Chapter 2 07

CE 424/CE 524
Structural Steel Design
Chapter 2
Design Philosophies: LRFD/ASD
Dr. Mahmoud Reda Taha, P. Eng.

Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico
© Dr. M. M. Reda Taha, 2007.
Table of contents
Design philosophies
Probabilistic Basis for LRFD
Reliability index
Determining load and resistance factors
AISC load and resistance factors

LRFD
ASD
CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 2

Design Philosophies
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Plastic Design (PD)
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Allowable Stress Design

Service loads are calculated as expected during service life.
Linear elastic analysis is performed.
A factor of safety (FOS) of the material strength is assumed
(usually 3-4)
Material Strength
Allowable Stress =
FOS
Design is satisfactory if (maximum stress < allowable stress)

Limitations
Case specific, no guarantee that our design covers all cases
Arbitrary choice of FOS?! Can this be resolved ?!

New version of ASD
The new AISC code introduces a new trend for ASD
Rn
Ra ≤
Ω
The service loads shall be computed considering all possible load
combinations and this can result in determining the required
strength Ra
A new factor of safety Ω is introduced. The new factor of safety

is > 1.0 and is derived using probabilistic methods
By dividing the nominal strength Rn by the Ω factor of safety,
the concept of allowable stress is satisfied.
Plastic Design
Service loads are factored by a “load factor”.
The structure is assumed to fail under these loads, thus,
plastic hinges will form under these loads “Plastic Analysis”.
The cross section is designed to resist bending moments and
shear forces from the plastic analysis.
Members are safe as they are designed to fail under these
factored loads while they will only experience service loads.
Limitations
No FOS of the material is considered, neglecting the uncertainty in
material strength!
Arbitrary choice of overall FOS?!

LRFD is similar to plastic design in that it performs design with the assumption of
failure!
Service loads are multiplied by load factors (γ) and linear elastic analysis is
performed.
Material strength is reduced by multiplying the nominal material strength by a
resistance factor (φ)
The design rule is
This rule shall be attained

∑ γ i Q i ≤ φi R n for all limit states!!
Where Rn is the nominal strength and Q is the load effect for the ith limit state
Advantages of LRFD
Non-case specific, statistical calculations guarantee population behavior.
Uniform factor of safety as both load and material factors are tied by reliability analysis.

The basic statistical information we can get are the mean and the
standard deviation
Mean of a sample population
µ 1 n
µ= ∑ xi
n i
Standard deviation of a sample population
σ
1 n
σ= ∑
n i
( xi − µ )2
(n-1) for samples of less than 30 observations
We can also calculate the coefficient of variation (V)
V = σµ
Probability density Cumulative probability

function (PDF) b
1
⎛ − ( x − µ )2
⎜
⎜ 2σ 2
⎞
⎟
⎟
P( a < x < b ) = ∫ P ( x ) dx
P( x ) = e ⎝ ⎠ a
σ 2π
a b
In LRFD we assume that both loads and resistance are uncertain

and need to be dealt with through the theory of probability
For example: Test results of a L 3 ½ x 3 ½ x 3/8 are:
Test # Load
(kips)
1 87.2
2 87.3
3 85.4
4 87
5 86.5
6 86.9
7 88
8 89
9 84.3
10 87

The mean and the standard deviations for the test results are:
µ = 86.9 kips
σ = 1.29 kips Probability density function (PDF)
From the previous graph

we might assume normal
distribution of the test
results
Thus by using the normal
“Gaussian” distribution
we get this curve
⎛ −( x − µ )2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
1 ⎜ 2 σ 2 ⎟⎠
P( x ) = e⎝
σ 2π

Materials and load distributions have been shown by researchers to follow
normal or log-normal distributions
If normal distribution is used, then
P( R ≤ Q ) thus if x = R − Q then POF = P( x ≤ 0 )
If log-normal distribution is used, then
⎛R⎞ ⎛R⎞
P( ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ≤ 0 ) thus if x = ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ then POF = P( x ≤ 0 )
⎝Q⎠ ⎝Q⎠
Normal or Log-normal distribution
Mean (µ)
POF = Area left to the line
x = zero
The reliability index “β” is tied to this distribution.
It simply represents how far the mean from the critical point as multiples of
the standard deviation
If we consider log-normal distribution for example
⎛R⎞
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
β= T = ⎝ ⎠
x Q
σx σ ⎛R⎞
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Mean (µ)
⎝Q⎠
xT
Each β corresponds to a
specific probability of failure
x = zero
Probabilistic basis for LRFD

Looking at the two distributions of resistance and load effect
Resistance “R”
R
Frequency (%)
Load effect “Q”
Q
R −Q
Q R
R-Q

If we have the probability distribution of the load effect (Q) and the
material resistance (R) then:
The probability of failure can be represented by observing the probability of
the function (R-Q)
The probability of failure PF can be represented as the probability that Q ≥ R:
Probability
of failure

We can view the relation between these probabilities from another
prospective
( R − Q ) Cos45 On this line Q = R,

we are interested in
Q> R
N ( R − Q ) Cos 45
β= =
R σQ σQ
The higher the β, the bigger the safety radius
o
45
Q
N

Reliability Index
σR
For lines inclined by an angle θ we can prove cos θ =
σ R2 + σ Q2
⎡σ ⎤
( R − Q ) ⎢ R ⎥Cosθ
⎢⎣σ Q ⎥⎦
β=
σQ
(R − Q )
β=
N
β=
σQ σ R2 + σ Q2
The reliability index “β” is a function of both

The load effect “Q” and the resistance “R” and their probability distributions.
It represents how confident are we in our decision that the resistance of the
material is higher than the load effects.
Reliability Index
By considering the previous graph
The higher the parameter “β”, the lower the probability of failure “PF”
The parameter “β” is known as “The reliability index”
Lognormal variables Normal variables
⎡ R ⎤
⎢ ln( Q ) ⎥ Rm − Qm
β = ⎣ ⎦m
OR β=
σ⎡ R ⎤
⎢ ln( Q ) ⎥
σ R2 + σ Q2
⎣ ⎦
The formula we will use
The reliability index “β” is a function of both

The load effect “Q” and the resistance “R” and their probability distributions.
By targeting a specific “Reliability index” for all the design elements, a consist
tent level of safety in design can be achieved
Determining load and resistance factors
As the load effect and resistance distributions can be determined by

measurements, the reliability index “β” (probability of failure) for any
combination of loads and materials can be determined.
However, determining the probability of failure for a specific load and

material combination is not the design target. The target is to determine the
load and resistance factors that can achieve a specific probability of failure
The following equation can be used for determining the resistance factor φ
for a specific reliability index “β”:
R m − 0 .55 β V R
φ = e
Rn
VR is the coefficient of variation of the resistance
The load factor “γ“ can be determined : see next example

Example 1
For the shown connection:

The 50 years wind records are used to calculate the maximum load effect
Experimental results of the connection resistance are recorded
Test # R (kips) Record # Pw (kips)
1 23.5 1 14.8
2 28.1 2 14.1
PW
3 24 3 18.4
4 26.5 4 16.3
Rn = 25.4 kips 5 25.3 5 16.9
6 22.2 6 19.8
7 21.2
Determine 7 25.3
8 26.2 8 18.4
The probability of failure 9 14.8
9 24.9
Load and resistance factors for a 10 22.3 10 19.1
probability of failure of 0.01%

Example 1
To determine the probability of failure we need to determine the

probability that Qm>Rm
First: Determine the statistical parameters for Q and R
Rm = 24.83 kips
σ R = 1.87 kips
VR = 0.075
Qm = 17.38 kips
σ Q = 2.36 kips
VQ = 0.136
Example 1
The probability of failure represents the probability that Qm>Rm
Rm − Qm
β= β = 2.47 POF = 0.67%
σ R2 + σ Q2
This is relatively high POF, we need to determine the load and

resistance factors to achieve a specific POF (POF<0.01%)
POFT = 0.01 % βT ≈ 3.75 “Inverse of cumulative normal

distribution”
RT − Qm = βT σ R2 + σ Q2
RT − Qm = βT VR2 RT2 + σ Q2 Solve for RT

Example 1
The load factor can now be determined
RT
γ= γ ≈ 1.70
Qm
We can also determine the load resistance factor φ from the equation below
Rm −0.55 β VR
φ= e φ = 0.83
Rn
We can repeat the previous process for different POFs to examine the effect of
changing the POF or “β” on load and resistance factors
See MATLAB code on the web
http://civilx.unm.edu/Courses/CE_424/downloads.htm
AISC – Steel Design

Historically,
LRFD concepts have been adopted in Canada since 1970s and
in Europe since early 1980s.
AISC adopted LRFD since 1986.
AISC Introduces a combined method in 2007!
The new design provisions in AISC (2007) version allows the design
using one of two methods
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
AISC tries to establish a uniform method by introducing a new ASD
design method, where ASD safety factors are derived probabilistically.
Therefore, both methods are similar and shall yield close results
AISC – LRFD Design
Design using AISC will target a specific probability of failure
“Reliability index” “β” to achieve a consistent design at the
different design load combinations and limit states
AISC Reliability index (β)

Loading Conditions
D + (L or S) D+L+W D+L+E
Members 3.0 2.5 1.75
Connections 4.5 4.5 4.5
Where
Dead loads (D)
Live loads (L)
Wind Loads (W)
Earthquakes (E)
Load Designation
Based on definitions by ASCE document on load and load combinations (2002),
AISC considers the following loads for designing of Steel structures.
Dead loads (D)
Live loads (LL)
Occupancy load (L)
Roof load (Lr)
Snow load (S)
Rain loads (R)
Wind Loads (W)

Earthquake load (E)
Lateral earth pressure (H)
Fluid pressures (F)
Self-restraining force (T)

LRFD: Load and Resistance Factors
AISC considers the following load combinations in design
1− 1.4 D
∑γ i Qi ≤ φi Rn
2 − 1.2 D + 1.6 L + 0.5( Lr or S or R )
3 − 1.2 D + 1.6 ( Lr or S or R ) + 0.5L or (0.8W )

∑γ i Qi
4 − 1.2 D + 1.6 W + 0.5 L + 0.5 ( Lr or S or R )
5 − 1 .2 D ± 1 . 0 E + 0 . 5 L + 0 . 2 S
6 − 0.9 D ± (1.3 Wor 1.0 E )

For garages, load factor for L in load combinations 3,4 and 5 shall be 1.0 and not 0.5 ( L = 100 psf)
φi Rn φ = 0.75 − 1.00 for yield φ = 0.9 and for bolt shear φ = 0.75
ASD: Load and Resistance Factors

AISC considers the following load combinations in design Rn
Ra ≤
1− D Ω
2− D+L
3− D + ( Lr or S or R )
Ra 4− D + 0.75 L + 0.75 ( Lr or S or R )
5− D ± ( W or 0.7 E )
6− D + 0.75( W or 0.7 E ) + 0.75 L + 0.75( Lr or S or R )
7− 0.6 D ± ( W or 0.7 E )
1.5
Ω Ω= for yield Ω = 1.67 and for bolt shear Ω = 2.0
φ
Example 2
References
Segui, W. T., LRFD Steel Design, Fourth Edition, 2007, Thompson,

Brooks/Cole, USA.
Manual of Steel Construction, Load and Resistance Factor Design, American
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), 13th Edition. 2005
McCormac, J. C. and Nelson, J. K., Structural Steel Design: LRFD Method,
3rd Edition, 2003, Prentice Hall, NJ, USA
Kulak, G. L. and Gilmor, M. I., Limit State Design in Structural Steel, 6th
Edition, 1998, Canadian Institute of Steel Construction, Alliston, Ontario,
Canada.
Loov, R. E., Structural Steel Design: Lecture Notes, 1997, Calgary, Canada.

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CE 424/CE 524

Structural Steel Design

Dr. Mahmoud Reda Taha, P. Eng.

© Dr. M. M. Reda Taha, 2007.

 Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

 Determining load and resistance factors

 AISC load and resistance factors

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 2

 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

 Plastic Design (PD)

 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 3

Allowable Stress Design

 Design is satisfactory if (maximum stress < allowable stress)

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 4

 A new factor of safety Ω is introduced. The new factor of safety

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 5

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 6

This rule shall be attained

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 7

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

 We can also calculate the coefficient of variation (V)

Probability density Cumulative probability

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

 In LRFD we assume that both loads and resistance are uncertain

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 10

 From the previous graph

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 11

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

POF = Area left to the line

Probabilistic basis for LRFD

Load effect “Q”

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 14

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 15

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

( R − Q ) Cos45 On this line Q = R,

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 16

 The reliability index “β” is a function of both

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 17

The formula we will use

 The reliability index “β” is a function of both

 As the load effect and resistance distributions can be determined by

 However, determining the probability of failure for a specific load and

 The load factor “γ“ can be determined : see next example

 For the shown connection:

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 20

 To determine the probability of failure we need to determine the

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 21

 The probability of failure represents the probability that Qm>Rm

 This is relatively high POF, we need to determine the load and

POFT = 0.01 % βT ≈ 3.75 “Inverse of cumulative normal

RT − Qm = βT VR2 RT2 + σ Q2 Solve for RT

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 22

 The load factor can now be determined

AISC – Steel Design

 AISC Reliability index (β)

 Roof load (Lr)

 Snow load (S)

 Rain loads (R)

 Wind Loads (W)

CE 424/524 - Chapter 2 Slide Number 26

3 − 1.2 D + 1.6 ( Lr or S or R ) + 0.5L or (0.8W )

6 − 0.9 D ± (1.3 Wor 1.0 E )

Probabilistic Basis for LRFD

Determining load and resistance factors

AISC load and resistance factors

Allowable Stress Design (ASD)

Plastic Design (PD)

Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

Design is satisfactory if (maximum stress < allowable stress)

A new factor of safety Ω is introduced. The new factor of safety

We can also calculate the coefficient of variation (V)

In LRFD we assume that both loads and resistance are uncertain

From the previous graph

The reliability index “β” is a function of both

The reliability index “β” is a function of both

As the load effect and resistance distributions can be determined by

However, determining the probability of failure for a specific load and

The load factor “γ“ can be determined : see next example

For the shown connection:

To determine the probability of failure we need to determine the

The probability of failure represents the probability that Qm>Rm

This is relatively high POF, we need to determine the load and

The load factor can now be determined

AISC Reliability index (β)

Roof load (Lr)

Snow load (S)

Rain loads (R)

Wind Loads (W)

Segui, W. T., LRFD Steel Design, Fourth Edition, 2007, Thompson,