beyond repair. In full reconstruc- ing existing cracks and at the same time allow-
tion, the rebuilding includes the subgrade. ing addition of road base thickness. It therefore
Partial reconstruction is needed when the road can be used to eliminate reflective cracking
base has been contaminated and it has lost its problems and correct thickness deficiencies.
inherent stability. In this case the rebuilding
does not include the subgrade. Base recycling is suitable where the deteriora-
tion of the surfacing has become so extensive
In the case where the failure of the road base is that partial reconstruction option will not be
extensive and conventional partial reconstruc economical. The deterioration can be due to a

poor road base layer or insufficient base thick- areas:

ness. Additional aggregates and stabilisers can
be included in the mix to improve its perform- Identifying full reconstruction
ance.
Full reconstruction may be needed for the fol-
Among the common stabilisers suitable for lowing combination of failures.
base recyling are :
i) Pavement surface which suffer from
i) cut-back bitumen crocodile cracks with rut depths of more
ii) cement than 25 mm, without shoving.
iii) bitumen emulsion ii) Pavement surface which suffers crack
ing with rut depth of more than 15 mm
The correct choice of stabilisers will depend on and deep shoving.
the existing pavement material type, its condi-
tion and compositions. Identifying partial and base reconstruction
Condition or Use : Partial reconstruction may be needed for the

Identifying areas needing reconstruction following failures or combination of failures.
requires evaluation of the pavement conditions.
However, experience has shown that the fol- i) Spalling and crocodile cracking with
lowing rule-of-thumb to be reasonably accept- rut depth of less than 15 mm.
able in identifying localised reconstruction ii) Shoving with rut depth less than 15 mm.
Figure 5.7. Full Reconstruction

iii) Crocodile cracking with block size less able and can be expensive. The works involved
than 100 mm with shoving. in base recycling are:
Confirmatory test using the Dynamic Cone Pulverisation or ripping

Penetrometer (DCP)
Mechanical pulverisors can break up any of the
If the site engineer is not certain of the extent the pavement layer and reduce it to uniform
of reconstruction required, the DCP can be sizes. The pulverised materials should be
used to estimate the pavement layer strength inspected where all large pavement chunks and
and thus identify which materials needs to be organic substances should be removed.
removed. Partial reconstruction can be carried Addition of stabilisers may_ be introduced at
out if it is not necessary to replace the subgrade this stage.
or the sub-base.
Stabiliser distribution
Construction :
Reconstruction requires more lane closure time Cement stabilisers can be spread by a bulk
than resurfacing, since the work includes spreader or manually depending on the job
breaking up the pavement, removal and size. The spread rate, water content and mixing
rebuilding of existing layers. The time taken for process is critical for efficient stabilisation.
a partial reconstruction is less than that for the Bituminous stabilisers are mechanically spread
full reconstruction. and are seldom used for base recycling.
Allowances should be made for the possibility Compaction

of secondary compaction of the reconstructed
areas by opening them to traffic for a period of Compaction can be carried out using normal
time before applying the final overlay. vibratory rollers. The number of roller passes is
critical, as over-compacting cement stabilised
Particular attention should be given to the pro- base may overstress the surface. Bitumen sta-
vision of adequate drainage when reconstruct- bilised road base do not have this problem.
ing roads with high water table.
Marking the areas to be reconstructed Cost :

Reconstruction is an expensive option and
Marking of the areas to be reconstructed is best should be considered only if the pavement has
done a few days before construction. suffered beyond economic repair. Partial recon-
Temporary marking can be used if contruction struction can cost between RM 35.00 to RM
is to follow immediately otherwise permanent 45.00. Full reconstruction is more costly. It can
marking can be carried out. It is advisable to range between RM 40.00 to RM 50.00.
extend the area needing reconstruction beyond
the area over which it occurs. Marking is best Reliability :
carried out by experienced personnel in identi- Reconstruction work done to a high construc-
fying serious pavement defects. This task is tion standard will have a life surpassing all
critical in optimising the probability of success other rehabilitation options. In fact, it can be
of the rehabilitation job. designed to any desired performance period.
However, it is expensive and should only be
Construction of Base Recycling carried out where necessary.
The construction ol` recycled stabilised base

normally requires specialised machinery.
Standard construction method may not be suit-

Evaluation Rehabilitation Pavement

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Interim Guide To Evaluation And

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Rehabilitation Of Flexible Road pavements.

INTERIM GUIDE TO EVALUATION

Photographs and drawings of equipment in this

PREFACE Malaysian climatic conditions. However, due

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1

- Mohd. Sabri Hasim 1.2 SCOPE OF THE GUIDE 1.3

This document forms part of a series of guide- CHAPTER 2 : PAVEMENT BEHAV-

This guide was reviewed by a Committee 2.1.1 Surfacing 2.1

- Ir Han Joke Kwang (IKRAM) 2.1.4 Subgrade 2.2

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 2

2.3 FAILURE DEFINATIONS 2.3 3.1.6 Cost analysis 3.3

2.3.1 Failure modes 2.3 3.1.7 Implementation 3.3

2.3.2 Failure manifestation 2.3 3.2 INITIAL ASSESSMENT 3.3

2.3.3 Failure mechanisms 2.3 3.2.1 Surface condition assessment 3.4

2.4 PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR 2.3 3.2.2 Drainage assessment 3.4

2.4.1 Behaviour of thin surfacing 2.5 3.2.3 Prelirninarv analysis,

2.5 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE 2.9 3.3.1 General 3.8

2.5.1 Terminal condition 2.9 3.3.2 Choice of NDT devices 3.9

2.5.2 Users requirements 2.9 3.3.3 Choices of NDT analysis

3.1.5 Selection of remedial 4.2.4 Special traffic 4.2

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 3

4.3 TRAFFIC AND AXLE LOAD Figure 1.3 Cross-section of a typical

4.5 EXAMPLES 4.6 Figure 2.5 Typical strain-life relationship

5.2 REHABILITATION OPTIONS 5.1 Figure 3.2 Schematics of Benkelman

5.3.2 Crack Sealing 5.6 Figure 3.4 Schematics of the Road

5.5 RECONSTRUCTION 5.20 Figure 3.7 Distribution of cracking

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 4

Figure 5.4 Proper methods of cutting Table 4.5 Distribution of yearly

Figure 5.6 Methods of Reducing LIST OF PLATES

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 5

1.1 BACKGROUND By using definitive and sound engineering

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 6

Figure 1.1 Elements In Pavement Evaluation

Fugure 1.2 Decision Making Levels In Pavement Maintentenance

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 7

of previous unrecorded maintenance treat- able solution is necessary.

Fugure 1.3 Cross-section Of A Typical Flexible Road Pavement

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 8

facing overlying the natural ground or sub-

This guide is structured in a manner to provide 2.1.2 Road-base

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 9

bases. provide a safe and comfortable riding surface

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 10

2.2.2 Engineering requirements Western nations, there are dangers in applying

It is thus necessary to understand the behaviour 2.3 FAILURE DEFINITIONS

Mode Manifestation Comman Mechanisms

Figure 2.2. Stresses And Strains In A Bituminouns Pavement

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 11

i) Repeated axle loading A point on the pavement subjected to a moving

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 12

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 13

can produce more repeatable results compared i) Oxidation

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 14

Figure 2.3. A Typical Rate Of Binder Hardening In Service

Figure 2.4. Hardening Of Binder In The Top 3 mm Of The Road Surfacing

In the laboratory repeated loading triaxial tests layer.

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Figure 2.5. Typical Strain-life Relationship For Bituminous Mixes

Figure 2.6. Typical Strain-life Relationship For Subgrade (SHELL)

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 17