Mathematics II – MATH 1211

UNIT 1 MATRICES

Unit Structure

1.0 Overview
1.1 Learning Objectives
1.2 List of Special Symbols
1.3 Basic Concepts and Definitions
1.4 Determinant of a Matrix
1.5 Cofactor Method for A-1
1.6 Properties of Determinants
1.7 Summary
1.8 Supplementary Exercises
1.9 Answers to Activities & Supplementary Exercises

1.0 OVERVIEW

Matrices and determinants constitute the structure of matrix algebra that pervades and
enriches almost all areas in science and engineering computations. In this Unit, various
types of matrices are defined before introducing briefly the topic on the algebra of
matrices in general. The determinant of a matrix is then treated in detail, including the
main properties associated with it. The co-factor method for finding the inverse of a
matrix is also introduced.

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1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to do the following:

1. Do matrix operations

2. Compute the determinant of a matrix

3. Understand the properties of the determinant of a matrix

4. Determine the inverse of a matrix using the co-factor method.

1.2 LIST OF SPECIAL SYMBOLS

A a general matrix
a ij (i, j) entry in matrix A
a ij complex conjugate of a ij
A = a ij[ ] m ×n matrix A of order m by n
Aij cofactor of a ij
M ij minor of a ij
D determinant of a matrix
A determinant of A
Adj ( A) adjoint matrix A
A −1 inverse of matrix A
x column vector
xi ith component of vector x
ai ith row vector of A
aj jth column vector of A
Ri ith row of matrix

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Cj jth column of matrix

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS

Matrix

A matrix defines a rectangular array of numbers or symbols. An m x n matrix A has m

rows and n columns. a ij = (i, j) entry represents the number in the ith row, jth column.

 a11 a12  a1n   a11 a12  a1n 

a   
a 22  a2n  a a 22  a2n 
A =  21 or  21 . (1)
         
   
a  a mn 
a m1 am2  a mn   m1 am 2

Square Matrix

If the number of rows of a matrix equals the number of columns ( m = n), then the
matrix is called a square matrix of order n. The principal or, leading diagonal of the
square matrix defines the entries a11 , a12 ,..., a nn . For example, the matrices

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 1 1 bbb 1  2 3
 1 aa 1  1 2  
A=   a B=  2 n2 bbb 21 , 2 3d
 2 aa 2  1 2  
 3 3 bbb 31 2 3

are square matrices of order two and three respectively. The elements a11 , a 22 and
b11 , b22 , b33 constitute the principal diagonals of the matrix A and B respectively.
Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix A of the form

a11 0  0 
0 a 22  0 
A=
    
 
0 0  a nn 

is called a diagonal matrix. Here, [ ]

A = aij
nxn with aij = 0, i ≠ j, i, j = 1, ..., n .

Zero Matrix, 0

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The zero matrix, 0 is a matrix with all entries zero.

Unit or Identity Matrix

The identity or the unit matrix is a diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements
a ii , i = 1, ..., n are equal to 1. It is denoted by I and is written as

1 0  0
0 1  0
I = .
   
 
0 0  1

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Upper Triangular Matrix

A square matrix U of the form

a11 a12  a1n 

0 a 22  a 2 n 
U = ,
    
 
0 0  a nn 

is called an upper triangular matrix. Note that all the entries below the main diagonal
are zero.

Lower Triangular Matrix

A square matrix L of the form

a11 0  0 
a a 22  0 
L =  21 ,
    
 
a n1 an2  a nn 

is called a lower triangular matrix. This time, all the entries above the main diagonal are
zero.

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Transpose of a Matrix

If [ ]
A = aij
mxn , then the transpose of A, denoted by A T , is obtained by interchanging the

rows and columns of the matrix A, that is, A = [a ji ]n x m . Symbolically,

T

 a11 a 21  a m1 
a a 22  a m 2 
A =  12
T
.
    
 
a1n a2n  a mn 

Clearly ( A T ) = A . For example, if

T

1 5 7 6
A =
− 2 3 4 5
,

0 0 1 0


then,

1 −2 0
5 3 0
AT =  .
7 4 1
 
6 5 0

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Symmetric Matrix

If AT = A, the matrix [ ]
A = aij
nxn is called symmetric. Examples of symmetric matrices

are

2 3 −1 9
1 4 0  
 −1 5  3 4 0 2

5 ,  4 2 − 7 ,  , etc.
 7
 0 −1 0 −5 8
 −7 −3  9

 2 8 1


Skew-Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix [ ]
A = a ij
nxn is called skew-symmetric if A T = − A . Clearly the diagonal

elements are zeros because aii = − aii if aii = 0 for all i. For example

0 1 2
A =
−1 0 3
,

− 2 −3 0


is a skew-symmetric matrix.

Hermitian Matrix

A square matrix [ ]
A = aij
nxn is called a Hermitian matrix if

AT = A ,

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where A [ ] , and the overbar denotes complex conjugate.

= a ij Hence

a ji = aij , i, j = 1, ..., n

for an n x n Hermitian matrix A. It follows that the elements along the principal diagonal

of a Hermitian matrix are always real. For example, one can easily verify that

 2 −1 + i 0
A =
−1 − i 2 −i 
,

 0 i 2 

is a Hermitian matrix.

If, in addition, A is a real Hermitian matrix, then A T = A , that is, A is a symmetric

matrix.

Skew-Hermitian Matrix

A square matrix [ ]
A = aij
nxn is called a skew-hermitian matrix if A T = −A .

Hence, a ji =−a ij , i, j =1, ..., n. . It follows that the elements along the principal
diagonal of a skew-hermitian matrix are either zeros or pure imaginaries. For example,

 0 − 2 −i 1
A =
2 − i i i ,

 −1 i 2i 


a Skew-Hermitian matrix.

If, in addition, A is a real Skew-Hermitian, then AT = − A , that is, A is a skew-symmetric

matrix.

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Note: In general AB ≠ BA, that is, matrix multiplication is not commutative.

1 1 1 2 0 4 4
     
(1) A = 2 0 1 , B = 1 1 . BA is not defined although AB = 5 3 .
1 2 4 1 3 8 14 
     

2 0
2 1 3  
(2) A =
1 
, B = 1 1  . AB is 2 × 2 whereas BA is 3 ×3 .
 2 1 1
 3

2 −1 2 0
(3) A =
1 
,B =
1 . AB and BA are of the same size. However
 2   1


3 −1 4 − 2
  = AB ≠ BA =  .
4 2  3 1 

MATRIX RULES OF ALGEBRA

Addition is commutative

A+ B = B+ A

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Associative Laws

( A + B) + C = A + ( B +C )

( AB )C = A( BC )

λ( AB ) = (λA) B = A(λB )

Distributive Laws

A( B +C ) = AB + AC

( A + B )C = AC + BC

λ( A + B ) = λA + λB

Additive Identity

A +0 = A

A −A =0

0 A = A0 = 0

Multiplicative Identity

AI = IA = A

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1.4 DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

To each matrix [ ]
A = a ij
nxn is associated a unique real number called the determinant of
A. This number contains important information about the matrix and is written as

a11 a12  a1n

a a 22  a2n
A = 12 . (2)
   
a n1 an2  a nn

Sometimes the capital letter D is used to denote A .

Note: The determinant of a rectangular m x n matrix (m ≠ n) is not defined.

Definition

For 2 x 2 matrices:

a b a b
A =
c 
, A = = ad −bc .
 d c d

To extend this to an n x n matrix the following two definitions are required.

Definition

The (i, j) minor of A is the determinant of the (n - 1) x (n - 1) matrix obtained by

removing the ith row and jth column of A, denoted Mij.

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Example 1

1 2 −3 
  4 −1 2 −3
A = 4 −1 1 , M 13 = =13 and M 21 = =11 .
1 1 3 3 1
 3 1 
Definition

The (i,j) cofactor of A is

Aij = (-1)i+j M ij . (3)

From Example 1, A13 = (−1) (1+3) M 13 = 13 and A21 = ( −1) ( 2+1) M 21 = −11 .

It follows that the cofactor Aij is either Mij or - Mij depending on whether the sum i + j
is even or odd. Aij can be associated with the entry aij as follows.

1) Cross out the row and the column containing aij.

2) Evaluate the determinant of the (n - 1) x (n - 1) matrix which remains.

3) Assign a "+" or "-" sign according to the position of aij on the checkerboard
below,

+ − + + − + − 
   
− + − and in general − + − + .
+ − +     
   

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Development of a Determinant

If A is an n x n matrix, then the determinant of A can be computed by multiplying the

entries of any row (or column) by their cofactors and summing the resulting products. If

 a11 a12  a1n 

a a 22  a 2 n 
A =  21 ,
    
 
a m1 a m 2  a mn 

A = a11 A11 + a12 A12 + + a1n A1n (cofactor expansion by row 1).

A = a 21 A21 + a 22 A22 + + a 2 n A2 n (cofactor expansion by row 2).

A = a i1 Ai1 + a i 2 Ai 2 + + a in Ain (cofactor expansion by row i).

A = a1 j A1 j + a 2 j A2 j + + a nj Anj (cofactor expansion by column j).

Example 2

1 2 3
 
Evaluate the determinant of the matrix A = 0 4 0 .
5 6 7
 

Solution

The cofactor expansion by the first row is given by

4 0 0 0 0 4
A =1C11 + 2C12 +3C13 =1M 11 - 2M 12 +3M 13 =1 −2 +3 = −32 .
6 7 5 7 5 6

Similarly the cofactor expansion by the second row is given by

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1 3
A = 0C 21 + 4C 22 + 0C 23 = 4 M 22 = 4 = 4(7 −15 ) = −32 .
5 7

As an exercise, you can check A using the cofactor expansion by column one.

Note: It is better to choose to expand the determinant using a row or column which will
lead to less or simpler computations. For instance, it is easier and quicker to
expand by the row or column that contains zero entries.

Example 3

−2 − x 2 −3
Solve the equation 2 1− x − 6 = 0.
−1 −2 −x

Solution

The development of the determinant by the first column may be written as

1−x −6 2 −3 2 −3
(−2 − x) −2 − =0
−2 −x −2 −x 1−x −6
( − 2 − x )[ − x(1 − x ) −12 ] − 2[ − 2 x − 6] −[ −12 + 3(1 − x )] = 0
or − x 3 − x 2 + 21 x + 45 = 0

It is easily verified that x = -3, -3 and 5 satisfy the above equation.

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Activity 1

1. Evaluate the determinants:

1 −2
(i) −3 4
,

1 3 3
(ii) 2 6 3,
−1 1 2

2 1 −1
(iii) −1 10 1 .
2 −3 1

4x + 3 2 1
2. Solve the equation x 3 4 = 0.
2x −1 1 −1

1.5 COFACTOR METHOD FOR A-1

If A ≠0, we show that A −1 exists by constructing it as follows:

First we need to define the adjoint matrix.

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Adjoint Matrix

The matrix of cofactors of A defines the matrix whose (i,j) entry is Aij, the (i,j) cofactor
of A. The transpose of the matrix of the cofactors is called the adjoint matrix and is

 A11 A21 An1 

A A22 An 2 
Adj ( A) =  12 ,
   
 
 A1n A2 n Ann 

denoted by Adj ( A) .

1 2 − 1
 
For example, if A = 3 6 1
3 3 2

then

A11 = 9, A12 = − 3, A13 = − 9,

= − 7, A22 = 5, A23 = 3,
A21
= 8, A32 = − 4, A33 = 0,
A31

and
9 −7 8 
Adj ( A) = 
− 3 5 − 4
.

− 9 3 0 


Definition

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[ ]
A = a ij
nxn is invertible or non-singular if and only if there exists a matrix A −1 such
that AA −1 = A −1 A = I . A −1 is given by

1
A−
1
= A
dj (A)
.
A

(4)

From (4) it follows that A −1 exists if and only if  A ≠ 0.

If A −1 exists, that is A is invertible, then A is called a non-singular matrix. If A −1 does

not exist then A is called a singular matrix.

Properties of Inverse

• A −1 is unique.
• ( A −1 ) −1 = A.
1
• (λA) −1 = A −1 , λ a scalar.
λ
1
• A −1 = .
A

• If A −1 , B −1 exist, then ( AB ) −1 = B −1 A −1 .

Note: There is no way to define matrix division. Only invertible matrices have a
multiplicative inverse. But be careful! Matrix multiplication is not commutative;
if you multiply an equation through by a matrix, you must multiply both sides on
the right or both sides on the left.

Example 4

If possible, determine the inverse of the following matrices:

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1 − 12   0 2 3 a1 00 1
a1 1  1 2     
A =   , B =  3 6 1  , C =  - 2 0 4 , D =  0 a2 0  . 2
a2 2 13 22  3 −− 4 0  00 a 
     3 3
Solution

−1 1  a −
2 21  2
a
A =  .
( a1 a2 1− a22 a1 1)  −2 a2 a1  1
9 −7 8   9 / 12 − 7 / 12 8 / 12 
1 1 
B −1
= Adj ( B ) = −3 5 − 4 
 = − 3 / 12 5 / 12 − 4 / 12 
.
B 12 
−
 9 3 0 
  − 9 / 12 3 / 12 0  

C-1 does not exist because C =0. In fact, C is a singular matrix.

1 / a11 0 0 
D −1 
= 0 1 / a 22 0  .
 0 0 1 / a33 

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Activity 2

For each of the matrices given below, compute the adjoint matrix and hence determine
the corresponding inverse matrix.

 1 0 1
A= 2 1 1
 
(i) ,

 1 1 2

 1 0 − 1
B= 2 2 3
 
(ii) .

 1 1 0 

1.6 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

1. If a row (or column) of A consists entirely of zeros, then A =0.

2. AT = A .

3. If A = I , then A =1.

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4. If any two rows (or columns) of A are interchanged (or swapped) producing a
matrix B , then B = − A .

5. If two rows (or columns) of A are identical, then A = 0.

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6. If any row (or column) of A is multiplied by a scalar k producing a matrix B ,

then B = k A . For example,

a11 ka 12 a13 a11 a12 a13 ka 11 ka 12 ka 13

a 21 ka 22 a 23 = k a 21 a 22 a 23 = a 21 a 22 a 23 .
a 31 ka 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33

7. If a scalar multiple of one row (or column) is added to some other row (or
column) producing a matrix B then B = A . For example, if

a a   
a
 1 112  1 1 1 2  a
A=   B =and , then

 
 a2 1a2  2  a2 +1 k 1 a12 +2 k 1 a 2
   

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a1 1 a 1 2 a1 1 1 2
1 1 12
B= + = A+ k
a2 2 k1 1 2 a1 21a a1 2
= A + 0 ( using property 5.)
= A .

8. If A1 , A2 , A3 , ... are all n x n matrices then A1 A2 = A1 A2 and, in general,

A1 A2 A3 . .. = A1 A2 A3 . ..

9. If A is upper triangular, lower triangular, or diagonal, the determinant of A is

given by the product of the diagonal entries.

10. If the cofactors of one row are multiplied by the entries of a different row, the
result is zero.

Example 5

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1 a b +c
Show that 1 b c +a =0 .
1 c a +b

Solution

1 a b +c 1 a a +b +c
1 b c +a = 1 b a +b +c (using property 7.)
1 c a +b 1 c a +b +c

1 a 1
=( a +b +c) 1 b 1 (using property 6.)
1 c 1

= 0 (using property 5.).

Activity 3

By using the properties of the determinant, show that

x +a a a
(i) a x +a a = x 2 ( x +3a ).
a a x +a

x2 x 1
(ii) y2 y 1 = ( x − y )( x − z )( y − z ).
z2 z 1

1.7 SUMMARY

In this Unit, you have studied matrices and their operations, including the determinant of
a matrix. You have learnt the different properties of the determinant of a matrix, as well
as, applying the co-factor method to obtain the inverse of a square non-singular matrix.

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1.8 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES

1. Given that a ≠ 0, show that for all real x

e ax ae ax
(i) ≠ 0,
xe ax (1 + ax )e ax

e ax sin x e ax cos x
(ii) ≠ 0,
e ax (cos x + a sin x ) e ax ( a cos x − sin x )

2. Solve the following determinantal equations:

x x x
(i) y x x =0, x ≠ 0.
0 y x

x3 5 1
(ii) 8 x 2 +1 1 = 0.
1 x 2 +4 1

3. By using the properties of the determinant, show that

x1 + y1 x2 + y2 x3 + y3 x1 x2 x3
y1 + z1 y2 + z2 y 3 + z3 = 2 y1 y2 y3 .
z1 + x1 z2 + x2 z3 + x3 z1 z2 z3

4. Prove that

f g h f ' g' h' f g h f g h

d
dx
p q r = p q r + p' q' r' + p q r .
u v w u v w u v w u' v' w'

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1.8 ANSWERS TO ACTIVITIES & SUPPLEMENTARY

EXERCISES

Activity 1

1. (i) -2; (ii) 12; (iii) 46.

26
2. − .
15

Activity 2

 1 1 − 1
− 1 1 
(i)
A =  − 3 1 1 .

2
 1 − 1 1
3 1 − 2
1
(ii) B −1 = −3 −1 5 
. .
3

0 1 − 2


Supplementary Exercises

2. (i) x= y.
(ii) x =1,2,−2 / 3.

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