ANS1)

In software development, a prototype is a rudimentary working model of a product or information

system, usually built for demonstration purposes or as part of the development process. In the systems
development life cycle (SDLC) Prototyping Model, a basic version of the system is built, tested, and
then reworked as necessary until an acceptable prototype is finally achieved from which the complete
system or product can now be developed.

Advantages of prototyping:

 May provide the proof of concept necessary to attract funding

 Early visibility of the prototype gives users an idea of what the final
system looks like.

 Encourage active participation among users and producer.

 Enables a higher output for user.

 Cost effective .

 Increase system development speed.

 Helps to refine the potential risks associated with the delivery of the
system being developed.

 Various aspects can be tested and quicker feedback can be got from the
user.

 Helps to deliver the product in quality easily.

 Use intersacation available during development cycle of prototype.

ANS2:

Computer systems analysts start their work by asking people what they need their computers to do.
Then, they plan a computer system that can do those tasks well. A system can include many
computers working together and different types of software and other tools.

Analysts experiment with different computer system plans. They try various tools and steps until they
find the system that is fastest, easiest, and costs the least.

Next, analysts decide which computers, software, and tools to buy. They also tell computer
programmers how to make any new software that is needed. They give the programmers step-by-step
instructions. Some analysts help make the software, too.

Benefits of using automated tools:

Reliable: Tests perform precisely the same operations each time they are run,
thereby eliminating human error.

Repeatable: You can test how the software reacts under repeated execution of
thesame operations.
Programmable: You can program sophisticated tests that bring out hidden
information from the application.

Comprehensive: You can build a suite of tests that covers every feature in
yourapplication.

Reusable: You can reuse tests on different versions of an application, even if the
user interface changes.Better Quality Software: Because you can run more tests
in less time with fewerresources.

Fast: Automated Tools run tests significantly faster than human users.Cost
Reduction: As the number of resources for regression test are reduce
ANS3:

CASE tools are a class of software that automate many of the activities involved in various life cycle
phases. For example, when establishing the functional requirements of a proposed application,
prototyping tools can be used to develop graphic models of application screens to assist end users to
visualize how an application will look after development. Subsequently, system designers can use
automated design tools to transform the prototyped functional requirements into detailed design
documents. Programmers can then use automated code generators to convert the design documents
into code. Automated tools can be used collectively, as mentioned, or individually. For example,
prototyping tools could be used to define application requirements that get passed to design
technicians who convert the requirements into detailed designs in a traditional manner using
flowcharts and narrative documents, without the assistance of automated design software.

Existing CASE tools can be classified along 4 different dimensions:

1. Life-cycle support
2. Integration dimension
3. Construction dimension
4. Knowledge based case dimension

Life-Cycle Based CASE Tools

This dimension classifies CASE Tools on the basis of the activities they support in the information
systems life cycle. They can be classified as Upper or Lower CASE tools.

• Upper CASE Tools support strategic planning and construction of concept-

level products and ignore the design aspect. They support traditional
diagrammatic languages such as ER diagrams, Data flow diagram,
Structure charts, Decision Trees, Decision tables, etc.
• Lower CASE Tools concentrate on the back end activities of the software
life cycle, such as physical design, debugging, construction, testing,
component integration, maintenance, reengineering and reverse
engineering.

Integration dimension

Three main CASE Integration dimensions have been proposed:

 CASE Framework
 ICASE Tools
 Integrated Project Support Environment(IPSE)
Workbenches

Workbenches integrate several CASE tools into one application to support specific software-process
activities. Hence they achieve:

• a homogeneous and consistent interface (presentation integration).

• easy invocation of tools and tool chains (control integration).
• access to a common data set managed in a centralized way (data
integration).

CASE workbenches can be further classified into following 8 classes:

1. Business planning and modeling

2. Analysis and design
3. User-interface development
4. Programming
5. Verification and validation
6. Maintenance and reverse engineering
7. Configuration management
8. Project management

Environments

An environment is a collection of CASE tools and workbenches that supports the software process.
CASE environments are classified based on the focus/basis of integration[4]

1. Toolkits
2. Language-centered
3. Integrated
4. Fourth generation
5. Process-centered

Toolkits

Toolkits are loosely integrated collections of products easily extended by aggregating different tools
and workbenches. Typically, the support provided by a toolkit is limited to programming,
configuration management and project management. And the toolkit itself is environments extended
from basic sets of operating system tools, for example, the Unix Programmer's Work Bench and the
VMS VAX Set. In addition, toolkits' loose integration requires user to activate tools by explicit
invocation or simple control mechanisms. The resulting files are unstructured and could be in
different format, therefore the access of file from different tools may require explicit file format
conversion. However, since the only constraint for adding a new component is the formats of the files,
toolkits can be easily and incrementally extended.[4]

Language-centered

The environment itself is written in the programming language for which it was developed, thus
enabling users to reuse, customize and extend the environment. Integration of code in different
languages is a major issue for language-centered environments. Lack of process and data integration
is also a problem. The strengths of these environments include good level of presentation and control
integration. Interlisp, Smalltalk, Rational, and KEE are examples of language-centered environments.
ANS4:

Analysts experiment with different computer system plans. They try various tools and steps until they
find the system that is fastest, easiest, and costs the least.

Next, analysts decide which computers, software, and tools to buy. They also tell computer
programmers how to make any new software that is needed. They give the programmers step-by-step
instructions. Some analysts help make the software, too.

The main job for some systems analysts is getting computers to work together. They connect them
into a network. Analysts decide how to get information from one computer to another. Many help
people get data from the Internet.

Feasibility Studies

o Often the first step involves determining whether the product or project is worth the
time and effort. A feasibility study is a document that describes features and benefits
of the product, itemizes costs, resources and staffing then describes the projects
potential profits or value to the organization. A feasibility study forces the analysis
team to turn a nebulous idea into a practical, useful project with a firm definition and
a list of tangible benefits.

Interviews

o The details necessary to understand processes or product needs are usually in the
heads of employees and customers. The only way to mine this information is to talk
with them. Interviews should be focused, with a prepared list of questions or concepts
to be discussed. Document each interview by recording it using a small digital
recorder or summarize the conversation immediately after it is completed.

Use Cases

o Short narratives describing how a product will be used, limited to a few paragraphs,
often helps analysts and customers refine product features. Refine these narratives
throughout the analysis phase. These use cases can be used throughout the project life
cycle, especially during testing.

Requirements Lists

o When designing a product, it is helpful to keep a running list of requirements. These

should be presented as a list or in outline form, organized by categories. As the list
grows, this list helps the analyst understand the customer's needs and helps limit what
features are necessary and which are not.

ANS5:

Best practice in tabular presentation refers to designing tables that canbe read
easily and quickly. The faster someone can read a table, the better it is.
Remember these two words: ease and speed! There are ways to accomplish this
by manipulating contrast, alignment, spacing and ordering. All these elements
help to achieve clarity so that the reader can pick out specific data and
understand the discussion of your results.Contrast: By making key elements of
your table stand out from one another, you can group or distinguish data from
each other. For example, you could bold the title, dividers, or headings. You can
use different font sizes, styles, or lettercases for different elements in your table.
You can use color to emphasize backgrounds or text. Regardless of which of
these you choose for creating contrast,remember that "less is more" when it
comes to creating an effective table.Alignment: Alignment is important for
keeping your table neat and clear. For example, all numbers in the columns
should line up with each other and with their headings. Structure your table so
that all elements seem to be properly aligned with each other--titles, headings,
data, dividers, notes.Ordering: Group items that are similar to give a sense of
structure and meaningto your table. This will also help break up the data, making
it easier on the eye. Another way to order data is to indent subordinate data
when it falls belowspecific column data.Spacing: Manipulating the "white areas"
around the table can also help clarify and organize the table. For example, you
should always have enough space around and between text so that it stands out.
You can use space to separate groups or emphasize them.Once you are ready to
include your results in your report, you may decide that the best representation
for your data is a tabular presentation. You may be working with raw data that
you collected yourself during an experiment, and you may want to revise it so
that it includes only relevant data and so that it is organized properly. You may
also be working with long lists of raw data collected by other people or given to
you by your laboratory instructor. In this case, it is up to you to sort through all
the data and find a way to best represent it in tabular form. To accomplish this
task, you'll need to be familiar with the basic rules for tabular presentation:

 Limit your table to data that are relevant to the hypotheses in the
experiment.

 Be certain that your table can stand alone without any explanation.

 Make sure that your table is supplementary to your text and does not
replicate it.

 Refer to all tables by numbers in your text e.g 1,2,3...

 Align decimal places.

 Always give units of measurement in table headlines.

 B econsistent with your tabular presentation .Use consistent table,title,and

heading formats.

 Provide column/row totals or other numerical summaries that can make it

easier to understand data.

ANS 6:

Human Factors Engineering is the discipline dedicated to optimizing the

relationship between technology (system hardware and software) and the
human operator ofvarious systems. Any man-machine system can and should be
the target of human factors engineering. Anywhere you find technology and
people interacting, there is a need for human factors engineering.During the
design stage of system, product, and facility development, for the purposes of
optimizing efficiency and safety, the human factors engineer is trained to take
into account certain relevant human characteristics of the people whowill
operate or use such things, and then design such systems to be compatible with
those characteristics. That is, a human factors engineer designs things to provide
the "best match" between system user capabilities and limitations and
therelevant system hardware components that impose physical, physiological,
and/orpsychological demands on such users.A competent mechanical or civil
engineer will design a structure to take advantage of the particular strength
characteristics of the material being used for construction. A competent
mechanical or civil engineer would not design a structure outside the strengths
and limitations of the materials being used, as this would pose a foreseeable and
unacceptable risk of structural collapse. In like fashion, a human factors
engineer, or any engineer using human factors engineering design principles,
when designing a system that will contain a human component (such as a
human operator), will design the system to "fit" or take advantage of the
strongest and most effective human characteristics related to system
requirements, and will not design a system that makes demands on human
performance that are near or outside the areas of human strengths or the most
effective human capabilities.