Chilli Australia

Chilli Spice
Production in
Australia
A report for the Rural Industries Research

and Development Corporation
by Andreas Klieber
University of Adelaide
April 2000
RIRDC Publication No 00/33

RIRDC Project No UA-38A
© 2000 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation.
All rights reserved.
ISBN 0 642 58063 4

ISSN 1440-6845
"Chilli Spice Production in Australia”

Publication No 00/33
Project No. UA-38A
The views expressed and the conclusions reached in this publication are those of the author and not
necessarily those of persons consulted. RIRDC shall not be responsible in any way whatsoever to any person
who relies in whole or in part on the contents of this report.
This publication is copyright. However, RIRDC encourages wide dissemination of its research, providing the
Corporation is clearly acknowledged. For any other enquiries concerning reproduction, contact the Publications
Manager on phone 02 6272 3186.
Researcher Contact Details

Dr. Andreas Klieber
Department of Horticulture, Viticulture & Oenology
University of Adelaide Waite Campus
PMB 1
Glen Osmond SA 5064
Phone: (08) 8303 6653

Fax: (08) 8303 7116
Email: andreas.klieber@ adelaide.edu.au
Website: http://www.waite.adelaide.edu.au/~aklieber
RIRDC Contact Details

Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
Level 1, AMA House
42 Macquarie Street
BARTON ACT 2600
PO Box 4776
KINGSTON ACT 2604
Phone: 02 6272 4539

Fax: 02 6272 5877
Email: rirdc@rirdc.gov.au
Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au
Published in April 2000

Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint
Foreword
ii
Australian diets are changing rapidly, with a broad-based acceptance of spicy foods. Chillies are an
essential ingredient in Asian and Central American based foods that are becoming ever more popular.
It is estimated that $30 million could be added to the Australian economy by replacing importation of
chilli spice.
However, there are a number of impediments to the successful commercialisation of chillies for spice
production in Australia. This project was designed to make the chilli spice production system
economically feasible by addressing production, harvesting and processing constraints.
This report presents the results from these investigations and highlights a number of improvements to
the chilli production system that reduce the production costs of chilli spice, improve the quality of the
final product and make the industry internationally more competitive.
This project was funded from RIRDC Core Funds which are provided by the Federal Government.
This report, a new addition to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 450 research publications, forms part of
our Asian Foods R&D program, which aims foster the development of a viable Asian Foods Industry
in Australia.
Most of our publications are available for viewing, downloading or purchasing online through our
website:
• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm
• purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/pub/cat/contents.html
Peter Core
Managing Director
Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation
iii
Acknowledgements
This research on chillies arose from industry need, but also from my own personal interest in chillies.
Therefore my initial thanks need to go to my wife Julia who, through her love for this spice, first
introduced me to the enjoyment of chillies.
Also I would like to thank two students who worked very hard on this project, Mayuree Krajayklang
who undertook a PhD project on most of the research aspects reported here, and Nancy Bagnato who
undertook her honours research studying the colour stability of chilli powder. In addition the
cooperation and support from John Peninger and John Small of the Hunter Valley Herb Farm are
gratefully acknowledged; without them this project would not have gotten off the ground and run its
course. Peter Dry, a senior lecturer in my Department, also contributed much in the area of the split-
root irrigation trials and as cosupervisor of Mayuree. We also received support by a whole host of
other people at the Waite campus of the University of Adelaide and the University of Newcastle.
iv
Contents
Foreword ..................................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... iv
Executive Summary.................................................................................................... vi
1. History and Economic Significance ........................................................................ 1

2.1. The chilli spice production system .................................................................................2
2.1.1. Seed and site selection ...........................................................................................2
2.1.2. Managing production factors...................................................................................3
2.1.3. Harvesting ...............................................................................................................6
2.1.4. Processing ..............................................................................................................7
2.1.5. Storage of powder...................................................................................................9
2.2. Defining quality ..............................................................................................................9
2.3. Gaining competitiveness..............................................................................................11
2.4. Research Goals ...........................................................................................................12
3. Research Findings and Conclusions .................................................................... 13

3.2. Harvesting....................................................................................................................15
3.3. Postharvest ripening ....................................................................................................18
3.4. Drying ..........................................................................................................................19
3.5. Storage of dried powder ..............................................................................................21
3.6. Aflatoxins .....................................................................................................................23
4. Industry Outlook and Further Research Needs .................................................... 25
5. References ........................................................................................................... 26
6. Colour Plates ........................................................................................................ 31
v
Executive Summary
Capsicum species are grown worldwide for fresh fruit and spice production. The main types of spice
are powders that are derived from hot, red-coloured chilli fruit or from mild, red-coloured paprika
fruit. The resulting spice is referred to as chilli or paprika spice.
The main quality characteristics therefore are the colour and the heat level (pungency). Genetics, that
is the cultivar selected, and the environment influence the heat level. For example growing chillies
under cool conditions reduces their hotness. Colour is influenced by stage of ripeness of a fruit at
harvest, processing and storage of the final spice powder.
In addition an important quality aspect is the absence of aflatoxins in the spice powder. Chilli and
paprika spice is vulnerable to contamination from mould toxins, the most potent carcinogens and
toxins of which are the aflatoxins.
We set out to examine the whole chilli spice production system to maximise yields and quality of the
final product. The specific aspects we examined were growing practices, harvesting, ripening of
insufficiently ripe fruit before processing, drying of fruit and storage of spice powder. In addition we
tested commercial chilli products for aflatoxin content. The need for this work arose from the lack of
detailed information for Australian conditions, as most previous work had been carried out overseas
and as recommendations were not always clear.
To allow for cost-effective machine harvesting, plant spacing and cultivar habits need to be
considered. Cultivars with large, pendulous fruit are preferred as they are easier to harvest and
process. Machine harvesters can detach larger fruit more easily and they are easier to cut for drying.
Site selection needs to take into account soil, temperature and water requirements. A hot climate, as
for example found in Mediterranean climates of South Australia and subtropical to tropical areas of
Queensland is preferred and growing best occurs from about September to March. Cooler months or
climates result in slower plant and fruit growth and reduce heat levels dramatically.
Another critical cultural factor for chilli production is irrigation. If insufficient rain is expected during
flowering, fruit set and development, as in many parts of Australia, supplemental irrigation is
essential. Drip irrigation is very effective and prevents fruit from dropping. Fruit drop would
otherwise reduce yields below half of normal.
Normally recommended levels of fertiliser application gave satisfactory results.
Chilli fruit are of widely ranging ripeness at harvest due to the plant’s architecture. Fruit at the lower
nodes ripen first compared to fruit at higher positions on the bush. This results in reduced yields for
machine harvesting, during which all fruit are stripped off the plant at once. Application of the
ripening hormone ethylene, in the form of ethephon, was examined to synchronise ripening on the
bush. However, ethephon reduced yield dramatically as it caused fruit drop. Overall the best strategy
to ensure maximum yield of red coloured fruit is to leave fruit on the bush until most fruit have
achieved a suitable colour.
Separating insufficiently ripe fruit after harvest and ripening them is practised for a number of crops.
This would increase yields as under-ripe chilli fruit could be ripened to sufficient levels for processing.
However, chilli fruit that are not of a deep red colour at harvest do not colour up sufficiently. Only
fruit that are deep red or deep red and slightly shrivelled on the bush produce a spice powder with a
good colour quality. Exposing fruit to ethylene, as is practised to ripen many other fruit, does not
influence ripening rate or the final quality of the spice.
Chillies have a thick waxy skin that prevents rapid drying. Energy efficient heat pump dryers are well
suited to drying fruit, as they operate at low temperatures. This is essential for chilli drying as the
spice otherwise becomes brown instead of a bright red colour. The drying temperature should be
below 60°C; appropriate drying regimes would be 40°C at 20% relative humidity for heat pump dryers
or 60°C for 6h followed by 40°C for hot air dryers. The initially high temperature does not cause
browning, as the moisture content of the fruit is still too high at this early stage of the drying cycle to
allow browning reaction to occur.
vi
To accelerate drying, fruit should be cut into small, regular segments. This allows water to move out
of the tissues without interference from the waxy skin. Using a drying oil, as for sultanas, also
increased drying rates. However, this was not as effective as cutting fruit and high rates of oil were
needed due to the tough nature of the waxes.
A final moisture content of about 8% is ideal, as a moisture content above 11% allows mould growth
and below 4% causes excessive colour loss. To slow colour loss, which occurs naturally during
storage, it is important to keep the spice powder cool and out of light. In addition packing powder
under nitrogen stops colour loss, as it excludes oxygen that is needed for the colour loss reactions.
Different grinding techniques do not alter powder quality as long as they produce the same particle
size.
Keeping seed in the fruit during grinding results in the best yield and least cost, but dilutes colour.
Potentially this could reduce shelf life as the lower limit of colour intensity is more quickly reached,
even though the rate of colour loss is slower. Therefore, it is advisable to include seeds, but to use
additional methods as described above to prevent colour loss. Seeds of different cultivars have
varying effects on the rate of colour loss. This is most likely due to varying antioxidant content in the
seed. Vitamin E, a fat-soluble antioxidant, has a similar effect on reducing colour loss. Selecting
cultivars with high seed antioxidant levels is therefore necessary to produce a colour stable spice
powder.
Adding seed oil, to increase gloss, should be discontinued as a commercial practice as it results in
rancid off-odours. Also colour is not protected from degradation, as antioxidants that are present in
the oil are quickly degraded as the powder becomes rancid.
Currently virtually all chilli spice is imported into Australia. A survey of 90 chilli products sold in
Australia showed extensive contamination with aflatoxins. Overall only 9% of samples complied with
the 5µg/kg maximum level as set out by Australian standards. Another 12% were considered
marginal. On the whole spice powders performed worst, with minced and sauce samples having
higher passing rates. Whole and crushed fruit also performed better than ground samples. The mean
level of aflatoxins recorded was 19µg/kg with a maximum of 89µg/kg.
This survey indicates that there are considerable improvements that need to be made in order to
produce a safe food product for consumers. In order to avoid damage to this spice market, importers
need to insist on better quality assurance and testing by the producers. However, also a significant
opportunity exists for local producers to produce a safe product that will replace imported product
with an unknown safety history.
Aflatoxins are best controlled using an integrated strategy and by developing a HACCP (hazard
analysis of critical control points) system, as commonly used in the food industry. Initially disease
access to fruit in the field needs to be controlled by preventing insect damage to fruit. At harvest
obviously diseased fruit need to be discarded to minimise potential sources of aflatoxin producing
moulds. Fruit should be processed immediately after harvest or stored at refrigerated temperatures
below 13°C to prevent potential aflatoxin production. During processing conditions need to be
controlled so that mould cannot grow and produce aflatoxins. Either fruit have to be dried quickly at
low relative humidity to reduce surface moisture content, or the temperature needs to be above 37°C
as long as fruit have a high moisture content during initial drying. After drying fruit are ground into
powder. This powder rapidly attracts moisture. To maintain a moisture content below 11%, powder
should be packed immediately under low humidity conditions into packages with good moisture
barrier properties. Suitable packages would be sealed plastic bags or glass containers. Storage below
13°C further reduces the risk of aflatoxin production. As a final step all batches should be tested to
comply with relevant legal limits, which are 5µg/kg in Australia
vii
1. History and Economic Significance
The Capsicum family belongs to the Solanaceae and is related to eggplants, potatoes and tomatoes
(Bosland et al., 1996). They most probably originated in Bolivia and Peru (Purseglove et al., 1981,
Bosland et al., 1996) and were distributed after the discovery of America to other parts of the world. They
now grow in all parts of the world (Somos, 1984) and are part of many cuisines.
Capsicum spp. can be divided into groups based on fruit characteristics ranging from pungency (hotness)
and colour to shape, intended use and genetics. Capsicum fruit are berries, even though they are
considered vegetables by consumers, and are either consumed as sweet types or hot types. Sweet non-
pungent types are generally capsicums, also called bell pepper, and some other types such as pimiento
(Bosland et al., 1996). Paprika is in some cases classified as non-pungent (Bosland et al., 1996), even
though it may contain low or high levels of pungent compounds. The main differences in classification of
paprika around the world arise from the fact that in the U.S. paprika refers to red non-pungent dried
powder, whereas in Europe, especially Hungary, it refers to Capsicum in general and therefore may be
pungent or non-pungent (Bosland et al., 1996). In this review paprika will refer to cultivars that produce
non-pungent red spice powder. There are many hot pungent types that vary in pungency; for example New
Mexico, Jalapeno, Cayenne, Thai and Habanero types increase in pungency in this order. Chillies are
generally smaller and lower in red colour than non-pungent fruit (Purseglove et al., 1981).
The main uses of Capsicums vary according to their pungency and colour. Uses range from salads, using
capsicum to add flavour, to cooked dishes, using fresh green and red chillies to add pungency, to using
dried powder spice of paprika and chilli to add red colour and pungency (Biacs et al., 1989), to pickles,
using for example Jalapeno chillies, and to sauces, using for example Tabasco and Habanero chillies. Fruit
colour can be green, yellow or red; for dried spice production red fruit are used which have ripened from
their green unripe form.
The most common species for dried spice production is C. annuum. It is generally agronomically the
easiest species to grow and also produces large fruit that are easier to harvest and process. Examples are
paprika and Cayenne chilli. Species for fresh fruit production also include smaller fruited types such as C.
chinense, e.g. Habanero, C. frutescens, e.g. Tabasco, C. pubescense, e.g. Manzano, and C. baccatum, e.g.
Aji (Bosland et al., 1996).
Fresh Capsicum production grew worldwide from 11 in 1990 to 16 million tonnes in 1997 (FAO, 1999).
Of that 9.5 million tonnes are produced in Asia (FAO, 1999) with pungent chillies contributing 5.5 million
tonnes in this region (Vinning, 1995). Of the world production of fresh Capsicum 1.1 million tonnes, or
US$ 1,400 million, were traded internationally (FAO, 1999); pungent chilli contributed 0.1 million tonnes,
with a value of US$ 340 million, to international trade with 50% traded in Asia alone (FAO, 1987).
Australia produces 30,398 tonnes of fresh Capsicum and imports have declined from 1,000 tonnes, with a
value of A$4 million, (FAO, 1987) to 10 tonnes (FAO, 1999) and now exports 798 tonnes with a value of
A$ 1.3 million (FAO, 1999). Australian production of chillies was about 1,000 tonnes fresh weight (Miles,
1994) and due to changing eating patterns the Australian market is expected to grow to A$30 million in the
near future (Miles, 1994).
Most of the following report will consider production and processing of red chillies, and closely related
paprika, for dried spice production. While dried spice production was the main focus of this study,
production, harvesting and postharvest findings will be relevant for fresh product as well as chillies
produced for processing into, for example, puree or sauces.
1
2. Chilli Spice Production System
An extensive review of capsicum, or bell pepper, has been conducted by Wien (1997) who summarised
production from seed to vegetative growth to fruit development especially in regard to glasshouse
production. While some aspects are relevant and the review should be referred to, chilli for spice
production is field produced and different considerations for production, harvesting and processing apply.
2.1. The chilli spice production system

Chilli, and paprika, spice powder is produced in many locations around the world. The system generally
consists of a progression from:
• determination of a market for the product;
• seed and site selection;
• managing production factors such as fertiliser and water application and pest and disease control;
• determining harvest maturity and harvesting the crop;
• drying and grinding the fruit;
• and then storing the powder until consumption or incorporation into a food product.
Research into individual parts of this system has been carried out, with the majority of research relating to
general growing practices in the field (Indira et al., 1985; Grattidge, 1990; Meena-Nair et al., 1990) and
glasshouses (van Uffelen and Elgersma, 1990) and varietal improvements (Tewari, 1987; Fuentes and
Mora, 1988; Wright and Walker, 1991; Hibberd et al., 1992). The following summarises previous findings
in each of the above production system areas.
2.1.1. Seed and site selection

When selecting seed for chilli spice production a number of factors need to be considered. C. annuum spp.
are considered to be more easily cultivated. They also tend to produce larger fruit that are easier to harvest
and process. Pendulous fruit are preferred, as they are easily harvested by mechanical harvesters. The
desired hotness level needs to be taken into account (Table 1). Different types have widely varying heat
levels, but even within one group different cultivars can be quite different. It is generally advisable to test
specific cultivars under local conditions, as the environment can also influence expression of heat levels as
discussed later.
Table 1 Relative heat levels of some Capsicum types (0=mildest, 10=hottest).
Heat level Type Scoville Heat

Units
10 Habanero 100-325,000
9 Chile Piquin 100-250,000
8 Tabasco 100-200,000
7 Thai, Jalapeno, Cayenne 50-100,000
6 Serrano, Jalapeno, Cayenne 20-40,000
5 Wax, Cherry 5,000-10,000
4 Bell (Romanian Hot) 3,000-5,000
3 New Mexican 2,500
2 New Mexican 1,000
1 Mew Mexican 500
0 Bell pepper (capsicum), 0
Wax
2
The site chosen for producing chilli has a large influence on quality. It is a warm season crop that does not
thrive below 15°C and is susceptible to frost (Matta and Cotter, 1994). Seed emergence is significantly
slowed down by low temperatures and seed emergence from soil may be prevented altogether by
temperatures below 15°C (Lorenz and Maynard, 1980). Rapid emergence is desirable for production of
good stands and yields (Matta and Cotter, 1994). Light frost will kill the plants and temperatures between
4-16°C will stop the plants from thriving (Bosland et al., 1994). Fruit set is also prevented by temperatures
below 16°C and above 32°C.
Chillies prefer a well drained, moisture holding loam or sandy loam containing some organic matter
(Bosland et al., 1994; Matta and Cotter, 1994). A pH of 7.0-8.5 is suitable and the land should be levelled
to 0.01-0.03% to allow adequate drainage and prevent root diseases. Adequate water supply is essential.
Water stress can cause abscission of fruit and flowers, especially when it occurs during flowering (Matta
and Cotter, 1994) and reduces yield through reduced pollination (Haigh et al., 1996).
Chillies should be rotated to reduce disease problems; it should be only planted every 3-4 years in the same
soil (Bosland et al., 1994).
Stress during growth may increase heat levels. Low growth temperatures reduce the level of pungency in
chilli fruit (Cotter, 1980), and poorer soil types and water stress are believed to produce lower yields of
hotter fruit (Collins and Bosland, 1994; Miles, 1994; Lindsey and Bosland, 1995). Follow-up work to
quantify this effect and to determine suitable stresses that induce hotness while minimising yield sacrifices
is needed.
2.1.2. Managing production factors
As chillis are sensitive to frost, and maturity is delayed by low soil temperatures, chillies are best
established in the field in mid-spring; harvest of fruit occurs in late summer (Bosland et al., 1994). This
period results in the best overall quality. Repeat harvests may be possible if there is no risk of frost, but
our experience is that quality, especially heat level, is reduced when growing temperatures become too
low.
Chilli plants can be established by transplanting or direct seeding (Carter, 1994). For transplanting, seeds
are germinated and grown in glasshouses for about 5-6 weeks, before the 15-20cm tall seedlings are
transplanted into the field. Spacings of 30cm within rows 90-100cm between rows have been
recommended (Carter, 1994), but higher densities of 18cm within row spacing in double rows 65cm apart
are also feasible (Small J., pers. comm. 1998, Plate 1 & 2). As many roots as possible need to be retained
and phosphorus solutions may aid in root establishment. Transplanted plants tend to be shorter and have
more nodes (Bosland et al., 1994). Transplanting, together with row covers and plastic mulches, can result
in production of earlier crops (Matta and Cotter, 1994), but results are variable (Bosland et al., 1994).
Overall the higher planting and establishment costs need to be weighed up against the reduced costs of
seeds and cultivation compared to direct seeding.
For establishment from seed, dry seeds are generally direct seeded into the soil. When the soil temperature
is low this can result in slow and non-uniform germination. This may be overcome by several techniques
whose success is variable though. These include moisturising the seed to 10-25% and seed priming in
polyethylene glycol for 3-7 days before drying to the original moisture content before the seed is planted
(Carter, 1994).
Seeds are generally sown to a depth of 1.9-2.5 cm (Bosland et al., 1994; Carter, 1994); crusting of the soil
due to wet-dry cycles during seedling emergence has to be avoided, as chilli seedlings are relatively weak.
Sprinkler irrigation can be used where soils tend to crust (Carter, 1994). Seeding rates of 2.2-4.4kg/ ha can
be used for single rows on flattened beds that are spaced 90-100cm apart; plants are then thinned to 30cm
apart when they are 10-15cm tall (Matta and Cotter, 1994). To reduce thinning costs, high-density
plantings can also be used. In this case seeds are direct-drilled 2.5 to 5cm apart in double rows that are
65cm apart (Small J., pers. comm. 1998). Each plant is reduced in size and individual yield, but overall
3
due to the high density excellent yields can be obtained.
As stated previously, chillies require a good supply of water, as yield will be dramatically reduced by water
stress. Underwatering results in flower and small-fruit drop and blossom end rot of fruit, while
overwatering results in increased risk of root diseases (Dickerson, 1994). Irrigation will vary with plant
size, wind, sunlight, temperature and relative humidity. As the chilli plant takes most moisture out of the
top 30cm of soil, irrigation can be scheduled with moisture sensors within that zone. Visually irrigation
should be scheduled when plants show wilting in the early afternoon (Bosland et al., 1994). After
emergence, as roots grow into wet soil, irrigation may not be necessary for 3 weeks, then irrigation may be
applied every 5-7 days, with longer periods during rain episodes and towards the end of the season to
improve quality (Bosland et al., 1994). Drip irrigation is commonly practiced and is more efficient than
sprinkler or furrow irrigation. However, chilli plants are sensitive to salinity and therefore the salinity of
the irrigation water is critical. Soil salinity before planting should be less than 1920ppm (Carter, 1994).
Salt injury is expressed as stunted and dead seedlings, burned root tips, necrosis on leaf margins and
wilting. For drip irrigation plants should be planted in the centre of beds as salt moves to the outside of
beds with the water front and sufficient water needs to be applied to leach salt below the root zone
(Goldberg, 1995).
Fertiliser regimes should be based on soil analysis. Especially nitrogen and phosphorus are important
nutrients for chillies. A preplant nitrogen application can aid the establishment of vigorous seedlings if the
soil nitrogen is below 20ppm nitrate; 2.2-5.7kg nitrogen/ha should be banded 7-10cm below the seed
(Bosland et al., 1994). Also 34kg/ ha of P2O5 is banded before seeding if levels are low in the soil.
Phosphorus results in better yields and more red coloured fruit (Matta and Cotter, 1994). During growth
further nitrogen may be applied to achieve better yields; however excess nitrogen will result in low-
yielding, large plants, delayed maturity and increased risk of disease development (Bosland et al., 1994).
A side dressing of 22-34kg/ ha of nitrogen should be applied when the first flower buds appear and again
when the first fruit set (Bosland et al., 1994). Foliar sprays for micronutrients and phosphorus side
dressings may also be necessary based on soil conditions. A minimum of 60kg/ ha nitrogen, potassium and
phosphorus may be necessary on phosphorus poor soils (Small J., pers. comm. 1998). Deficiencies and
toxicity of minerals is best determined by tissue analysis (Goldberg, 1995).
Wind exposure may reduce yields, increase bacterial diseases and reduce plant size and leaf area (Hodges
et al., 1996). Appropriate windbreaks are therefore necessary.
A number of pests can cause problems for chilli production. These include spider mites, thrips,
leafhoppers, aphids, fruitflies, weevils and Heliothis among others (Swaine et al., 1991). Chilli yields and
quality can be reduced by direct pest damage as well as from indirect damage as pests can also act as
vectors for virus diseases. Appropriate biocides may be used to control these pests. In addition to
conventional insecticides and miticides, integrated pest management with BT toxin (Bacillus thuringiensis)
and natural extracts from, for example, neem is becoming more common place (Walter, 1996). It should
be noted that ‘stung’ fruit will rapidly develop disease infections that make the fruit unmarketable as
discussed below. To fully discuss pest management including integrated pest management is beyond the
scope of this publication, but the reader may refer to standard texts.
Weed control is exercised using mechanical means, such as hand hoeing, or chemical means using
registered pre-emergence and post-emergence herbicides (Lee and Schroeder, 1995). Weed control can be
important in controlling insect populations as well as viruses that can use some weeds as alternative hosts.
Chillies are prone to a range of diseases that are described, with pictures, by Goldberg (1995) and Persley
et al. (1989); the descriptions below are largely taken from the former reference. These include root rots,
viruses, bacterial leaf spot, fruit rots and nematodes (Bosland et al., 1994). Root-knot nematodes are a
common problem in sandy, warm soils (Goldberg, 1995). Soil temperatures between 15 and 27°C in sandy
areas in the field are associated with yield loss; seedlings are more easily damaged than mature plants.
Symptoms are primarily the formation of knots on the root system. Nematodes are easily spread with soil
on equipment, transplants and through irrigation water. Control is achieved through sterilising potting
4
mixes and soil fumigation. Breeding for nematode resistant cultivars is also being carried out.
The three main soil borne diseases of chilli are Phytophthora root rot (Phytophthora capsici), Verticillium
wilt (Verticillium dahliae) and Rhizoctonia root rot (Rhizoctonia solani) (Goldberg, 1995). Phytophthora
root rot mainly causes problems in excessively wet fields from over-irrigation or excessive rains; heavy
soils, slow draining low spots in the field and shading of plants due to buildings and windbreaks exacerbate
the problem. Good field drainage is therefore important. There are no truly resistant cultivars and
chemicals have a limited effect; 3-4 year crop rotation with for example lettuce, brassicas, onions and small
grains can reduce residual Phytophthora populations. Symptoms are the death of the plant due to the death
of the root system; roots become discoloured and die, the stem’s bark sheds easily and the plant becomes
straw coloured and often shows sign of defoliation.
Verticillium wilt symptoms are variable, but most commonly results in yellowing and stunted plants.
Eventually defoliation may occur. The disease can be identified by the discolouration of the vascular
tissues in the stem as they become plugged by the fungus, causing the plant to die. This disease tends to be
a problem in more temperate climates and is difficult to control once it enters a field. Fumigation may give
control and crop rotation as above will help; no resistant cultivars exist.
Rhizoctonia root rot affects the plant on the stem near the soil; from this it moves into the stem and the
taproot causing reddish-brown lesions and leading to the death of the plant. Some plants may recover
somewhat by forming secondary roots above the lesions and good watering may prolong their life;
however, yields are much reduced. Control is best achieved with seed fungicidal treatments as for
damping off and no resistant cultivars exist.
Damping off is a seed or seedling disease that can be caused by a number of organisms such as Rhizoctonia
solani, Phytophthora capsici, Pythium spp. and Fusarium spp. (Goldberg, 1995). Seeds fail to germinate
and seedlings die rapidly due to the destruction of the roots or due to stem collapse. Fungicidal or hot
water seed treatments, well drained fields and seed beds and the use of good quality seeds help to control
this problem.
Bacterial leaf spot (Xanthomonas campestris pv. vesicatoria), Cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora capsici)
and powdery mildew (Leveillula taurica) are common leaf diseases (Goldberg, 1995). Bacterial leaf spot
and Cercospora leaf spot occur in wet, humid conditions and cause crop losses. The former causes circular
water-soaked lesions that turn purplish-grey with a yellow halo; the latter causes circular lesions that turn
grey or white and then dark brown with a reddish edge. Both diseases are best controlled with copper
based chemicals, even though some resistant fungal strains exist; these compounds need to be applied
before wet weather to be effective. Weed control is important as these diseases can be harboured on many
weed spp. Powdery mildew prefers warm weather (18-35°C) and can occur at low or high humidity. A
powdery white fungal mass covers the lower side of leaves and some discolouration on the top of leaves
occurs as this disease develops. Field sanitation and sulphur containing fungicides are the best control
options; sprays need to be applied early and thoroughly to achieve control.
A number of fruit diseases occur that reduce yield, but also have important safety implications for the final
spice product. This latter aspect will be further expanded upon in the quality section below. Phytophthora
fruit rot results in shrivelled fruit with a white mycelium on the inside infecting the fruit and seeds.
Control is achieved as for the Phytophthora leaf spot. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp.) initially
establishes itself in the field during wet conditions; it then lies latent and appears when the fruit ripens as
water soaked lesions that are coloured dark red to black. It is therefore often considered a postharvest
problem. Clean seed and crop rotation are the best control methods, and some fungicides may assist in its
control. Bacterial soft rot is mainly caused by Erwinia carotovora pv. carotovora in rainy weather where
soil is splashed onto fruit. The bacteria enter fruit through any minute damage, which is often caused by
insect damage, and liquefies the tissue at the infection site. Fruit often turn into water filled bags and for
fresh market fruit the disease spreads rapidly to neighbouring fruit in a box. Control is best achieved by
insect control in the field and chlorination of wash water after harvest.
5
The most serious field infection of fruit, however, comes from the black mould caused by Alternaria spp.
(Goldberg, 1995). Alternaria spp. occurs with excessive moisture late in the season and can be primary
causes of disease or secondary agents. As a secondary agent it infects fruit that have already been affected
by other disease agents. Black mould can be controlled by preventing other diseases and insect problems,
by reducing irrigation and fertilisation in the late season, and by harvesting red fruit as soon as possible.
After harvest chillies must be kept dry and processing techniques also need to be correct to minimise
problems.
In addition to Alternaria spp., other moulds may be present as secondary disease agents (Goldberg, 1995).
This may be of concern as some of these fungi, given the right conditions produce mycotoxins, including
aflatoxins, the most potent liver carcinogen known. The implications of this problem are discussed in the
quality section below.
Paprika plants are affected by beet curly top virus, tomato spotted wilt virus, pepper mottle virus, alfalfa
(lucerne), cucumber and tobacco mosaic viruses and pepper geminiviruses among others (Goldberg, 1995).
Leafhoppers transmit beet curly top virus from susceptible plants resulting in seedling death, plants
stunting and curled, twisted and dimpled leaves with clear veins. Thrips are the vector of tomato spotted
wilt virus that causes off-coloured spots and distortion of fruit, and leaf distortion and mosaic and chlorotic
ring spots. Aphids transmit pepper mottled virus resulting in misshapen, mottled and puckered leaves.
Aphids also spread cucumber mosaic virus and it causes narrowing, stunting and light coloured spots of
leaves, and may cause small, distorted fruit. Alfalfa mosaic virus spreads through close proximity of
alfalfa (lucerne) plants and causes distorted fruit. Tobacco mosaic virus causes light and dark green bumps
on leaves and small, unevenly coloured fruit; it is transmitted mechanically on tools and hands, and on
seeds. Pepper geminiviruses cause stunting, yellow mosaic patterns on curled or twisted leaves and distort
fruit; they are transmitted by whitefly. Virus control varies with the vector; insect or aphid transmission is
controlled by controlling the vector and of weeds that are alternate host. Tobacco mosaic virus is difficult
to control and prevention depends on good hygiene practices and clean seed. Alfalfa (lucerne) should not
be planted nearby and resistant cultivars are available for tomato spotted wilt virus and tobacco mosaic
virus.
A number of non-microbial disorders can also affect chilli fruit (Goldberg, 1995). These include nutrient
deficiencies and toxicities, salt, wind, hail and herbicide damage, and blossom end rot and sunburn.
Blossom end rot is related to poor irrigation practices that lead to calcium deficiency (Bosland, 1994).
Fruit develop brown/ black spots on the lower portion and ripen prematurely in response to insufficient
water, and therefore calcium, being supplied to rapidly developing fruit. Sunburn occurs when fruit are
exposed to direct sunlight for extended periods due to wilting or defoliation from underwatering or
diseases. The affected tissue turns tan in colour, becomes papery and is often affected by secondary fungal
infections (Goldberg, 1995).
2.1.3. Harvesting
The harvest maturity of chilli for spice production is normally determined by the colour stage, that is the
ripeness stage, that the fruit have reached. As fruit ripen they turn from green to green with some light red
colour showing, to all light red, to deep red (blood colour), to deep red with partial drying of fruit.
Commercially fruit of deep red colour that are or are not partially dried can be used for spice production
(Deli et al., 1996; Worku et al., 1975). Partial drying of fruit on the plant does not reduce quality, as fruit
will be dried during processing. Additionally, colour stability of red chilli spice was best when harvest was
delayed (Isidoro et al., 1995). On the other hand light red fruit have too low a colour content and reduce
the quality of the final spice powder.
Chilli fruit on the bush have a wide range of ripeness due to the growth habit of the chilli plant (Figure 1).
6
Node 4
Node 3
Node 2
Node 1
Figure 1 Schematic representation of a chilli plant.
As the plant grows it repeatedly branches and flowers at the thus created node. Node 1 flowers first, node
2 second and so on. Therefore the ripeness of the fruit also decreases from node 1 to the top node. It is not
uncommon for fruit to be harvested from 6-7 nodes. As most fruit will be harvested from the top nodes, it
is essential for a good yield that the fruit from the top nodes are allowed to ripen. This can be done by
either harvesting mature fruit repeatedly or by leaving fruit on the plant for a once-over harvest. The latter
is necessary for machine harvesting. Heat levels of fruit from top nodes may also be lower than from
lower nodes due to increased competition for pungency precursors (Zewdie and Bosland, 1996). Due to
the relatively high proportion of fruit from top nodes the average pungency levels will be more similar to
that of fruit from top nodes than the maximum heat level.
The different ripeness stages also contribute to differences in colour and pungency levels of fruit within
and between bushes (Miles, 1994). Plant hormone sprays are used widely in the horticultural industry.
One that has been used for synchronising chilli ripening is ethylene, a natural ripening hormone, in the
form of ethephon sprays (Indira et al., 1985). Kader (1992) reports that ethephon is registered for
preharvest ripening sprays in chillies in the US and has been reported to successfully accelerate (Batal and
Granberry 1982; Worku et al., 1975) or concentrate (Sims et al., 1970) Capsicum fruit ripeness.
The effectiveness of ethephon, when applied to chilli plants before harvest, varies with factors such as rate,
number of application, temperature, cultivar (Beaudry and Kays, 1988; Rylski, 1986) or even the type
(Batal and Granberry, 1982; Sims et al., 1970). Most previous work (Sims et al., 1970; Worku et al.,
1975) found that ethephon had the greatest effect, if any, at application rates in the concentration range of
1000 to 5000 µL/L.
Due to economic considerations, mechanical harvesting of chilli for processing is essential in Australia
(Miles 1994). While the use of a single destructive harvest is efficient (Palevitch, 1978), a uniform
ripeness at harvest is needed. The possibility of using ethephon to synchronise fruit ripeness of cultivars
grown in Australia therefore needed to be investigated.
2.1.4. Processing
After harvest, chilli fruit are normally directly dried and ground into powder. However, fruit that are not
fully red may continue to ripen after harvest. This may provide an opportunity of separating dark red from
other fruit at harvest, and allowing the other fruit to ripen to increase overall yield.
Fresh chillies are often classified as non-climacteric (Saltveit, 1977; Kader, 1992), that is, they do not show
an increase in metabolism or ethylene production as they ripen. However, other reports suggest that some
chillies produce increased ethylene levels during colour changes (Gross et al., 1986). This suggests that
chillies are sensitive to accelerated ripening using ethylene after harvest. Suitable ripening conditions
would be similar to tomatoes with a temperature of about 20°C, a high relative humidity (RH) of 90-95%
to reduce water loss and about 100ppm ethylene (Kader, 1992). However, it is not known whether the
quality of fruit ripened after harvest will be comparable to fruit harvested ripe. Also it is not clear what the
7
minimum maturity for postharvest ripening is for chillies; as an indication immature green tomatoes, where
the gel has not started to soften, will never ripen after harvest.
Chilli fruit, as indicated above, are generally washed to remove debris, dirt and residues and then dried. To
accelerate drying fruit may be cut into segments. At this stage diseased fruit must be removed to prevent
health risks from mycotoxin production as discussed below.
Dried chilli powder is widely used as a food ingredient for its hotness and colour. Most dried chilli powder
used is red; however, in many cases powder becomes brown during drying and this reduces quality (Miles,
1994). The browning reactions that mask the red colour of chillies (Bosland, 1993) are due to enzymic
activity (Mayer and Harel, 1979) and, more importantly during drying, due to non-enzymic Maillard
reactions. The latter reactions increase in rate at higher temperatures (Roos and Himberg, 1994) and at
intermediate levels of moisture content in the fruit (Wedzicha, 1984). Therefore drying at high
temperatures or drying slowly will result in a browner powder of poorer quality.
Traditionally chillies are sun dried in major production areas in the world (Shirvastava et al., 1990) and
solar driers have improved drying efficiency (Shirvastava et al., 1990, Tiris et al., 1995). However, these
techniques, similarly to hot air driers, utilise high temperatures and chillies remain for long periods at
intermediate moisture levels resulting in brown discolouration of the product. Industrial driers result in a
better quality, more uniform product (Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1994b). These driers often use a higher
temperature, about 60°C, early during drying while the moisture content of the chillies is high. Then the
temperature is reduced to about 45°C to prevent browning reactions during the final stages of drying.
Drying of chillies is a slow process due to the very slow movement of water through the waxy cuticle of
the fruit. To accelerate drying fruit are often cut into segments. Some workers have claimed that chillies
can be dried in less then 20 hours (Zapata et al., 1992 cited in Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1994a), but longer
periods are common in commercial practice. The drying time and conditions also have implications for the
microbial safety of the resulting powder as discussed in the quality section below.
Fruit are generally dried to a moisture content of about 8%, as 4% or below results in accelerated colour
degradation and 11% or above induces fungal growth (Wall and Bosland, 1993). The final moisture of the
powder is as important as that of the dried un-ground fruit, as the powder is hygroscopic (i.e. it attracts
water) and may rapidly pick up moisture in humid environments. Re-drying after grinding and packaging
with moisture proof plastic liners may be necessary.
It is important to dry chillies faster than is currently possible to make the drying process more economical
and to produce a better quality powder. The faster the drying process is, the smaller the capacity of the
dryer has to be to dry the same quantity of product in a given season. This has a major effect on capital
outlay needed to produce chilli powder. One way in which drying is accelerated for dried fruit like
sultanas, is to use a drying oil that contains mostly ethyl ester of fatty acids (C14/C16/C18) and potassium
carbonate (K2CO3) as active constituents. Whether this technology or cutting of fruit results in faster
drying and which process results in better quality powder needs to be evaluated.
After drying, chilli fruit need to be ground to produce the spice powder. A number of different
considerations are important for the final quality of the powder. The red colour intensity will vary
depending on whether the whole fruit or only the flesh without seed is used for manufacturing. Seeds are
colourless and therefore will dilute the colour of the powder (Purseglove et al., 1981; Almela et al., 1991).
However, the omission of the seed and of the associated placental tissue will reduce the hotness of the
powder, as the pungent compounds mainly reside in these. Seeds also seem to have colour protectant
qualities that stop the loss of red colour during storage (Biacs et al., 1992).
The ratio of flesh to seed used may also be varied, by separating both after drying and adding them
together in a defined ratio during grinding. In Hungary two types of paprika powder are traded, Delicacy
Sweet Noble, which has a flesh to seed ratio of 100:45, and the lower quality Sweet Noble, with a flesh to
seed ratio of 100:75 (Small J., pers. comm. 1998).
Commercially two types of mills may be employed for grinding chilli fruit. For example in Hungary
traditional stone mills are used, whereas for industrial manufacturing hammer mills are common. The two
8
methods of grinding vary in their action, as stone milling is thought to crush the seeds so that their contents
mix more thoroughly with the powder. This may result in increased gloss and reduced colour loss during
storage (Biacs et al., 1992; Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1993), due to natural antioxidants present in the seed
oil. This supposed benefit, however, needs to be quantified more carefully.
2.1.5. Storage of powder
The storage of the resultant chilli spice powder has important implications for its quality. The carotenoid
colour pigments responsible for the red colour are readily oxidised and the spice powder becomes less
intensely coloured, developing an orange rather than a red hue. Researchers have tried new cultivars,
different drying and storing methods to reduce the instability of the carotenoids (Okos et al., 1990; Biacs et
al., 1992; Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1993; Biacs et al., 1994; Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1994b; Osuna-
Garcia and Wall, 1996). Natural antioxidants, such as α-tocopherol (Vitamin E) and ascorbic acid
(Vitamin C) reduce colour loss, even though α-tocopherol is more effective (Biacs et al., 1992). A
synthetic antioxidant, ethoxyquin, also reduced colour loss of paprika spice powder during storage (Osuna-
Garcia and Wall, 1996). However, the addition of natural or synthetic antioxidants to spices is not
permitted in Australia (Australian and New Zealand Food Authority, 1996). Okos et al. (1990) found that
the mixing of ground seeds from chilli fruit with their fruit flesh reduced colour degradation during
storage. Light, air and temperature during storage also have a profound effect on colour retention in chilli
spice powders (Malchev et al., 1982). Exclusion of light and oxygen and storage at low temperatures all
reduce the rate of colour loss. Oxygen could be excluded by nitrogen storage (Bunnell and Bauernfeind,
1962).
However, little is known about relative effects of different colour stabilising treatments and therefore
which treatment would be most applicable for the spice industry.
2.2. Defining quality

The final quality of chilli spice powder is assessed by a number of different parameters. Colour and
pungency levels are the most obvious parameters assessed, but sweetness and flavour of non-pungent
paprika powders are also important. In addition the spice trade may specify limits of impurity, levels of
microbial counts of, for example, fungi, yeasts, Salmonella and coliforms, particle size and moisture
content among others. The main characters discussed here will be colour, pungency and mycotoxins in
relation to their biochemistry, assessment and desired levels. Other microbiological tests are standard
throughout the food industry and can be performed by any registered microbiological laboratory.
The colour of chilli spice powder is due to the presence of red-pigmented carotenoids. The main pigments
are capsanthin, capsorubin, zeaxanthin and cryptoxanthin (Lease & Lease, 1956). Carotenoids are very
stable in intact plant tissue. However, when chillies are processed by drying and grinding into spice
powder, the carotenoids easily autoxidise due to effects of heat, light and oxygen as discussed above
(Bunnell and Bauernfeind, 1962; Simpson et al., 1976 study cited in Britton and Hornero-Mendez, 1997).
This leads to a more orange and less intense colouration that devalues the spice powder. In addition
carotenoids have provitamin A activity (Somos, 1984; Minguez-Mosquera and Hornero-Mendez, 1993)
and vitamin A is essential for the human diet; in fact the daily vitamin A requirement can be met by daily
consuming 3-4g of capsicum powder (Somos, 1984). Carotenoids also have antioxidative properties that
may prevent cancer (Hertog et al., 1997).
Colour of chilli powder can be measured either as extractable red colour or surface colour. Extractable
colour is the official method used by the American Spice Trade Association (ASTA, 1985) and in
international trade (Woodbury, 1990). Generally in trade the lower limit allowable for chilli powder is 120
ASTA units and for non-pungent paprika 160-180 ASTA units. However, the higher the colour level is the
better the quality of the spice is; also the loss of red colouration during storage needs to be considered to
allow the spice to be of acceptable colour when it reaches the consumer.
Surface colour measurements will give some indication of how the chilli powder will look to the eye. The
lightness (L) value can give some indication of colour differences, as powder of higher colour intensity
9
will have a lower ‘L’ value. However, powder that is dried at too high a temperature or that has other
quality defects, for example fungal development, may be dark and brownish and the ‘L’ value may
therefore be artificially low. For chilli powder a hue angle (h°) of 0º is red and 90º is yellow; therefore the
closer the value to 90° is the more orange a powder will appear (Wall, 1994). However, as it is difficult to
interpret complex ‘L’ and ‘h°’ data, the standard technique used by the spice industry is to measure
extractable colour and to observe the powder visually for defects.
Heat, or pungency, in chillies is caused by a group of compounds called capsaicinoids (Collins and
Bosland, 1994), which are amino amides of vanillylamine and C9-C11 branched fatty acids (Quinones-
Seglie et al., 1989). The two major capsaicinoids are capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin, accounting for about
90% of total capsaicinoids. The minor capsaicinoids are nordihydrocapsaicin, norcapsaicin,
homocapsaicin, nornorcapsaicin and homodihydrocapsaicin. Capsaicinoids are controlled by a range of
factors from genetics, position of fruit on the plant and the environment as discussed previously. Therefore
to achieve the heat potential determined by the genetics (see Table 1), the environment has to be
conducive. For example cool growing conditions dramatically reduce heat levels. Capsaicinoids are
mainly synthesised in the placenta (Iwai et al., 1977; Fujiwake et al., 1982) and are also found in the seed
(Purseglove et al., 1981). Heat is perceived due to the interaction of the capsaicinoids with nerve cells of
the skin and mucous membranes that trigger responses similar to ones caused by thermal heat (Clapham,
1997).
For trade it is important to adequately measure heat levels. This allows standardisation of products. On a
very subjective level, chilli fruit are often rated on a scale similar to the one shown in Table 1. However,
responses are very subjective. This is due to tasters getting used to capsaicinoids over time, showing
reduced responses to similar heat stimuli. The commercial method of determining heat levels in chillies is
to measure pungency as Scoville Heat Units (SHU). These are named after the inventor of the Scoville
Organoleptic Test to determine pungency by dilution series (Collins and Bosland, 1994). For the analysis
a representative ground spice sample is used, which allows the analysis of the average heat level of a batch,
rather than the very variable level found in different chilli fruit. The most reliable method of analysis is
high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), but near infrared spectrophotometry methods (Asian
Vegetable Research and Development Centre, 1993) are also being developed. The level of SHU desired
for a product varies, depending on the market. However, U.S. style paprika generally only has traces of
pungency, while commercial chillies for spice production can vary with some specifications being around
60,000 SHU.
Capsicum products are known to be susceptible to contamination with mycotoxins (Scott and Kennedy,
1973; Seenappa, Stobbs and Kempton, 1980; Udagawa, 1982; Putzka, 1994). In particular aflatoxins are
of concern, as they are the most common mycotoxin found in chilli products around the world and are
possibly the most potent liver carcinogen known. Health effects include acute toxicity and long-term
development of cancers, for example of the liver. Aflatoxins are produced by specific fungal strains of
Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus under suitable conditions. Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1 and G2 exist,
and all have been found in chilli powder or paste. In addition occasionally ochratoxin A, produced by
Aspergillus ochraceus or Aspergillus carbonarius, may occur in chillies (Patel et al., 1996; Heenan et al.,
1998). Fumonisins, produced by Fusarium spp., are unlikely to be found in chillies (Patel et al., 1996).
Alternaria alternata, a common fungus in chilli, may also produce mycotoxins (Wall and Biles, 1994), but
levels and toxicity are likely to be low (Pitt, J., pers. comm. 2000).
What is of particular concern for public health is that aflatoxin contamination of chilli products is
widespread and high levels can be found. For example significant levels of aflatoxins were found in
commercial samples of 10/17 American cayenne pepper samples, of 6/6 Indian chilli powders and of 1/1
crushed, dried chillies samples (Scott and Kennedy, 1973). In a Japanese study 2/12 chilli and 5/12
paprika samples (Tabata et al., 1993), and in a German study 55% of chilli/ paprika samples (Putzka, 1994)
contained levels of aflatoxins above legal limits. The permissible level of aflatoxin in Australia (Australian
and New Zealand Food Authority, 1996) is 5µg/kg, 2µg/kg in Germany (Putzka, 1994) and 20µg/kg in the
U.S (Food and Drug Administration, 1999). The permissible level implies that defective spice must be
destroyed; it cannot be blended with a powder of lower aflatoxin content to produce a spice that passes the
requirement. However, in chilli samples levels of up to 525µg/kg were reported in Ethiopia (Fufa and
10
Urga, 1996), up to 48µg/kg in India (Jaffar et al., 1994), 51µg/kg in the UK (Macdonald and Castle, 1996)
and 234µg/kg in Italy (Finoli and Ferrari, 1994).
As referred to above, aflatoxins will only be produced if the right fungal strain meets the correct
environmental conditions. For example, 16/44 of soil isolates of A. flavus (Saito et al., 1976), 28% of
strains of A. flavus from spices (Udagawa, 1982) and 25% of strains of A. flavus from chilli spice (Ath-Har
et al., 1988) produced aflatoxins. Conditions that inhibit aflatoxin production on whole fruit are a relative
humidity (RH) of 80% or below and temperatures above 37°C (Pitt and Hocking, 1997). For dried powder
the moisture content needs to be below 14% and/or the storage temperature below 13°C to prevent
potential aflatoxin production (Anon., 1994; Pitt and Hocking, 1997). Therefore, holding, drying and
storage conditions for chillies and chilli spice should fall within these parameters to minimise fungal
growth and aflatoxin contamination. To this end diseased fruit from the field need to be excluded through
sorting as they potentially contain aflatoxin-producing moulds. Drying should occur quickly at low
humidity or at temperatures above 37°C. Powder should be packaged to maintain its low moisture content,
and sanitation needs to minimise the level of contamination of the environment with fungal spores. If fruit
are stored before drying, they must be kept cool, 7°C being optimal for chilli fruit. This minimises
microbial growth that may otherwise occur rapidly due to fruit injury sustained during mechanical
harvesting. However, it is not possible to reduce levels of aflatoxins by processing or cooking once
contamination has occurred, as aflatoxins are chemically very stable (Macdonald and Castle, 1996).
Aflatoxins, and other mycotoxins, can be measured in samples using HPLC methods, but new enzyme-
linked immunoabsorbent assays (ELISA) can be performed without sophisticated equipment (Adachi et al.,
1991). Routine testing of batches for aflatoxins therefore can, and indeed should, be carried out to
minimise public health risks.
No data is publicly available on levels of aflatoxin contamination in chilli products in Australia, and
therefore a survey of chilli products available in supermarkets and ethnic food outlets was conducted.
2.3. Gaining competitiveness

Considering the description of the chilli spice production system above, and current industry practice in
Australia a number of research issues have evolved to make Australian chilli spice production competitive.
As labour costs are low in many competitor countries, repeated hand harvesting at the optimum ripeness of
fruit is feasible there. To minimise this cost-disadvantage, Australia needs to adopt machine harvesting. It
is estimated that machine harvesting in Australia is only 20% of the cost of hand harvesting (Small J., pers.
comm. 1998). Ready-made equipment is available for large fruited cultivars with a hanging fruit habit,
contrary to standing-up fruit. However, machine harvesting relies on once-over harvesting as all fruit are
stripped of the plant. If the ripeness is not right, or varies a lot between fruit, a large number of
unmarketable fruit will need to be culled leading to increased costs and reduced yields. Strategies to
minimise losses due to varying maturities include the use of ethephon sprays, as discussed above, letting
fruit from top nodes catch up with lower nodes before harvest, and the ripening up of culls after harvest to
a marketable stage before processing. As responses to ethephon vary with different cultivars and growing
conditions, all three avenues of yield and quality maximisation need to be investigated for commercially
grown cultivars in Australia.
In a previous RIRDC sponsored study by Miles (1994) the main obstacles for Australian chilli
development were identified as using appropriate growing conditions to produce internationally
competitive hotness, lack of synchronous crop development resulting in non-uniform quality, and poor
colour retention during drying. While non-synchronous development was addressed above, appropriate
growing conditions need to be established. While, as discussed previously, hotness is determined by the
genetics of the cultivar, growing conditions seem to have a large influence over this quality aspect.
Therefore water, temperature and nutrition have to be right to achieve good quality. However, potentially
conflicts exist between quality and yield considerations. For example some water stress may limit yield
but maximise hotness. Ranges of in-field parameters that allow the production of good yields of good
quality fruit need therefore to be established under Australian growing conditions.
11
The issue of colour retention after drying, alluded to above, needs to be tackled on two levels. On the one
hand it is known that the wrong drying parameters will cause browning of the powder. This necessitates
the selection of a proper drying technique as well as the right conditions. In addition, the long drying
periods observed in industry potentially increase the potential of quality problems. Slow rates are linked to
the inherent water barrier (cuticle) of chilli skins, low temperatures that may be used to reduce browning of
pigments, or running dryers above capacity. Overall the industry would save significant costs, if fruit
could be dried more efficiently; these savings would be derived from lower capital outlays for smaller
driers if drying cycles are shortened and some energy savings. On the other hand the chilli spice powder
quality is influenced by processing factors, such as the presence of seeds, and by storage factors, as the red
carotenoid pigments are susceptible to breakdown. Therefore, to overcome the problems cited by Miles
(1994), more work is needed on drying and storage methodology to produce a well-coloured and stable
powder.
2.4. Research Goals

The main research goal, as discussed above, was to increase the competitiveness of Australian chilli spice
production. This involved an integrated approach tackling the various weaknesses of the existing chilli
spice production system from field production, harvesting to processing and storage.
In particular the aims were:
• to optimise in-field parameters for production of good quality fruit and yield;
• to synchronise ripeness at harvest to allow machine harvesting with minimal culling of immature and
unripe fruit;
• to evaluate post-harvest ripening to reduce culls of fruit due to non-uniformity of ripeness at harvest;
• to increase drying efficiency and quality of the dry powder;
• to investigate processing and storage techniques to improve chilli spice powder quality;
• to determine the extent of aflatoxin contamination of commercial samples in Australia.
Research was carried out in controlled environmental conditions and laboratory as well as on-farm to
maximise the transferability of results to commercial operations.
12
3. Research Findings and Conclusions
Detailed methods are given in a separate document that can be obtained from RIRDC. For the tables
shown, treatment means for a cultivar followed by different letters are significantly different at P<0.05.
3.1. Production
The aim of these experiments was to determine what effect various production practices have on chilli
spice quality and yield. We investigated the effect of growth temperature, water stress and fertiliser
application.
Findings
Air temperatures had no effect on marketable fruit yield (Table 2). This is due to our temperatures being
chosen so that plants can still grow and set fruit. Below 15-16°C plants will not develop normally
(Bosland et al., 1994, Matta and Cotter, 1994).
Table 2 Effect of air temperature on marketable yield and pungency of chilli fruit.
Temperature Fruit dry weight (g/plant) Pungency (SHU)

‘PS72285’ paprika
30/25°C 14.6 a 544 a
22/17°C 17.8 a 550 a
‘Caysan SPS 705’ chilli
30/25°C 24.9 a 16,207 a
22/17°C 25.0 a 6,693 b
Colour did not vary, but pungency of chilli was reduced by 59% at lower growth temperatures (Table 2).
Reduced heat levels at lower growth temperatures were also found by Cotter (1980) and Levy et al. (1989).
However, observations indicate that a higher growth temperature increased plant growth rate, shoot and
node elongation, number of flowers initiating per node, numbers of fruit setting, and fruit colour
development. Red fruits obtained from plants grown at the higher temperature were mature earlier than at
lower temperature, 49 days earlier in the case of paprika and 29 days earlier for chilli.
Fertilisers, within the range tested, did not have any effects on plant growth, yield or colour quality of
paprika (Table 3). Pungency was undetectable in paprika fruits.
For chillies, some effects of fertilisers were found (Table 3). Yield and colour were not different between
fertiliser levels, but shoot weight increased with 150% N and pungency increased with both 50% and 150%
N. As this effect was not a consistent trend, varying the normal fertiliser rate is not recommended.
Table 3 Effect of fertilisers on fruit quality and shoot dry weight of chilli.
13
Marketable fruit
Fertiliser Colour (ASTA) Pun-gency Shoot DW (g/plant)
(SHU)
All levels 197 0 21.2
N50%, K100% 88 a 64,613 a 24.3 b
N100%, 108 a 50,748 b 24.2 b
K100%
N150%, 96 a 71,890 a 30.5 a
K100%
K150%, 98 a 49,745 b 27.1 ab
N100%
Increased soil water deficit after fruit set reduced paprika fruit yield by 33% for the highest water stress
treatment (Table 4). Fruit colour and size was not influenced by water stress, and paprika fruit were not
pungent. Both shoot and root dry weight were significantly reduced, but the ratio of shoot to root dry
weight increased as water stress increased, indicating that water stress had a larger effect on root
development than on shoot growth.
In chilli, increased water deficit also reduced fruit yield (Table 4), while fruit size remained constant.
Marketable fruit yield was reduced by 40% and 61% by the medium and high water stress treatments,
respectively, compared to the control. Water stress significant increased ratio of shoot to root dry weight.
Colour intensity and pungency was not influenced by any water stress treatment.
Table 4 Effect of water stress on marketable yield of chilli fruit.
Irrigation Fruit dry weight (g/plant)

frequency
2 days 16.3 a
4 days 14.3 ab
6 days 11.0 b
2 days 32.1 a
4 days 19.4 b
6 days 12.5 c
Applying partial root zone drying to split root plants (Plate 3) overall had a different effect than the
application of water stress above (Table 5). Where a water stress was applied in this trial, marketable fruit
yield did not change. This indicates that plants were able to maintain flowers and fruit, despite the 50%
reduction in watering. Colour quality of fruit remained unchanged with the application of a water stress.
Pungency did not vary between treatments. The different effect of water deficit on normal plants and split-
root plants is probably due to the mode of stress perception. Fruit did not abscise as shoots still received
sufficient water, while root water stress did not cause fruit drop. This system is currently being used for
partial rootzone drying irrigation of grapes. However, application of this irrigation system for chillies
poses technical difficulties, as the rootzone of chillies is relatively small. If one side of the chilli plant
were irrigated, the other would most likely also receive water, negating the effect.
Table 5 Effect of partial root zone drying on marketable yield and colour of ‘Caysan SPS 705’ chilli fruit.
14
Treatment Dry weight (g/plant)
Experiment 1
Control 31.5 a
Partial root 26.5 a
zone drying
Experiment 2
Control 44.8 a
Partial root 37.6 a
zone drying
The nutrition and water stress experiments were repeated in a field experiment. Increasing N or K by
50% over normal fertiliser levels did not affect the yield or quality of either ‘PS72285’ paprika or ‘Caysan
SPS 705’, similarly to our pot trials. Not irrigating crops did also not affect yields, contrary to our pot
study where water stress reduced yields dramatically. However, in the field sufficient rain occurred during
fruit set and development to prevent serious water stress in the non-irrigated plants.
Conclusion
Growth temperatures, within normally tolerated levels, have no effect on total harvested fruit yield and
colour quality of both cultivars. Higher temperatures accelerated plant growth and fruit maturation, and
resulted in higher heat levels within fruits. While it is not possible to influence the growing temperature in
the field, planting sites need to be chosen that have adequate temperatures. Also planting dates need to be
chosen early enough, so that fruit development and maturation does not occur in cooler autumn months.
In addition, heat stress causes problems for young plants. Seeding towards summer (after October)
increases the risk of excessive heat exposure, killing plants. This is probably caused by water stress, as the
root system is very small at that stage. Adequate watering is therefore very difficult given a high
transpiration rate. More mature plants withstand the heat stress much better.
Fertilisers, within the range tested, had no effects on yield or colour intensity of both cultivars. However,
chillies produced more vegetative growth under higher N. While N also had a variable effect on pungency,
normal fertiliser application as outlined above is recommended.
Water stress markedly reduced total and marketable fruit yields, but it had no effect on colour intensity or
pungency of both cultivars. To ensure that adequate yields are obtained, growers need to be able to irrigate
the crop if insufficient rainfall occurs. This is especially critical during the flowering, fruit set and
development stages. Partial rootzone drying, as practiced for vines, seems not feasible due to the small
root system of the chilli plant.
Other general comments can be made in relation to chilli production. Insect management is essential to
prevent ‘stinging’ of fruit, which leads to rapid development of bacterial soft rots and fungal spoilage.
This is especially important in light of the previous comments on mycotoxins. In addition sunburn, caused
if leaf cover of fruit is poor, causes a similar secondary disease problem. Paprika was generally more
susceptible to sunburn than our chilli cultivar.
3.2. Harvesting
The results of this study have been reported previously by Krajayklang et al. (1999) in the Australian
Journal of Experimental Agriculture. The aim of this study was to examine whether application of
ethephon on the plant could accelerate and concentrate the ripening of the fruit. This is desirable to
maximise yield for once-over harvests.
15
Findings
We found that ‘PS72285’ paprika and ‘Caysan SPS705’ chilli fruit ripened faster on the bush with
ethephon applications. A larger proportion of ethephon treated fruit was at a riper stage compared to the
control (Table 6).
Table 6 Chilli fruit ripeness at harvest after ethephon application.
Ethephon applied Total harvested fruit (abscised excluded) (%)

(µL/L) M B G
0 21 a 28 b 37 a
1000 19 a 59 a 18 b
3000 23 a 59 a 16 b
5000 24 a 63 a 12 b
‘Caysan SPS705’ chilli
0 59 b 22 a 16 a
1000 74 a 26 a 0b
3000 88 a 10 b 0b
5000 79 a 5b 0b
Fruit were classified as M(arketable), B(reaker) or G(reen).
However, the marketable and total yields markedly decreased for ethephon treated chilli plants due to
extensive fruit abscission (Table 7, Plate 4). Marketable paprika fruit yield was little affected by ethephon
application, but total yield was reduced (Table 7). The difference in yield response was simply due to an
earlier harvest for the paprika, before fruit abscised excessively.
To avoid plant injury and fruit abscission in sensitive cultivars, lower concentrations of ethephon may be
useful (Cantliffe and Goodwin, 1975). However, field experiments require higher concentrations of
ethephon to advance ripening than glasshouse trials (Sims et al., 1970). We did not test reduced
concentrations of ethephon that may cause less abscission, as ethephon was not likely to have any effect at
lower concentrations.
Table 7 Effect of ethephon treatments on yield of chilli fruit.
Ethephon applied Fresh weight of harvested fruit (g/plant)

(µL/L) Marketable Total
0 82 a 387 a
1000 46 a 302 b
3000 53 a 282 b
5000 57 a 276 b
0 199 a 318 a
1000 103 b 146 b
3000 98 b 112 c
5000 91 b 99 c
Red colour intensity of marketable paprika fruit was not affected by ethephon treatments (Table 8), but
chilli fruits had 16% increased levels of extractable colour with 1000 µL/L ethephon; higher rates did not
produce this effect.
Paprika was not pungent. For chilli fruit, 1000 and 3000 µL/L, but not 5000 µL/L, ethephon increased
pungency levels by 50% compared to the control (Table 8). This effect on pungency has not been
previously reported.
16
All ethephon treated plants showed defoliation that was most severe for 5000 µL/L. For paprika, these
plants retained only 6% of leaves compared to nearly 100% for control plants; chilli plants retained 12, 20,
48 and 99% of leaves for 5000, 3000, 1000 µL/L and control treatments, respectively.
Table 8 Effects of ethephon treatments on colour and heat level of chilli.
Ethephon Marketable fruit

applied Colour Pungency
(µL/L) (ASTA) (SHU)
0 288 a 0
1000 278 a 0
3000 279 a 0
5000 272 a 0
0 141 b 13,418 b
1000 164 a 19,547 a
3000 136 b 19,814 a
5000 139 b 11,145 b
Fruit were also injured by ethephon, with brown sunken lesions appearing on the skin (Plate 5). Injury was
more severe at the highest ethephon concentration and for paprika compared to chillies.
Conclusion
While ethephon potentially accelerated fruit ripening, yield was dramatically reduced. This was not offset
by any consistent quality improvements in colour or pungency. On the contrary ethephon induced
defoliation and fruit skin damage.
Economically, ethephon treatments are not viable to induce uniform ripening for machine harvesting of
‘PS72285’ paprika and ‘Caysan SPS705’ chilli. A more suitable alternative is to allow the maximum
number of fruits to mature naturally on the bush. This is possible in many parts of Australia since fruit do
not normally abscise and there is little risk of frost at normal harvest times, contrary to some other chilli
producing countries.
17
3.3. Postharvest ripening
Yield of chilli fruit from once-over harvesting is always below 100% due to the mixed-ripe state of fruit at
harvest time. We examined whether it is possible to segregate variously coloured fruit and to ripen the less
advanced fruit after harvest.
Findings
The various stages of ripeness, as defined by visual colour and degree of shrivelling are shown in Plate 6.
Fruit that were harvested at a green or dark green ripeness stage changed colour slightly to a breaker stage
(partially red), but ripening did not proceed further (Table 9). This was the case whether fruit were
allowed to ripen by themselves or whether they were treated with 100ppm ethylene to induce ripening.
Table 9 Final colour intensity of chilli fruit harvested at different ripeness stages.
Colour stage Colour (ASTA)

at harvest
‘PS72285’ ‘Caysan SPS705’
Paprika Chilli
Green 50 d 25 f
Dark green 63 d 38 e
Breaker 104 c 74 d
Breaker red 139 b 89 c
Red 139 b 90 c
Dark red 169 a 106 b
Dark red + 194 a 120 a
slightly
shrivelled
Fruit that had started to ripen on the bush, that is breaker fruit, became red or dark red, depending on
cultivar (Table 9). All other fruit visually became dark red. The length of time to develop a red colour
varied depending on initial ripeness stage. For example breaker fruit took about 1 week to ripen. The
ripening period and final colour did not vary whether fruit were ethylene treated or not.
However, for spice production the colour intensity as measured in ASTA units is critical. It is clear, that
the visual colour may show no differences, but that colour intensity can still vary significantly. Only fruit
that had a dark red colour on the bush, and that was slightly shrivelled in the case of chillies, obtained the
maximum colour intensity needed for a good quality product (Table 9). Ethylene had no effect.
Pungency did not vary significantly between different colour stages at harvest once fruit were ripened.
Conclusion
Chilli fruit need to be maintained on the bush until they become dark red and slightly shrivelled to obtain
the maximum possible colour for the spice product. However, in practice it is not possible to leave crops
in the field until all fruit have become shrivelled. Therefore, a more realistic aim is to harvest fruit when
80% or more have reached a dark red or dark red and slightly shrivelled stage. Only those fruit should be
processed into spice powder. This results in the best achievable overall colour.
It is not possible to ripen chilli fruit after harvest, as this results in an inferior colour quality. Fruit with
insufficient colour need to be sorted out before processing. Ethylene application, as is used for many other
crops, does not result in any differences from normal ripening in chilli fruit.
18
3.4. Drying
Drying greatly affects the final quality of the spice product. It is also a considerable cost factor.
Therefore we examined ways to maximise the quality and to reduce the drying time of chilli fruit.
Findings
Preliminary studies found that when chilli and paprika samples were dried at high temperatures, above
60°C, they obtained a brown and therefore inferior colour (Plate 7). The browning is mainly due to non-
enzymic browning reactions that can only be avoided by lowering the temperature. Drying of whole
chillies was extremely slow, taking more than 4 days.
Therefore, when comparing different types of dryers, we cut fruit into slices. Even then the fastest
drying time achieved was 48 hours (Table 10). The slow drying rate is due to the thick, waxy and
relatively moisture-impermeable cuticle on the fruit surface (Plate 8) (Lownds et al., 1993). This prevents
water moving through all surfaces of the cut fruit, slowing the rate of drying.
Table 10 Effect of dryer on colour and drying time of chopped ‘PS72285’ paprika.
Drying time Visual colour

(hours)
Dryer
Hot air dryer 48 dark red, slightly
(60°C for 6h brownish
then 40°C)
Heat pump 48 dark red
dryer (40°C,
20% RH)
Freeze dryer 60 light red, whitish
surface
The hot air and heat pump dryer resulted in a dark red product, with the hot air dryer also producing a
slight brown discolouration; however, the freeze dryer resulted in a dull, whitish appearance of light red
fruit (Table 10). This did not translate into any differences in extractable colour, but the freeze dyer took
50% longer to dry the samples. It is therefore not economically feasible to use freeze-drying for chilli or
paprika drying. Overall the lower temperature in the heat pump dryer produced the best quality product
and this dryer is also considered to be the most energy efficient (Chou et al., 1994). However, the heat
pump dryer must not be loaded above capacity, as the humidity then increases dramatically. This prolongs
the drying time and allows fungi to grow resulting in a brown, mouldy product that potentially contains
increased levels of mycotoxins.
To accelerate drying, we tested the effect of drying oils and cutting of fruit. The fruit were dried at a
constant 45°C, which achieved comparable drying rates without the risk of brown discolouration of the
final product.
In preliminary tests a concentration of 10% dipping oil was needed to meaningfully reduce drying times,
compared to 2.5% for grapes. Dipping oils reduced drying times of uncut fruit (Table 11) to 2/3 for cold
oil and ½ for the hot oil. However, cutting fruit in half achieved a comparable result to the hot oil only
treatment. The shortest drying times were achieved for fruit cut into small segments, reducing drying times
to 1/6 of the uncut fruit. Dipping these segments in cold or hot oil did not further reduce drying times.
A semi-commercial drying trial also showed that cutting fruit into small sections very effectively
accelerated drying. Dipping fruit in a drying oil only approximately halved drying rates; heating the oil to
19
65°C only marginally increased the drying rate compared to 27°C. Dipping fruit in the drying oil followed
by cutting did not accelerate drying compared to fruit that were cut only. Cut fruit dried within 20 hours in
a hot air dryer at 45-50°C.
Conclusion
The best quality spice product resulted from using low drying temperatures of about 45°C. Heat pump
dryers are most energy efficient, but care must be taken to operate under low humidity conditions
throughout the drying cycle. This prevents fungal development and possible aflatoxin contamination.
Another control factor would be to dry fruit at no less than 45°C, which also stops aflatoxin production.
The energy cost in itself is not the major cost factor influencing the need to dry fruit quickly. Rather, the
capital cost to purchase larger dryers to deal with the same volume of fruit over longer drying cycles
becomes the limiting factor.
Cutting fruit into small segments allows fastest drying. Equipment needs to be reliable and consistent, and
diseased fruit need to be sorted out before this step to minimise cross-contamination. Dipping oils also
accelerate drying, but to a lesser extent. They are also a significant cost for the processor to purchase and
apply, especially as the application rate is much higher than for grape products. In addition it is essential
that dryers are not operated above capacity, as this slows drying and reduces quality.
Table 11 Effect of dipping oil and cutting on drying time to 10% moisture content of ‘PS72285’ paprika.
Oil treatment Cutting treatment Drying time (h)

No oil Uncut 56 a
Cut in half 25 c
Cut into 2.5cmx2.5cm sections 11 e
Oil dip at room temperature Uncut 41 b

Cut in half 17 d
Cut into 2.5cmx2.5cm sections 10 e
Oil dip at 65°C Uncut 30 c

Cut in half 15 de
Cut into 2.5cmx2.5cm sections 7e
20
3.5. Storage of dried powder
The results presented here were first published by Klieber and Bagnato (1999) in Food Australia. Once
fruit are dried, they are ground and then packaged for distribution and sale. As colour is the most unstable
quality characteristic of chilli spice, we examined ways to stabilise colour during storage and distribution.
Findings
The initial extractable colour varies between cultivars. It is highest in the ‘PS72285’ paprika, followed by
the Hungarian paprika and ‘Caysan SPS705’ chilli powders (Table 12). Paprika generally has a higher
colour content (Purseglove et al., 1981), while having a lower heat level. The initial colour was
proportionally diluted by adding seeds to flesh, while other treatments did not affect it with the exception
of vitamin E increasing it in the paprika powders and plate grinding reducing it in ‘PS72285’ paprika
powder.
The absolute rate of colour loss varied between cultivars. Chilli spice, while it had a lower colour content
initially, lost colour more slowly than the two paprikas (Table 12). However, the relative loss compared to
the initial colour level was the same in all 3 cultivars with 13% extractable colour lost per week for the
flesh only treatment. As the acceptable colour limit varies depending on type, the shelf life also did not
vary.
Adding seed slowed the rate of colour loss, but the ratio of seed needed to achieve this varied with cultivar.
A 100:10 ratio was effective for ‘Caysan SPS705’ chilli, and a 100:45 flesh:seed ratio was effective for the
paprikas. Seed addition was most effective for ‘Caysan SPS705’ chilli as it reduced the percentage loss per
week to a minimum of 5% compared to 10-11% for the paprikas. This could be due to these chilli seeds
containing more antioxidants that prevent autoxidation of the red pigments (Biacs et al., 1992).
Table 12 Initial extractable colour, rate of extractable colour loss and shelf life at 37°C for different chilli
and paprika powders.
Flesh:seed ratio and other treatments applied

100:0 100:10 100:45 100:45 100:60 100:0 100:0
HM HM HM PG HM Vit E N2 atm
Hungarian paprika
Initial colour (ASTA units) 268 bc 254 cd 216 d 217 d 208 d 286 a 281 ab
Weekly colour loss (ASTA units) 36 a 33 a 25 bc 27 b 23 c 25 bc 14 d
Shelf life (weeks) 2.5 c 2.2 c 1.4 d 1.4 d 1.2 d 4.2 b 7.0 a
Initial colour (ASTA units) 296 bc 290 bc 263 c 211 d 220 d 313 a 303 ab
Weekly colour loss (ASTA units) 38 a 35 a 30 b 21 d 21 d 27 c 11 e
Shelf life (weeks) 3.0 c 3.1 c 2.8 c 1.4 d 1.7 d 4.9 b 11.2 a
Initial colour (ASTA units) 198 a 190 b 142 c 139 c 131 d 193 ab 188 b
Weekly colour loss (ASTA units) 25 a 20 b 8d 8d 7 de 16 c 6e
Shelf life (weeks) 3.2 cd 3.5 c 2.7 de 2.5 e 1.7 f 4.6 b 12.6 a
HM powder was hammer milled and PG powder was plate ground. Vit E treatments had 0.3 g of vitamin E
added to 100g of powder and N2 atm powders were held in an atmosphere of nitrogen; both treatments
were hammer milled. Shelf life was measured as time to drop below an ASTA value of 180 for paprika
and 120 for chilli.
Seed addition diluted the initial colour as also found by Biacs et al. (1989). Therefore, even though the
rate of colour loss was slower, as also observed by Okos et al. (1990), the shelf life was actually reduced
21
due to seed addition. While Okos et al. (1990) attributed oxygen exclusion from the flesh by the seed oil
as the main factor preventing colour loss, it is more likely that antioxidants in the seed oil are responsible
for this phenomenon, especially when considering the seed oil addition experiment below.
For spice production a number of factors need to be considered when deciding on seed inclusion. The
initial colour will be stronger if no seed is included, but the yield is also reduced by between 29-39%
depending on cultivar if no seed is added. For chillies the pungency is also reduced if no seed is added, as
the pungent capsaicinoids are mostly contained in the seeds and the placental tissues (Huffman et al., 1978,
Purseglove et al., 1981). However, the natural flesh to seed ratio of each cultivar reduces the shelf life,
unless another treatment is applied to prevent carotenoid autoxidation.
Plate grinding had little effect on colour loss, compared to hammer milling. During grinding the surface
area of the flesh increases, resulting in faster oxidative colour loss in spice powder than in whole fruit
(Lease and Lease, 1956; Purseglove et al., 1981; Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1993). The idea that stone
milling, which is similar to plate grinding, enhances quality due to increased seed oil coating of the flesh
particles was not confirmed. Visual observation did not detect any difference in glossiness. Particle size is
a major factor determining colour loss (Minguez-Mosquera et al., 1993), but the spices were ground to the
same particles size using both grinding techniques. Therefore we did not find a difference in colour
change.
The difference in result for the paprika can be traced to the lower initial colour of the plate ground sample,
resulting in a shorter shelf life. The reduction in initial colour was probably due to the initial grinding of
the fruit with a mortar and pestle under liquid nitrogen. We then reground the samples using the plate
grinder, as this technique achieved the desired consistent particle size, which the mortar and pestle did not.
An effective treatment reducing the rate of colour loss was vitamin E addition (Table 12). Vitamin E is a
fat-soluble antioxidant and can therefore readily protect the fat-soluble carotenoids (Biacs et al., 1992)
from oxidation. A vitamin E concentration of no less than 200mg/g dry weight is required in the long term
according to Daood et al. (1989), but we found 300mg/ 100g dry weight to be sufficient for reasonable
control, similarly to Osuna-Garcia and Wall (1996). Vitamin E was as effective as the 100:45 and 100:60
flesh to seed ratios of the paprikas, but only as effective as the 100:10 chilli powders. This further supports
our above suggestion, that the chilli seed contained possibly more antioxidants than the paprika seeds.
However, the most effective treatment was storing spice powder under nitrogen; this reduced the weekly
rate of colour loss to 3-5%. It was effective as oxygen that is needed for colour pigment autoxidation was
excluded. Colour loss was not completely prevented by nitrogen storage, possibly due to oxygen not being
totally displaced during packaging.
Shelf life of flesh only samples was a comparable 2-3 weeks for all cultivars. Due to the diluted initial
colour, seed addition reduced the shelf life compared to flesh only samples, even though the rate of
extractable colour loss was less (Table 12). Plate grinding had an inconsistent effect on shelf life compared
to hammer milling, but adding vitamin E extended shelf life by 1-2 weeks. Nitrogen storage resulted in the
longest storage life under accelerated shelf life testing of 7 weeks for Hungarian paprika and 11-13 weeks
for the other cultivars.
Adding extracted seed oil to flesh did not affect the extractable colour or shelf life. However, the seed oil
treated spice became rapidly rancid as identified using sensory analysis (22 out of 36 responses identified
the rancid odour correctly, P<0.05). Seed oil contains a lot of unsaturated fatty acids as well as
lipoxygenase enzymes that break down the oil causing rancidity (Purseglove et al., 1981; Biacs et al.,
1989). No other spice powder became rancid during the duration of the accelerated shelf life testing.
Conclusion
Spice colour is stabilised by seed addition, depending on the flesh to seed ratio. However, the colour is
also diluted and the shelf life reduced if no other treatment is used. On the other hand if no seed is added
22
yield and pungency is reduced.
All things considered, a cultivar with high colour intensity needs to be selected, seed in a natural occurring
flesh to seed ratio should be maintained (unless a very intense colour for a specific product is needed), and
powder stored under nitrogen to manage the rate of colour loss. If nitrogen storage is not feasible,
reducing the seed content to 100:10 for the Hungarian paprika and 100:45 for the other cultivars will
increase the shelf life, but yield is reduced by 25% and 10%, respectively.
In addition spice powder must be stored in a cool place and out of light. This will result in a much longer
shelf life compared to our accelerated shelf life study. For example Lease and Lease (1956) reported a
colour loss of 22% for one cultivar and 100% for another after 6 months storage at 25°C. The type of mill
had no effect on colour quality of the spice as long as a similar type of particle size is obtained. However,
the commercial practice of seed oil addition to produce a glossy appearance is questionable as the spice
easily becomes rancid. Vitamin E effectively reduced colour loss, but cannot be used given current food
regulations in Australia (Australian and New Zealand Food Authority, 1996). Therefore future cultivars
should be selected that contain high levels of vitamin E and other antioxidants in the seed.
3.6. Aflatoxins
Chilli spice is susceptible to aflatoxin contamination as discussed above. No information about
contamination levels of chilli products is available in Australia. We therefore examined a range of
commercial samples purchased in Australia for their aflatoxin content using a standard ELISA test kit.
This kit used standard concentrations of aflatoxin as references, with standards run for every test strip that
also contained 8 unknown test samples.
Findings
The survey found widespread and considerable aflatoxin contamination of chilli products sold in shops in
Australia (Table 13). Samples with levels of 5µg/kg passed the Australian requirements, whereas levels
between 5-10µg/kg were considered marginal. The marginal class of products was calculated, as at low
concentrations there was some error in the technique used. Spice powders generally were most
contaminated, showing the highest levels of contamination and the fewest passing and marginal samples.
Dried, and crushed or whole fruit performed somewhat better, with sauces and minced chilli performing
best. The level of contamination did not vary according to type of shop (supermarket or ethnic food shop)
or area of city (up-market or working class) that the samples were purchased from.
Table 13 Aflatoxin levels (µg/kg) in chilli products.
Product type Samples Mean Standard Minimum Maximum Samples Samples

tested Deviation passed (%) marginal (%)
Chilli powder 26 25 16 7 71 0 8
Paprika powder 21 24 20 7 89 0 5
Chilli -crushed 12 13 8 2 28 17 17
Chilli -whole 11 13 13 0 49 18 9
Chilli -minced 5 9 9 1 24 40 20
Chilli -sauce 15 14 10 2 39 13 27
All 90 19 15 0 89 9 12
Conclusion
Chilli products in Australia suffer from widespread aflatoxin contamination. Processing controls that limit
the risk of aflatoxin production have been discussed above in the ‘Defining Quality’ section (2.2).
While in general aflatoxin from spices are thought to contribute little to the overall diet due to their high
23
dilution in other foods (Pitt and Hocking, 1997), significant parts of the population consume significant
amounts of chilli and paprika spice, possibly in the order of 2-5g per day. This would translate into 0.5µg
of aflatoxins consumed from this spice per day in the worst measured case of 89µg/kg of spice.
The risk of aflatoxin contamination seems to increase for chilli powder compared to whole fruit and
crushed fruit, probably due to the increased surface area and associated increase in moisture attraction.
Powder that does not stay dry can support mould growth and aflatoxin production. Also drying conditions
are very critical for dried spice, a factor that does not influence otherwise processed products.
Sauces rely on low pH and heat to inactivate moulds and to prevent spoilage. This reduces the risk of
aflatoxin contamination, but the quality of the raw product still plays an important part. Diseased fruit
must be excluded from processing. Also it is not clear what raw material contributed to the aflatoxin
contamination in sauces, as they often contain multiple raw materials, including spices.
Minced chilli samples were least contaminated on average, but quality must still be improved. Similar
comments as for the sauces apply.
24
4. Industry Outlook and Further Research
Needs
There is a good potential for a dried chilli spice industry in Australia. The climate and horticultural
practices in this country are well suited for the production of a good quality product. Quality of the
powder is measured as a consistent and high colour content, a consistent heat level, and absence of
aflatoxins in the final product.
The main consideration to make the industry viable is to reduce production costs. This can be achieved by
maximising yield and quality through correct growing and harvest practices, and appropriate processing
and storage of the spice. The overall best practices for chilli spice production have been outlined in this
report.
However, the challenge for the industry is to achieve an economy of scale to reduce overall production
costs. Currently the return to growers is comparable to other more common crops, but without an
advantage growers will be reluctant to invest in a new crop system (Small, J. pers. comm. 1999). The
economy of scale can be achieved by planting larger areas of the crop that utilise existing facilities better or
that justify the purchase of equipment. Equipment needed for economic chilli spice production is a
mechanical harvester, grading equipment to separate poor quality fruit (disease or low colour), a dryer with
enough capacity to dry the peak volume of fruit, a grinder and packaging equipment.
One main research and development area remaining is to develop adequate sorting techniques to achieve a
good colour and to prevent diseased fruit, which potentially contain aflatoxins, from reaching the
consumer. Potential techniques include visual grading by eye, colour grading using machine vision and
density determinations using weight and dimensional measurements using machine vision. The main
disadvantages of visual grading are the slow throughput of fruit, lack of accuracy in detecting diseased
fruit, and the high labour costs. Most diseased fruit develop due to injury; this in turn results in internally
decayed fruit that are discoloured and often have a reduced density as the internal flesh liquefies. The
main disadvantage of machine vision is the cost of establishment.
Overall the risk of aflatoxin or other mycotoxin contamination must be reduced using an integrated
approach. Diseased fruit must be excluded, but insect management in the field, proper processing and
screening of the product is also necessary. Therefore, it is advisable for the producer to develop a quality
assurance plan that includes HACCP (hazard analysis of critical control points) principles, as used widely
in the food industry. In this area local producer may be able to gain a competitive advantage, as currently
imported supplies of chilli spice are not meeting safety requirements.
Another area for quality improvement is the selection of cultivars that have a high antioxidant content in
the seed. Especially vitamin E has good potential to slow down colour deterioration during storage of the
spice powder.
25
5. References
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B1 in imported food products into Japan by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and high performance
liquid chromatography. J. Vet. Medic. Sci. 53(1): 49-52.
Almela, L., Lopez-Roca, J.M., Candela, M.E. and Alcazar, M.D. 1991. Carotenoid composition of New
Cultivars of Red Pepper for Paprika. J. Agric. Food Chem. 39: 1606-1609
American Spice Trade Association 1985. Official analytical methods of the American Spice Trade
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Anon. 1994. Mycotoxin diagnostic catalogue. Neogen Corporation, Lansing MI; 7pp.
Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre. 1993. Annual Report for 1992. Taiwan.
Ath-Har, M.A., Prakash, H.S., and Shetty, H.S. 1988. Mycoflora of Indian spices with special reference to
aflatoxin producing isolates of Aspergillus flavus. Indian J. Microb. 28(1-2): 125-127.
Australian and New Zealand Food Authority 1996. Food Standards Code, National Food Authority,
Canberra.
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Chilli Spice

A report for the Rural Industries Research

RIRDC Publication No 00/33

ISBN 0 642 58063 4

"Chilli Spice Production in Australia”

Researcher Contact Details

Phone: (08) 8303 6653

RIRDC Contact Details

Phone: 02 6272 4539

Published in April 2000

1. History and Economic Significance ........................................................................ 1

3. Research Findings and Conclusions .................................................................... 13

4. Industry Outlook and Further Research Needs .................................................... 25

6. Colour Plates ........................................................................................................ 31

2.1. The chilli spice production system

2.1.1. Seed and site selection

Table 1 Relative heat levels of some Capsicum types (0=mildest, 10=hottest).

Heat level Type Scoville Heat

2.1.2. Managing production factors

Figure 1 Schematic representation of a chilli plant.

2.1.5. Storage of powder

2.2. Defining quality

2.3. Gaining competitiveness

2.4. Research Goals

In particular the aims were:

• to increase drying efficiency and quality of the dry powder;

• to determine the extent of aflatoxin contamination of commercial samples in Australia.

Temperature Fruit dry weight (g/plant) Pungency (SHU)

Table 4 Effect of water stress on marketable yield of chilli fruit.

Irrigation Fruit dry weight (g/plant)

Table 6 Chilli fruit ripeness at harvest after ethephon application.

Ethephon applied Total harvested fruit (abscised excluded) (%)

Table 7 Effect of ethephon treatments on yield of chilli fruit.

Ethephon applied Fresh weight of harvested fruit (g/plant)

Table 8 Effects of ethephon treatments on colour and heat level of chilli.

Ethephon Marketable fruit

Colour stage Colour (ASTA)

Drying time Visual colour

Oil treatment Cutting treatment Drying time (h)

Oil dip at room temperature Uncut 41 b

Oil dip at 65°C Uncut 30 c

Flesh:seed ratio and other treatments applied

Table 13 Aflatoxin levels (µg/kg) in chilli products.

Product type Samples Mean Standard Minimum Maximum Samples Samples

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