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GENRE AND ENUNCIATION: THE CASE OF HORROR

Author(s): EDWARD LOWRY


Source: Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 36, No. 2, SPECTATORSHIP AND NEW TECHNOLOGY
(Spring 1984), pp. 13-20, 72
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the University Film & Video Association
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GENRE AND ENUNCIATION: THE CASE OF HORROR
EDWARD LOWRY

The horror film, more than perhaps any of the golem. Clearly, there are points of
other genre so readily identifiedby both contact between many of the sub
audiences and producers, has largely categories (castles, graveyards, labora
eluded scholars in theirattempts to define tories), but generalizations of this sort do
its specificities. As a category, it remains more to demonstrate the superficiality of
inclusive enough, and its component films iconographic definitions than to define
diverse enough, to present significant horror as a genre.

problems for the two major and inter


related methods of analyzing genres: 1) Observations of certain consistencies on

according to iconography, and 2) accord the narrative level seem to reveal a bit
ing to the structurationof conflict. more: horror films relate the genesis and
the threatof someone or somethingwhich
Unlike such genres as thewestern and the is monstrous, be it a vampire, a psycho or

gangster film,which remain fairly specific a creature from the Black Lagoon. Robin
in their settings, horror movies are set in a Wood put itmost concisely when he ob
variety of times and places, from medieval served that, in the horror film, "normality
castles to modem motels, from the clut is threatened by theMonster."1 Keeping
tered labs of demented scientists to the in mind Wood's insistence that "normal

fog-bound streets of 19thcenturyLondon. ity" be regarded as a "non-evaluative"


The iconography of the horror film seems term inhis definition,we may note at least
equally eclectic when taken as a whole, two advantages which this formulation
and is subject to systematization mainly offers to structural analysis: 1) it allows
according to a fairlywide range of sub the threat of the monster to represent a
genres: the trappings of Eastern European variety of psychological and social

superstition and of Christianity in tales of "others" (other sexualities, other cul


vampires and werewolves; the technologi tures, other classes, etc.); and 2) it allows
cal and clinical instruments in stories of (like Jim Kitses' structuration of anti
human-made monsters; the tools of butch nomies in thewestern2) for individual films
ery (knives, axes, chainsaws) associated to champion values on either or both sides
with the psychopathic killer; the sym of the conflict: that is,we may be asked to
bologies of ancient Egypt surrounding the identifywith the victims (Dracula), with
mummy, ofHaitian voodoo in the original the monster (The Bride of Frankenstein),
zombie films,and ofHasidism in the story with both (Curse of theWerewolf) or with
neither (Texas Chainsaw Massacre).
EDWARD LOWRY taught Film Studies at
has
the University of Texas and the University of While quite apt, Wood's definition
Iowa, and is currently an Assistant Professor at
nevertheless suggests the difficulties in
Southern Illinois University. He studied at the
Centre Universitaire Am6ricain du Cinema in volved in seeking generic specificity in
Paris and received his Ph.D. from the Univer structures of conflict. Other genres posit
sity of Texas. Lowry has published in Film the threat to normality posed by an
Comment, Take One and Velvet Light Trap. "other." In westerns, for example, this
"other" is often the Indian; in war films, it
?
Copyright 1984by Edward Lowry

JOURNALOF FILM AND VIDEO XXXVI, (Spring1984) 13


is usually the enemy. Family melodrama group is the re-integration of the aberrant

fairly consistently treats the threat posed character.


to bourgeois normality by an "otherness"
arising from the intrusion of an outsider or Ultimately, these observations do less to

by a change in a member of the social challenge the identification of specific


group. Nor can the horror film be fit as a structures of conflict within popular film
whole, according to its structures of con narratives than to suggest that these
flict, into either the "genres of order" or structures represent different strategies
the "genres of integration" outlined by for articulating and resolving similar
Thomas Schatz.3 Certainly, the ideologi ideological contradictions (e.g., threats to

cally contested space where conflict is the individual, threats to society)


externalized in violence, characteristic of strategieswhich often interminglewithout
the westerns, gangster movies and detec regard for generic boundaries. Of course,
tive films which Schatz classifies as the problem of generic specificity is
"genres of order," equally describes such furthercomplicated on the empirical level
horror films as Frankenstein, Alien, Night by the existence of the generic "hybrid":
of the Living Dead and either version of the western cop film (Coogan's Bluff), the
The Thing. By contrast, movies like The western musical (The Haney Girls), the
Exorcist, Psycho and any version of Dr. horror musical (Phantom of the Paradise),
Jekyll and Mr. Hyde conform, along with the horror comedy (Young Frankenstein).
family melodramas, screwball comedies Such cases further indicate the ease with
and musicals, to the category "genres of which generic structures may mesh, even

integration," which occur in a civilized, as they demonstrate that generic icono


"familial" space, where conflict is moti graphies are by no means exclusive.
vated or strongly linked to emotional fac
tors, and where the goal of the social What Iwish to propose is the examination

No other genre depends so thoroughly on the sado-masochistic relationship between


audience and filmic spectacle.

14 JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO XXXVI, 2 (Spring 1984)


of horror in the cinema as a mode of ad Although nearly all narrative filmsproceed
dress, clearly linked to certain structural according to the promise of pleasure and
conflicts and iconographies, but more im its subsequent postponement (charac
portantly, engaging the viewer in a very terized by the hermeneutic code), and the
specific type of discourse. It is this ques suspense sequence assumes this manner
tion of address and of the discursive re of presentation as a strictformal strategy,
lationships established between audience no other type of film depends so thor
and spectacle which provides a means to oughly on a sado-masochistic relationship
discuss what is unique about the horror between the audience and the filmspecta
film: that is, itswill to horrify the viewer. cle as does the horror film. This is exem

plified by the fact that the spectator's rela


Examining horror from this perspective tion to the horror film is often quite
requires focusing attention on the textual active-screaming, covering the eyes,
strategies by which the horror filmworks laughing either nervously or derisively.
to produce horror. These are precisely the Certainly, thisdynamic relationship does a
strategies of filmic enunciation, which in good deal to account for the genre's emo
volves the links between the formal and tional power, the fanaticism of its de
rhetorical systems of a text, the actual votees and its frequent dismissal as pure
performance of narrative and filmiccodes sensationalism. Sensation is what the hor
in relation to the viewer. As Stephen ror movie promises, and the audience en
Neale writes, ters the theater in full knowledge that the
filmwill attempt to terrorize them.
Narrative . . . is both a of
process
production and an activity of structu Noel Burch discusses "that mixture of re

ration, but it is so inand for a subject. pugnance and fascination experienced by


... Different modes of the viewer confronted with . . . of
signification images
produce different functionings of horror" as the raison d'2tre of cinematic

subjectivity, moving the subject dif aggression.6 It is the spectacle of horror

ferently in theirvarious semiotic pro itselfwith which the enunciation threatens


cesses, producing distinct modes of and teases the viewer. In the horror genre,
address.4 this spectacle frequently involves con

fronting the spectator with images of vio


For Neale, this involves both the process lence, of decay, of mayhem, or of
simply
of enunciation and thatwhich is (for lack eerieness. Such images range from the
of a better word) "enounced," the latter graphic mutilations presented in a "gore"

implying the positioning of the viewer in film likeBlood Feast to the grotesqueness
relation to the narrative, as inscribed in of actresses in Whatever
decaying Hap
the text. "Each genre," Neale continues, pened to Baby Jane? the
Frequently,
"has, at least to some extent, its own spectacle of horror is the monster itself,
mode of address, its own version of the whose appearance is withheld (The Cat
articulation of the balance" between pro People) or revealed (the unmasking of The
cess and position.5 Therefore, if we are Phantom of the Opera) according to codes

willing to acknowledge that an important of suspense and terrorwhich characterize


characteristic of the horror film is its at the horror filmand separate it, for exam
tempt to produce a horrific subject-posi ple, from themystery, where the killer is
tion for the viewer, we may learn a great usually seen throughoutbut not identified
deal about the genre by examining the as such until the conclusion, where the
enunciative strategies it involves. thing withheld is a solution and not a

JOURNALOF FILM AND VIDEO XXXVI, (Spring1984) 15


-t ..-sMw..9
-':'s

"Horror as the spectacle of decay." (Psycho)

spectacle. Burch outlines a common aspects to the extent that the viewer is
enunciative strategy in the presentation of placed ina position where the spectacle of
horrific scenes: the spectator "is titillated horror is presented as the pleasurable
at first by the suggestion of horror and fulfillmentof a desire, paid for at the box
thinks he (sic) has gotten off easily with a office. On the other hand, the narcissistic
little shiver runningup his spine, but then aspect of the conventional construction of
absolutely everything is revealed to the viewer's look, which according to
him."7 This clearly involves an aggressive Mulvey "demands identificationof the ego
structuration, Burch argues, "whose very with the object on the screen," places the
substance is horror ...
invariably per spectator of the horror film in a simulta
ceived (except by persons of extremely neously masochistic position shared with
perverse sensibility) through a cloud of the victim of the horror.9 The seeming
pain," since "each of us is vulnerable to contradictions of this duality adhere to a
these brutal assaults on bodies that after psychoanalytic logic described by Freud
all, are terrifyingly similar to our own."8 in the dynamic relationship between
sadism and masochism, based on the sub
It is useful here to examine the sado ject's tendency to shiftpositions infantasy
masochism of the spectator position in a between the active and passive roles.
bitmore detail. Following Laura Mulvey's
definition of the "two contradictory as On a textual level, this duality is charac
pects of the pleasurable structures of terized by a variety of conventional strate
looking in the conventional cinematic situ gies in the horror film, though for our pur
ation," we may observe that, in the horror poses the case of the moving point-of-view
film, the scopophilic impulse, which camera position associated with themon
"arises from the pleasure inusing another ster or killer is exemplary. Elaborated
person as an object of sexual stimulation most fully in the horror films of Dario
through sight," takes on overtly sadistic Argento and thoroughly conventionalized

16 JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO XXXVI, 2 (Spring 1984)


by its use in John Carpenter's Halloween, scene which the mechanisms of the film
this device places the spectator in com repress, only to increase the amount of

plete scopic identificationwith the sadistic psychic energy called forthwhen it is pre
position of the perpetrator of horror. The sented. This recalls the observations of
sadistic pleasure derived by looking Freud on a closely related subject, the
through the killer's eyes is further en "uncanny." He writes,
hanced by a scopophilic prelude to the
violence which involves the voyeuristic ... if psychoanalytic theory is cor
intrusion on the victim, frequently rect inmaintaining that every affect
eroticized by her/hisnudity and/or overtly belonging to an emotional impulse,
sexual activity. At the same time, how whatever its kind, is transformed, if it
ever, the killer's point of view does not is repressed, into anxiety, then among

preclude the viewer's identificationwith instances of frightening things there


the victim, the only person present on the must be one class in which the
screen, and one usually presented in a frighteningelement can be shown to
sympathetic state of extreme vulnerabil be something repressed which recurs.

ity. The masochism of this position is This class of frighteningthingswould


further emphasized by the fact that the then constitute the uncanny; and it
viewer cannot see the face or the actions must be a matter of indifference
of the killer (nor can the victim, until it is whether what is uncanny was itself
too late), yet the point-of-view requires originally frightening or whether it
that the horror be witnessed from the in carried some other affect."
tolerable position of the aggressor.
For Freud, the "uncanny" frequently
Of course, the duality involved in the arises when "irrational, discarded beliefs"

spectator's simultaneous identification seem to be verified by experience against


with the victim and with an overtly sadis the laws of logic.12Most especially it is
tic mise-en-scene is not restricted to the associated with the repression of the fear
killer's point-of-view shot, but represents of death, a topic about which, he ob
a more general characteristic of the re serves, even the most "educated" find it

lationship between the horror filmand its difficult to remain rational.13 Here we
viewer which Noel Carroll has described should note that a central conflict inmany
as "the conflict between attraction and re horror narratives revolves around the dif

pulsion."10 The genre presents the specta ficulties experienced by the rational (the
cle of horror as a kind of forbidden scene, educated and scientific) in recognizing and
simultaneously desired and dreaded-a dealing with the irrational (vampirism,

Elr

"In Halloween, the camera places the spectator in complete scopic identification with the
sadistic position of the perpetrator of horror." (similarly in Friday, the 13th)

JOURNAL OF FILM AND VIDEO XXXVI, (Spring 1984) 17


corpses, unknown to a specific character, a fact most clearly
lycanthropy, walking
beasts, man-made monsters, demon pos exemplified by the camera's dollying inon
session), and that in any case the monstr victims in Argento's Suspiria and Deep
ous almost invariably represents the illogi Red. 14

cal and unexpected assertion of death.

This, of course, marks the genre as an In his pioneer work on enunciation and the
ideal site for the generation of the "un cinema, Raymond Bellour has carefully
canny." analyzed the patterns of editing in several
Hitchcock films in order to demonstrate
Shifting our attention back to the level of the links between viewer positioning (exe
enunciation, we may now begin to cuted according to established codes of
examine how the horror filmpositions the point-of-view) and the symbolic con

viewer in such a way that irrational fears structions of the text.His analysis of the
are played upon and the sensation of "un "crossing Bodega Bay" sequence from

canniness" is generated. Here we may cite The Birds especially focuses on themech
all the enunciative strategies by which anism of suspense (a subject quite perti
danger and horror are concealed prior to nent to the horror film) as it relates to
their "uncanny" appearance. Framing, of viewer identificationwith Melanie's (Tippi
course, is a key device in this respect, as is Hedren's) gaze, enunciated according to a

lighting,which obscures certain parts of rigorous alternation between shots of her


the frame indarkness. Both deny access to looking off-screen and shots representing
an off-screen space from which a hand what she sees. The complication of this
may thrust forth to grab the shoulder of pattern, which occurs when Mitch (Rod
the protagonist, fromwhich a cat may leap Taylor) discovers Melanie, resulting in the
to provide a senseless shock, or from introduction of a shot representing his
which a murderous axe or monstrous claw point of view, enables Bellour to draw

may appear. Here, Freud's observation connections between the operation of the
that "it is a matter of indifferencewhether enunciation and the aggression of the male
what is uncanny was itself originally gaze, manifested narratively at the end of

frightening" is quite enlightening in ex the sequence in the first (and otherwise


plaining how the hand of a companion or a unexplained) attack on Melanie by a
harmless housecat can be made as gull.15 Moreover, given Bellour's obser

frighteningas the harbinger of death itself vation that enunciation in the classical

by means of textual repressions on the American cinema is organized according


level of framingand lighting. to "a system in which the aggressive ele
ment can never be separated from the in
Camera movement may be employed to an flection it receives from sexual differ
equally "uncanny" effect by threatening ence,"16 we should be alerted to the pos
to reveal horrors which lie outside the sibilities offered by an analysis of enunci
frame's immediate view. Further, camera ation for providing a significant explana
movement conveys the sense of a willful tion of the horror film's penchant for vio
direction of the spectator position by the lence against women, allowing us to

camera/narrator; and given the enuncia understand the genre as a privileged site
tive logic of the genre, the spectator may for the playing out of male castration
rightfullyassume that such direction holds anxieties in terms of horror, and at the ex
a potential threat. Such camera movement pense of the female body.'7
of course includes the stalking killer's
point-of-view; but the "stalking" camera Stephen Neale observes that"Mainstream
can be ominous even when it is not related narrative is a mode of significationwhich

18 OFFILM
JOURNAL AND
VIDEO 2(Spring
XXXVI, 1984)
"The shock to the narrative ismanifested on the eni inciative level by an incoherent explosion of

disorienting camera angles and Eisenstenian m< ntage." (Psycho)

works constantly to produce coherence in promise of sensationalism. Indeed, to the


the subject through and across the extent that the classical film narrative

heterogeneity of the effects that it centers the ego of the viewer as the source
mobilizes and structures ";18 and there is of meaning and coherence, the horror film

certainly a coherence in the dualistic posi is that genre of classical narrative which
tion enunciated by the horror filmfor the promises spectators the occasional sensa
viewer. Yet, it seems that one of the most tion of temporary insanity.
characteristic enunciative strategies of the
horror film involves the wholesale, if only What I have attempted here is to outline
temporary, disruption of the viewer's po some of the ways inwhich the study of
sition of coherence. Witness the shock film enunciation, taken as a semiotic

techniques of the horror film: the shock method with psychoanalytic implications,
cut, the unexpected aural punctuation by a contributes to our understanding of the
scream or a burst of music, the in horror film. This approach involves the
stantaneous materialization of horror in an examination of specific textual usages of
otherwise classically coherent scene. the entire range of filmic codes, encom

Certainly, once the spectator has leapt all the elements of mise-en-scene,
passing
from the theater seat when the hand bursts of sound, of editing and of special effects.
from the grave at the end of Carrie, he/she Clearly the specific codes have chsnged
may place the event in the coherent diege significantly since Georges Melies em
tic context of a character's dream, moti ployed his technique of "trick editing" to
vated logically by the horrorswhich came awe and disorient the logical, perceptual
before; but at the moment of the shock, assumptions of an audience in the context
coherence gives way to panic. Similarly, of a magic show. It is therefore fruitless to
when Marion Crane is murdered in the attempt to compile a lexicon of enuncia
shower in Psycho, the shock to the narra tive codes with fixedmeanings, since the
tive is manifested and enhanced on the textual relationships between code and
enunciative levelby an incoherent explo viewer shift, according
constantly not only
sion of disorienting camera angles and to the type of narrative or genre, but also
Eisensteinian montage. according to the previous and current
usage of codes in a specific historical con
The classicism of most horror films re text. I can only note here the important
quires a quick restoration of coherence to historical work which remains to be done.
both the enunciation and the narrative; but
it is precisely the disruption of thatcoher Finally, it should be noted that the most
ence which the horror filmmarkets in its significantwork in the fieldof genre during

OFFILM
JOURNAL AND
VIDEO
XXXVI, 1984)
(Spring 19
the past several years has taken place in regard to the topic at hand, itmust be said
the study of the musical, precisely from that, while stories of monstrosity may
the perspective of address and the textual constitute a narrative formula, horror in
relations established between audience the cinema is a process which can best be
and spectacle.19 The musical has served as examined at the level of filmic enuncia
an ideal site for such analysis, since the tion.

study of that particular genre gained very


littlefrommethods which sought its deep
structures of conflict but could not ac Notes

count for that factor which makes a musi 1


Robin Wood, ed. The American Nightmare
cal a musical: that is, musical perfor (Toronto: Festival of Festivals, 1979), p. 14.
mance. The of 2
placement performance Jim Kitses, Horizons West (Bloomington:
within themusical text, itspresentation as Indiana University Press, 1970), pp. 10-12.
3
Thomas Schatz, Hollywood Genres (New
performance to the viewer, and its re
York: Random House, 1981); see especially Ch.
lationship to the narrative (which may it 2.
self be and Dolls, 4
generic: e.g., Guys Stephen Neale, Genre (London: British
Annie Get Your Gun, The Rocky Horror Film Institute, 1980), p. 25.
5
Picture Show) seem farmore pertinent to 6
Ibid., p. 26.
Noel Burch, Theory of Film Practice (Lon
understanding the musical than a catalog
don: Seeker & Warburg, 1973), p. 128.
ing of narrative conflicts common to the 7
Ibid.
genre. Furthermore, it should be added *Ibid., p. 126.
9
thatmusical moments in filmswhich are Laura Mulvey, "Visual Pleasure and Nar
not specifically musicals themselves are rative Cinema," Screen, 16:3 (Autumn 1975), p.
10.
quite common (e.g., The Big Sleep, Citi 10
Noel Carroll, "Nightmare and the Horror
zen Kane), as non-horror films Film: The Symbolic
just Biology of Fantastic Be
frequently capitalize on the codes of hor ings," Film Quarterly,
11
34:3 (Spring 1981), p. 17.
ror a Western like Ulzana's a Sigmund Freud, "The 'Uncanny'," Stan
(in Raid,
dard Edition, 27, p. 241.
melodrama like Tarnished Angels, a
"Ibid., p. 248.
gangster film like DePalma's Scarface; "Ibid., pp. 242-243.
14
and, more broadly, in the expressionistic Noel Carroll notes the use of this type of

lightingconventions of film noir). In this ''disembodied" but ominous camera movement

"horror" and "musical" are in The Changeling, where the camera circles
respect,
one of the characters.
better understood as modes of address
than as genres to the same order 15
belonging Raymond Bellour, "Les Oiseaux: description
as the western, the gangster movie and the d'une s?quence," Cahiers du Cin?ma, 216
detective film. As such, they might be (Octobre 1969), pp. 24-38. Other works by Be
llour dealing with filmic enunciation include:
grouped with other modes of address such "Le Communications,
blocage symbolique,"
as the documentary, the comedic and the 23 (1975),pp. 235-350(onNorth byNorthwest);
pornographic, since all of these terms "Hitchcock: The Enunciator," Camera Obs
posit specific relationships between audi cura, 2 (Fall 1977), pp. 69-91 (mostly on Mar

ence and and each a nie); and "Psychosis, Neurosis, Perversion,"


spectacle, represents
Camera Obscura, 3/4 (Summer 1979), pp. 105
mode of address which can inflecta wide 132 (on Psycho).
range of subject matter. 16
Bellour, "Psychosis, Neurosis, Perver
sion," p. 118.
17 see
Whatever taxonomy scholars may choose, On this point, Janet Bergstrom,
"Enunciation and Sexual Difference (Part I),"
the fact remains that the study of genre
Camera Obscura, 3/4 (Summer 1979), pp.
cannot be limited to the identification of 33-69. (This article provides an overview of Be
icons or structures, butmust be conceived
in terms of filmdiscourse. Specifically, in (continuedon page 72)

20 OFFILM
JOURNAL AND
VIDEO 2(Spring
XXXVI, 1984)
(continued from page 20) (continued from page 42)

llour's work on film, and a discussion of its 19"The Brave New World of HDTV,"
usefulness to feminist theory.)
18 Broadcasting, February 1, 1982, p. 84.
Neale, p. 25. 20Takashi Fujio, "Future broadcasting and
19
See especially Rick Altman, ed. Genre: inHigh-Definition
high-definition television,"
The Musical (London: Routledge & Kegan Television. Tokyo: NHK Technical Monograph
Paul, 1981), and Jane Feuer, The Hollywood number 32, June, 1982. p. 7.
Musical (Bloomington: Indiana University 21Hollywood Reporter, July 20, 1983, p.
Press, 1982). 1,16.
22RCA Corporation Annual Report, f.y. 1982,
cited in BoxOffice, June 1983, p. 37. As an
additional confirmation of the theatrical vs. pay
frompage 30)
(continued video figures, consult MGM/UA's annual
report, f.y. 1983, pp. 28-9. Over the past five
spectator's field of view were used for assessing
years, revenue from theatrical distribution has
the viewing angle of the 35mm theatrical
and for conventional television
jumped from$63 million to $260 million; for
presentation home video and pay tv in the same period, the
viewing. Ben Schlanger, "Criteria for Motion
Picture Viewing and for a New 70mm System:
jumpwas from$3 million to $144 million.
23For example, see "Beam me up to the
Its Process and Viewing Arrangements,"
booth, Scotty," Gary Fisher, Box Office, March
SMPTE Journal 75 (1966):Figure 1,p. 162.The
1984, pp. 44-6, and "Onrush of satellite tech
30' field of view utilized for 35mm theatrical
nology occupies world television community,"
exhibition (the general target for HDTV) was
Broadcasting, March 14, 1983-see especially
used for determining the spectator's field of
the comments of Joseph Pelton, p. 166.
view encompassed in a home HDTV display.
24Variety, September 7, 1983, p. 3
"1Greg MacGillivary and Jim Freeman,
25"The Brave New World of HDTV," op cit,
"Producing the Imax Motion Picture: 'To Fly',"
p. 84.
American Cinematographer 57 (1976): 751-752,
26"Spectre of labor unrest looms in videotape
808; Englund, interview.
future: Aldrich," Hollywood Reporter, October
52While the wide-screen film formats such as
23, 1981, pp. 1,13.
Cinerama and CinemaScope do require (in 27"Francis Ford Coppola Interview," Jeffery
certain houses) horizontal head and eye
Wells, Film Journal, September 21, 1981, p.
movements in order to watch the drama on the
9.
screen, there is no required vertical movement
for the spectator as there is in viewing a
large-screen film and in normal, everyday
visual experience. frompage 49)
(continued
53Hatada, Sakata, and Kusaka, p. 568.
looks quite good when viewed on a tube,
54Bridge, interview.
"Ibid. but its video image in no sense compares
56Hooten, 1983 telephone interview. favorably with that of film.There are even
"Telephone interview with Saul Swimmer, some electronic engineers who argue,
President of MobileVision Technology Inc., 30
1983. privately, that electronic imaging will
August
58Alan Colins, "Letter from Toronto: IMAX
never compare favorably with that of
Five Years After," Take One, June 1975, pp. 36, photochemical systems. We will see.
37; Bridge, interview. Whatever the system which ultimately
interview.
"Englund,
emerges, itwill most likely be one which
60Hooten, 1983 telephone interview.
has benefited from the pioneering work of
61Harrington, p. 87.
62Telephone interview with Donald Weed, 30 Coppola and his associates at Zoetrope
August 1983. Studios.

72 JOURNALOF FILM AND VIDEO XXXVI, 2 (Spring1984)

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