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NASA Facts
An Educational Publication
of the
National Aeronautics ORIGINAL PACE
and Space Administration COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
NF-139

IRAS: Mapping the Infrared Sky

Each day as it looks outward from Earth orbit into deep
space, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) discovers
thousands of new sources never before seen in the infrared.
One source might be a distant galaxy whose radiation is too
faint to appear to all but this most sensitive of infrared tele-
scopes. Another might be a dying star whose visible flame is
burning out, but whose warm infrared glow is still enough to
be detected by IRAS.
The image shown here was reconstructed from data sent
back by the international IRAS sates; to during the first weeks
of its operaticn. In a scan across the Large Magellanic Cloud,
the nearest galaxy to our own, WAS recorded dozens of
infrared sources as seen in four separate wavelength bands.
The short wavelength scan reveals many individual hot stars
in the region. (Hotter regions appear lighter.) As the observing
wavelength gets higher, though, the scan reveals cooler
objects, until we see an extended cloud o%cool dust and gas.
This cloud is part of a nebula called 30 Doradus (for its loca-
tion ;n the constellation Dorado), nicknamed the Tarantula by
astronomers. The cloud is a giant region of ionized hydrogen
gas and dust, whose existence was known before IRAS, but
which had never before been seen in such illuminating detail.
Scanning the whole sky from January to December, 1983,
the goal of the IRAS project is to find whatever is "out there"
radiating infrared it the universe. When the survey is finished,
IRAS may, as only a few projects really can, contribute to a
fundamental change in our understanding of nature.

[C7 ORIGINAL PAGE
COLOR PHOTOGRAPH
Because our vision is tuned to the particular lighting condi-
tions of our own planet Earth, we see only a few of the many
"colors" of the universe. Most of the electromagnetic spec-
trum is invisible to the human eye—radio waves, ultraviolet,
x-rays, gamma rays r nd the infrared wavelengths just below
the threshold of signt.
Although the energy of radian! heat glows all around us, it
was not until a simple, intuitive experiment by the astronomer
Sir William Herschel in 1800 that it was recognized as a natu-
ral part of the continuous spectrum of electromagnetic energy.
While experimenting with the heating properties of different
colors, Herschel noted that his thermometer measured the
highest temperatures when he placed it beyond the red region
of a prism spectrum, in an area where apparently there was
no light. He had discovered "calorific rays"—what we know
today as infrared.
In Herschel's own century astronomers used thermo-
couples—devices that convert heat to electric current—to
detect this invisible infrared radiation from space. The Moon
was first observed in this way in 1856, and by the early twen-
tieth century most of the bright visible objects in the sky had
also been observed in parts of the infrared. By the 1960s, the
same decade that saw a boom in radio, x-ray, and ultraviolet
astronomies, infrared observers began to benefit from new
techniques, particularly the use of supercooled (cryogenic)
detectors. Infrared telescopes were moved to higher and drier
jl An artist's conception of the IRAS satellite in orbit shows one of its solar panels and its Earth-pointing communications antenna.
Gy.
locations, and observers lofted their sensors by balloon,
rocket, and airplane above the infrared-absorbing water of our
atmosphere.
A few preliminary surveys of the infrared sky, beginning in
1968 with the California Institute of Technology short-wave-
length survey at 2 microns for northern latitudes, catalogued
many new sources. A similar, though less complete, survey
from a New Zealand observatory in the same year revealed
some of the brightest infrared objects in the southern sky.
These were to be followed in the 1970s by the U.S. Air Force
survey with rockets at longer wavelengths, up to about 30
microns, and, with the Naval Research Laboratory. the Far
Infrared Space Experiment which observed at the still longer
wavelength of 100 microns.
Until 1983, however, there was no attempt to take a com-
plete inventory of the major infrared emitters in the universe.
This is the task of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS),
launched on January 25, 1983. An international effort involving
the United States. United Kingdom, and The Netherlands, IRAS
is performing the first all-sky survey in a wide range of infra-
red wavelengths with a sensitivity 100 to 1000 times greater
than any previous work. At the end of nearly a year of obser-
vation from Earth orbit, IRAS data will be used to produce a
comprehensive catalog and maps of significant infrared
sources in the universe
 Virtually everything radiates in the infrared Astronomical
lntemationat MAS scienc:s team objects generally emit their energy over a wide range of wave-
lengths, and the hotter an object is, the more its energy output
ED STATES is concentrated at th-3 short end of the spectrum. Hot stars
artmut Aumann ,let Propulsion Laboratory therefore appear blue (short waves) while cooler stars are red.
F When an object is not quite hot enough to shine in visible light
Dr. Nancy Boggess NASA Headquarters it emits the bulk of its energy in the infrared, like a stove burner
Dr. Frail Gillett Kitt Peak National Observa before it begins to glow red hot. Infrared astronomy is thus the
study of relatively cool objects below about 6000° Kelvin
Dr. Michael Hauser Goddard Space A gm cen (10,000°F) that astronomers believe account for a signifi-
cant amount of the universe's total energy output.
Dr. James Houck Correll University Aside from the ability to detect cool objects, there are other
advantages to observing the universe in the infrared. Between
Dr. Frank Low U tiversity of Arizona the stars of our galaxy there is a large amount of cosmic dust
that effectively blocks out light at visible wavelengths, because
Dr. Gerry Ncugebauer California Institute of Technology these particular waves are about the same size as the dust
Co-chairman, JISWG particles The interstellar dust is especially thick in the plane
Dr. B. Tom Soifer Califomia Institute of Titcl-wu y of cu r galaxy, so that visible light coming from the Milky Way's
center is reduced by a factor of ten billion by the time it
Dr. Russell Walker Jamieson Engineering reaches Earth. Not so with the longer waves of infrared, which
are reduced by only one tenth. Because of this relative trans-
THE NETHERLANDS parency, infrared astronomy is ideal for studying the bright
and dense core of the Milky Way.
Dr. Douwe Beintema University of Groningen In addition, certain changes in energy state within hot
Dr. Jan Borgman Radio Astronomy Observatory gasses and interstellar clouds of molecules have their signa-
at Dw),ngeloo ture in the infrared spectrum. By studying emissions from
these regions it is possible to reconstruct the type of chemistry
Dr. Teiie de Jong University of Amsterdam. taking place there.
With all of this scientific information contained in photons of
Dr. Harm Habing Huygens Laboratory. Leiden. infrared light it is annoying, at least for astronomy, that after bil-
Co-chairman, JISWG lions of miles of generally unimpeded travel from the far parts
of the universe most of them are blocked just as they reach
Dr. Stewart Pottasch Astronomical Observatory Earth. Water and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere absorb the
Kapteyn at Rooen 3
ti bulk of infrared radiation from space. Only a few wavelengths
make it through to the ground in narrow observational win-
Or Paul Wesselius University of Groningen +l, dows centered at 1.25, 1.65, 2.2, 3.5, 4.75, 10.5, 19.5, 35, 350,
UNITED KINGDOM and 800 microns. Even at these transparent windows there
are problems—the air above us glows brightly in the infrared,
Dr. Peter Clegg Queen Mary College so even on the darkest nights infrared astronomers must
resort to techniques like nodding their telescopes back and
Prof. Richard Jennings University (:allege London forth to sort out sky "noise" from astronomical sources.
Prof. Phillip Marsden University of Leeds The solution is to orbit an infrared telescope above the
atmosphere where it is exposed to pure, unfiltered radiation
and can survey the whole sky, north and south, even at wave-
lengths between the ground-based windows. This is the pur-
pose of the Infrared Astronomical Satellite.
The Infrared Spectrum
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into several cate- The IRAS Project
gories of radiation, each with different wavelengths (Figure 3). Like many of the ventures into space planned for the 1980s
At one end are the low-energy radio waves with wavelengths and 1990s, IRAS features international cooperation. The
up to tens of thousands of meters. At the other end are the Netherlands Aerospace Agency (NIVR) supervised the design
gamma rays whose wavelengths are smaller than the dia- and manufacture of the spacecraft bus that supports and
meter of an atom. The smaller the wavelength, the greater the powers the main telescope, and the University of Groningen
energy of the radiation. provided a Dutch Additional Experiment package.
Between these two extremes lies the infrared region, with The Ames Research Center and the Jet Propulsion Labora-
wavelengths from one millimeter (the shortest radio waves) to tory (JPL), both in California, developed the infrared telescope
approximately 0.8 microns (.0008 millimeters), the longest for NASA. JPL is also processing IRAS data into final infrared
waves of visible red light. The familiar infrared heat photo- catalogs and maps. The United Kingdom contributes to the
graphs are made by films sensitive to only the shortest waves project through its Science and Engineering Research Coun-
closest to visible light cil by tracking the satellite and receiving its radioed data.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum

3mma
rays
I meter 10 cm 1 Cm 1 mm 1 mm 10 microns 1 micron 1000 A 100 A 10 A 1 b
11000 microns), (100 microns)

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 (+
-:r

As an international project, the satellite is managed by a

Joint IRAS Project Executive Group made up of representa-
tives from the participating agencies, institutes, and industries.
Similarly, the I RAS science team draws its 18 members from
the three cooperating nations.
IRAS was launched by a Delta rocket from the Western
Missile & Space Center in California on January 25, 1983 and
placed in a near-polar circular orbit (Florida launch sites are
used for east-west orbits) at 900 kilometers (560 miles) alti-
tude, v. ell above the atmosphere but below the Van Allen
radiation belts. The 1,076-kilogram (2,365-pound) cylindrical
satellite is about the size of a passenger van, measuring 3.6
meters (12 feet) in length and 216 meters (7 feet) in diameter.
Its main component, a 57-centimeter (22.4-inch) Ritchey-
Chretien-type reflecting telescope, has an array of infrared
detectors mounted at the focal plane. At its base the telescope
is attached to a Dutch-built spacecraft Lu g that contains all
the electronic "housekeeping" equipment for computing,
power distribution, tape recording, communications, and tele-
scope pointing control. A large visor-like sun shade cuts
down the amount of stray light reaching the telescope, and
two solar panels catch sunlight for converting to electricity. A technician checks out the satellite prior to launch. The
As with infrared telescopes on Earth, the IRAS instrument's spacecraft bus containing electronics and communications
heat-sensitive detectors are kept at very low temperatures. But equipment (left) is separated from the telescope (middle) and
for the purposes of this highly sensitive survey, the telescope its conical sunshade by thick insulation.
itself must also be super-cooled to prevent its infrared heat

Anatomy of the IRAS Satellite

nPir.INAL PAGE
)TOGRAPH

Baffle

Superfluid
Secondary Helium Tank
Mirror

Experiment
Primary Electronics
Mirror

Dutch Additional
Focal Plane Experiment
Assembly

Dutch Addition
Experiment
Electronics

Horizon
Sensor
Electronics

(i)

from interfering with the detection of very faint astronomical
sources. For this reason, the optical assembly and detectors
are surrounded by a dewar, or cooling vessel, shaped like a
doughnut stretched In height. The vessel contains 475 liters
(125 gallons) of extremely cold liquid helium, spread out in the
near zero-gravity of space into a film on the walls of its tank.
The tank Is in turn mounted inside a main shell, but is separ-
ated from the outer shell walls by a vacuum layer to further
reduce heat flow to the telescope, like a giant thermos bottle
Thick insulation at the telescope's base shields it from the
warmth of the spacecraft electronics.
Because of this cryogenic system, the first ever flown on an
orbiting instrument, the temperature at the IRAS focal plane,
where the Infrared detectors are located, stays at a low 2°K
(-455°F), or only two degrees above absolute zero—the low-
est temperature theoretically possible and the point at which
all molecular motion comes to a halt. This 2 0 focal plane
temperature is required for IRAS' great sensitivity—the survey
can detect objects in the universe as cold as 15°K (-432°F),
sources whose energy is as faint as one million-trillionth of a
watt per square centimeter by the time it reaches Earth.
The same cryogenics that allow IRAS to perform its mission,
however, limit its lifetime. The liquid helium boils off even in
cold space at a slow, steady rate, escaping as vapor through
pores in a stainless steel plug in the tank. This leak rate dic-
tates the useful life of the satellite, which was estimated to be
approximately 11 months at the time the IRAS survey began.
The IRAS orbit was chosen with several factors in mind.
First, the heat-sensitive telescope must always point more
than 60° away from the Sun and more than 88° from the
brightness of the Earth's limb, or edge. The power-producing
solar panels must also receive sunlight at least part of the
time. The satellite therefore follows a nearly polar orbit closely
aligned with the Earth's terminator, or sunrise-sunset line.
The orbit is Sun-synchronous—it shifts approximately
one degree each day to keep the same attitude relative
to the Sun as the Earth travels its seasona' journey. Horizon
sensors on the satellite warn it away from bright objects and
keep it looking at dark space. They also help in the computer-
guided, gyro-assisted attitude control system. Star sensors are
used to achieve a telescope pointing accuracy down to only a
few seconds of arc.
The purpose of all this caution and engineering is to maxi-
mize the amount of radiation striking the IRAS telescope's
sensitive infrared detectors on each survey scan. There are 62
detectors in all. sensitive in four wavelength bands
Rectangular in shape, they average about the size of a
medium-length printed word on this page. They work on the
principle that exposure to infrared radiation reduces the elec-
trical resistance of their crystals by a known amount, so that
the amount of radiation reaching the telescope's focal plane
can be read directly as an increase in current. The Band 1
detectors, observing at shorter wavelengths, typically reveal
the emissions of hotter point sources such as stars. Band 4,
on the other hand, observes cooler or more extended objects
such as dust clouds with its longer wavelength sensitivity.
Mounted with the array of detectors in the telescope's focal
plane are three more instruments, known collectively as the
Dutch Additional Experiment. They include two photometers
and a low-resolution spectrometer. The spectrometer is used
with the main telescope to obtain spectra for strong point
sources emitting in the 7.4-23 micron range. This helps in
their classification. For statistically measuring the distribution
of infrared sources in areas of high stellar density there is a
short wavelength (4.1-8 microns) channel photometer, also
used with the main survey telescope.
In addition, another long-wavelength photometer maps the
areas of high and low infrared radiation in large, extended
sources by giving data on relative intensities. This instrument
Iry
^TJ
is not used while the survey is in progress, but requires a spe-
cific "pointed" observation mode.
Surveying the Infrared Sky i
Following a two-week check-out of its telescope and opera-
tional systems, IRAS began history's first infrared survey of the
entire sky on February 9, 1983. The first scan recorded
infrared sources in the constellations Taurus and Hercules in
the northern sky and Scorpius and Eridanus In the southern,
among others, as the satellite traced a circle around the Earth.
For the purpose of the survey, mission planners have
divided the celestial sphere into overlapping banana peel-
shaped segments called "lunes." Lunes are the areas sliced
out between two great c+rcles of ecliptic (as opposed to Earth)
longitude, and they each cover 30° of the celestial sphere. The
telescope scans a thin ( 1h° field of view) segment in each of
two lunes on every north-south orbit—first rising through one,
then descending through the corresponding lune on the other
side of the Earth.
As IRAS scans the sky, the faint radiation from astronomical
sources is focused onto the array of detectors at its focal
plane. These detectors are arranged so that the energy from
any source strikes two of each kind of detector at a time. The
same segment of the sky is then re-scanned on the next orbit
to give a total of four data readings for each source in each of
the four infrared channels. Then, later in the survey, the tele-
scope returns to do another double scan of that portion of the
sky, so that every area is covered at least four times (some
even more), and every astronomical source has a possible
eight detections overall in each IRAS waveband. This repeti-
tion is needed to make sure that the survey is thorough, and
also to prevent transitory objects—asteroids, comets, even
glints of moonlight—from being wrongly interpreted as infrared
sources in deep space.
ORBIT GEOMETRY
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TOR
i ARCMIN
iSECOND
4N RATE
1/4°
The IRAS orbital path is closely aligned with Earth's sunrise/
sunset line, and shifts about 1 degree each day to maintain
that position throughout the changing seasons. Solar panels
acquire sunlight while the telescope (protected by a sun-
shade) points outward to dark space.
i)
 T_

ORIGIN AL
TOG ApH
COLOR P

The IRAS focal plane assembly includes 62 small rectangular Infrared Band Type of Detector Number Spectral Range
infrared detectors, sensitive in four wavebands. IR Band 1 Silicon Arsenide 15 8.5-15 microns
IR Band 2 Silicon Antimonide 16 19-30 microns
IR Band 3 Germanium Gallium 16 40-80 microns
IR Band 4 Germanium Gallium 15 83 -119 microns
62 total

IRAS circles Earth 14 times a day, once every 103 minutes,
and its telescope is always pointed away from Earth and out at
the dark sky. Only about 60% of its time will be spent on the
survey, however, due in part to "noise" created by Earth's Van
Allen radiation belts, which dip below the altitude of the IRAS
orbit in a region centered over the south Atlantic ocean. Trying
to conduct a sensitive survey in this region would be point-
less—protons in the radiation belts would create too many
false detector readings.
So during these periods, the IRAS telescope is focused on
specific astronomical objects that mission planners have tar-
geted as the most interesting for observing in the infrared.
Hundreds of these additional observations—of unusual gal-
axies, bright infrared stars, and nebulae—are done each
week, not only when the turning Earth brings the south Atlan-
tic under IRAS, but also when the satellite passes over the
poles, where overlapping survey coverage is not needed as
often as in other areas.
Twice each day IRAS radios scientific data down to Earth as
it passes over a receiving station at Rutherford Appleton
Laboratories in Chilton, England. Two onboard tape recorders
with a combined capacity of 900 million bits of information
store the data while IRAS is surveying, then "dump" the pre-
vious half day's data at a rate of one million bits per second at
Chilton. Engineering information on satellite operations is also
sent down with the scientific data.
At the same time, instructions for carrying out the next half
day of the survey are radioed up to the IRAS computers, after
a team in England has determined that all spacecraft opera-
tions and data are normal. Only a preliminary check-out of the
data is performed in England, whereas the full set of IRAS data
is sent by communications satellite from there to the Jet Pro-
pulsion Laboratory for extensive computer processing.
IRAS and Infrared Astronomy
According to modern theory, a star is formed from a cool
cloud of interstellar dust and gas that is somehow triggered to
begin condensing. The mutual gravitational pull of its particles
causes the cloud to contract further and heat up. Eventually it
collapses into a hot, dense sphere, and internal pressures and
temperatures reach a point where nuclear fusion processes
begin. A star is born.
The unique contribution of infrared astronomy is that it can
r
40^

detect these proto-stars long before they "turn on" in visible
light by sensing the heat they emit as they contract. The
prototype for this kind of object, the Becklin-Neugebauer
Kleinmann-Low source in Orion. was discovered by infrared
astronomers in the mid-1960s The nebula is about ten times
the mass of the Sun, but has a temperature of only 600°K
(62.0°F) IRAS should be able to locate proto-stars that are
much smaller—down to the size of the Sun—over much of the
galaxy.
Stellar "hatcheries" leave other infrared clues as well Very
young, hot stars, for example, emit ultraviolet light that breaks
up the atoms in nearby clouds of hydrogen and leaves the gas
ionized. Such clouds of ionized hydrogen are called H II
regions, and are believed to mark the sites of ongoing star
formation. They also appear at all IRAS survey wavelengths.
IRAS will be particularly good at picking out these H 11
regions throughout the galaxy. In addition, the IRAS spec-
trometer should detect certain interstellar molecules, among
them water and ammonia that appear widely throughout the
galaxy as very cool clouds of dust and gas. These clouds of
molecules also are thought to be associated with the birth of
stars.
By detecting, identifying, and showing the distribution of
these dusty proto-stars, H II regions, and clouds of molecules
the IRAS survey will allow astronomers to estimate the rate at
which stars are forming in our galaxy, and by extension, other
galaxies in the universe.
At the waning end of a star's life cycle it runs low on its own
nuclear fuel and begins to redden and die. As it does so it may
cough out clouds of material from the interior—heavy elements
formed from fusion processes deep inside the star. Dust can
envelop the fading star so thickly as to block its visible light
completely. Here infrared astronomy can contribute in two
ways. First, since the dust is much more transparent at long
infrared wavelengths, astronomers are still able to see infrared
light from the fading star. Secondly, the surrounding dust is
itself heated up by the star to re-radiate its own infrared light.
Because of this, IRAS can take inventory of the stars dying in
our galaxy.
The material ejected from these fading stars in turn re-
supplies the large clouds that will eventually become new
stars. The dust is composed mainly of smoke-sized silicate
grains, and these have characteristic signatures at specific
infrared wavelengths. By mapping the galaxy-wide distribution
of this silicate dust, IRAS will be an important key to under-
standing the ongoing natural processes of stellar birth, death,
and the recycling of matter.
Infrared also opens up an important region o r the sky nearly
invisible to optical astronomers---the center of our Milky Way
galaxy, located in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius.
With its ability to see through the thick dust in the plane of the
galaxy IRAS can map previously unseen structure at its core,
including further detail in the giant H II regions and molecular
clouds that have already been observed there at radio and
infrared wavelengths Infrared sources and structure in nearby
galaxies like the Magellanic Clouds will also be revealed in
the IRAS survey.
Perhaps most intriguing will be the information IRAS returns
on certain unusual objects outside the Milky Way that astron-
omers know already emit large amount e of infrared energy.

9 101 micron

ORIGINAL PAGE
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Data from the first day of the IRAS telescope's operation show a 25 degree-long scan across the plane of our Milky Way galaxy
at two infrared wavelengths—Band 4, centered at 101 microns (top), and Band 1, centered at 11 microns. Clearly visible in both
graphs is the galaxy's central bulge. The lower band 1 readings reveal the radiation of hotter point sources that show up as
spikes, whereas the top graph shows the more uniformly distributed (and colder) dust and gas.

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Before IRAS began its survey of the whole sky, it first ran a "mini-survey" of ten orbital scans (covering 5 degrees of the sky) so
that data processing techniques could be refined. The shaded track shows the satellite's north-south path superimposed on an
ecliptic sky map, where 0 0 latitude is the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun. The track is "stretched" at the poles in this flat
projection. Also visible are the plane of our Milky Way galaxy (lightly shaded) and a projection of Earth's equator.

Quasars and Seyfert galaxies, for example, pour out unex-
pectedly large amounts of energy for their size at all wave-
lengths. Some galaxies are known to have particularly large
excesses in the infrared, and the reasons why are not clear.
The IRAS survey is able to catalog such unusual sources so
that their energy output in the infrared can be compared with
that at other wavelengths.
Closer to home, the IRAS survey can observe many objects
within our own solar system. Asteroids, especially, should
appear in the survey by the thousands, and infrared data can
help to determine their reflectivity, their surface composition,
and even their diameters. Also visible to the sensitive detec-
tors is the zodiacal light caused by sunlight reflecting from
dust within the plane of the solar system. To map the distribu-
tion of this dust is to gain insight into how our planetary sys-
tern was formed. The IRAS telescope avoids the bright planet
Jupiter, however, because brightness is heat, and heat boils
off the telescope's cryogenic helium faster than the desired
rate.
Approximately one year after IRAS ends its survey in space,
the Jet Propulsion laboratory plans to release the mission's
final products—maps of the infrared sky and a catalog of all
major infrared sources, along with critical information on each
one. This information will be available to the entire scientific
community worldwide.
The IRAS maps, when completed, will show a much different
sky than our familiar array of constellations, a different sky
even than the one astronomers know from previous infrared
study. We can only speculate on the total number of new
sources that will be discovered. It is even quite possible that
IRAS will discover whole new classes of astronomical objects
whose only signature is in the faint infrared radiation they emit.
As we learn to open our electronic eyes to the many "colors"
s of the electromagnetic spectrum, we come closer to putting
together all the clues, to understanding the great and deep
complications of the universe.
Classroom Activities
1. Construct a three-dimensional model of the Earth, Moon,
and Sun in space. Calculate the angular size of the Earth
as seen from the 900-kilometer-high IRAS orbit. Then plan
a strategy for surveying the entire sky in the fewest
possible orbits, keeping in mind that the telescope must
point away from the Sun, Moon, and Earth, and remember-
ing the restrictions against observing when the satellite is
over the south Atlantic.
2. Using the sources listed in the bibliography below as well
as other articles published in scientific journals, make a
map comparing the fifty brightest known infrared sources
with the fifty brightest visible objects in the sky.
3. Perform the experiment by which Herschel discovered
infrared radiation.
4. Write a report based on preliminary IRAS findings pub-
lished in such magazines as Science, Astronomy and
Astrophysics, and Nature.
Suggested Reading
G. Neugebauer and R.E. Leighton. "The Infrared Sky." Scien-
tific American, August, 1968. pp. 50-60
G. Neugebauer and E.E. Becklin. "The Brightest Infrared
Sources." Scientific American, April, 1973. pp 28-40
C.H. Annett. "The Infrared Universe " Astronomy, October,
1981. pp. 74-79
Allen, David A. Ir;!rared, the New Astronomy. New York,
K. Reid. 1975
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