c






à




The resistor's function is to reduce the flow of electric current.
This symbol is used to indicate a resistor in a circuit diagram, known as a schematic.
Resistance value is designated in units called the "Ohm." A 1000 Ohm resistor is typically
shown as 1K-Ohm ( kilo Ohm ), and 1000 K-Ohms is written as 1M-Ohm ( megohm ).

There are two classes of resistors; fixed resistors and the variable resistors. They are also
classified according to the material from which they are made. The typical resistor is made
of either carbon film or metal film. There are other types as well, but these are the most
common.
The resistance value of the resistor is not the only thing to consider when selecting a
resistor for use in a circuit. The "tolerance" and the electric power ratings of the resistor
are also important.
The tolerance of a resistor denotes how close it is to the actual rated resistence value. For
example, a ±5% tolerance would indicate a resistor that is within ±5% of the specified
resistance value.
The power rating indicates how much power the resistor can safely tolerate. Just like you
wouldn't use a 6 volt flashlight lamp to replace a burned out light in your house, you
wouldn't use a 1/8 watt resistor when you should be using a 1/2 watt resistor.

The maximum rated power of the resistor is specified in Watts.

Power is calculated using the square of the current ( I2 ) x the resistance value ( R ) of the
resistor. If the maximum rating of the resistor is exceeded, it will become extremely hot,
and even burn.
Resistors in electronic circuits are typicaly rated 1/8W, 1/4W, and 1/2W. 1/8W is almost
always used in signal circuit applications.
When powering a light emitting diode, a comparatively large current flows through the
resistor, so you need to consider the power rating of the resistor you choose.

Rating electric power

For example, to power a 5V circuit using a 12V supply, a three-terminal voltage
regulator is usually used.
However, if you try to drop the voltage from 12V to 5V using only a resistor, then
you need to calculate the power rating of the resistor as well as the resistance value.
 At this time, the current consumed by the 5V circuit needs to be known.
Here are a few ways to find out how much current the circuit demands.
Assemble the circuit and measure the actual current used with a multi-meter.
Check the component's current use against a standard table.
Assume the current consumed is 100 mA (milliamps) in the following example.
7V must be dropped with the resistor. The resistance value of the resistor becomes
7V / 0.1A = 70(ohm). The consumption of electric power for this resistor becomes
0.1A x 0.1A x 70 ohm = 0.7W.
Generally, it's safe to choose a resistor which has a power rating of about twice the
power consumption needed.
Resistance value
As for the standard resistance value, the values used can be divided like a
logarithm. ( See the logarithm table )
For example, in the case of E3, The values [1], [2.2], [4.7] and [10] are used. They
divide 10 into three, like a logarithm.
In the case of E6 : [1], [1.5], [2.2], [3.3], [4.7], [6.8], [10].
In the case of E12 : [1], [1.2], [1.5], [1.8], [2.2], [2.7], [3.3], [3.9], [4.7], [5.6], [6.8],
[8.2], [10].
It is because of this that the resistance value is seen at a glance to be a discrete
value.
The resistance value is displayed using the color code( the colored bars/the colored
stripes ), because the average resistor is too small to have the value printed on it
with numbers.
You had better learn the color code, because almost all resistors of 1/2W or less use
the color code to display the resistance value.

Fixed Resistors
A fixed resistor is one in which the value of its resistance cannot change.
]
 



This is the most general purpose, cheap resistor. Usually the tolerance of the
resistance value is ±5%. Power ratings of 1/8W, 1/4W and 1/2W are frequently
used.
Carbon film resistors have a disadvantage; they tend to be electrically noisy. Metal
film resistors are recommended for use in analog circuits. However, I have never
experienced any problems with this noise.
The physical size of the different resistors are as follows.
 à 

à 

 




   

From the top of the photograph
1/8W 1/8 2 3
1/4W 1/4 2 6
1/2W 1/2 3 9

This resistor is called a Single-In-Line(SIL) resistor network. It is made with many

resistors of the same value, all in one package. One side of each resistor is
connected with one side of all the other resistors inside. One example of its use
would be to control the current in a circuit powering many light emitting diodes
(LEDs).
In the photograph on the left, 8 resistors are housed in the package. Each of the
leads on the package is one resistor. The ninth lead on the left side is the common
lead. The face value of the resistance is printed. ( It depends on the supplier. )
Some resistor networks have a "4S" printed on the top of the resistor network. The
4S indicates that the package contains 4 independent resistors that are not wired
together inside. The housing has eight leads instead of nine. The internal wiring of
these typical resistor networks has been illustrated below. The size (black part) of
the resistor network which I have is as follows: For the type with 9 leads, the
thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5mm, and the width 23 mm. For the types with 8
component leads, the thickness is 1.8 mm, the height 5 mm, and the width 20 mm.


  



Metal film resistors are used when a higher tolerance (more accurate value) is
needed. They are much more accurate in value than carbon film resistors. They
have about ±0.05% tolerance. They have about ±0.05% tolerance. I don't use any
high tolerance resistors in my circuits. Resistors that are about ±1% are more than
 sufficient. Ni-Cr (Nichrome) seems to be used
for the material of resistor. The metal film
resistor is used for bridge circuits, filter
circuits, and low-noise analog signal circuits.

à 

à 
 


From the top of the 
 
photograph
    
1/8W (tolerance 
±1%) 1/8 2 3
1/4W (tolerance 1/4 2 6
±1%)
1W (tolerance ±5%) 1 3.5 12
2W (tolerance ±5%) 2 5 15

Variable Resistors
There are two general ways in which variable resistors are used. One is the variable
resistor which value is easily changed, like the volume adjustment of Radio. The
other is semi-fixed resistor that is not meant to be adjusted by anyone but a
technician. It is used to adjust the operating condition of the circuit by the
technician. Semi-fixed resistors are used to compensate for the inaccuracies of the
resistors, and to fine-tune a circuit. The rotation angle of the variable resistor is
usually about 300 degrees. Some variable resistors must be turned many times to
use the whole range of resistance they offer. This allows for very precise
adjustments of their value. These are called "Potentiometers" or "Trimmer
Potentiometers."

In the photograph to the left, the variable resistor typically used for volume controls
 can be seen on the far right. Its value is very easy to
adjust.
The four resistors at the center of the photograph are
the semi-fixed type. These ones are mounted on the
printed circuit board.
The two resistors on the left are the trimmer
potentiometers.

This symbol is used to indicate a variable resistor

in a circuit diagram.

There are three ways in which a variable resistor's value can change according to
the rotation angle of its axis.
When type "A" rotates clockwise, at first, the resistance value changes slowly and
then in the second half of its axis, it changes very quickly.
The "A" type variable resistor is typically used for the volume control of a radio, for
example. It is well suited to adjust a low sound subtly. It suits the characteristics of
the ear. The ear hears low sound changes well, but isn't as sensitive to small
changes in loud sounds. A larger change is needed as the volume is increased.
These "A" type variable resistors are sometimes called "audio taper"
potentiometers.
As for type "B", the rotation of the axis and the change of the resistance value are
directly related. The rate of change is the same, or linear, throughout the sweep of
the axis. This type suits a resistance value adjustment in a circuit, a balance circuit
and so on.
They are sometimes called "linear taper" potentiometers.
Type "C" changes exactly the opposite way to type "A". In the early stages of the
rotation of the axis, the resistance value changes rapidly, and in the second half, the
change occurs more slowly. This type isn't too much used. It is a special use.
As for the variable resistor, most are type "A" or type "B".

CDS Elements
Some components can change resistance value by changes in the amount of light
hitting them. One type is the Cadmium Sulfide Photocell. (Cd) The more light that
 hits it, the smaller its resistance value becomes.
There are many types of these devices. They vary
according to light sensitivity, size, resistance value etc.

Pictured at the left is a typical CDS photocell. Its diameter

is 8 mm, 4 mm high, with a cylinder form. When bright
light is hitting it, the value is about 200 ohms, and when
in the dark, the resistance value is about 2M ohms.
This device is using for the head lamp illumination confirmation device of the car, for
example.

Other Resistors
There is another type of resistor other than the carbon-film type and the metal film
resistors. It is the wirewound resistor.
A wirewound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this, they
can be manufactured to precise values. Also, high-wattage resistors can be made by
using a thick wire material. Wirewound resistors cannot be used for high-frequency
circuits. Coils are used in high frequency circuits. Since a wirewound resistor is a
wire wrapped around an insulator, it is also a coil, in a manner of speaking. Using
one could change the behavior of the circuit. Still another type of resistor is the
Ceramic resistor. These are wirewound resistors in a ceramic case, strengthened
with a special cement. They have very high power ratings, from 1 or 2 watts to
dozens of watts. These resistors can become extremely hot when used for high
power applications, and this must be taken into account when designing the circuit.
These devices can easily get hot enough to burn you if you touch one.
The photograph on the left is of wirewound
resistors.
The upper one is 10W and is the length of 45 mm,
13 mm thickness.
The lower one is 50W and is the length of 75 mm,
29 mm thickness.
The upper one is has metal fittings attached. These
devices are insulated with a ceramic coating.
The photograph on above is a ceramic (or cement)
resistor of 5W and is the height of 9 mm, 9 mm
depth, 22 mm width.
 Thermistor ( Thermally sensitive resistor )

The resistance value of the thermistor changes according to

temperature.
This part is used as a temperature sensor.

There are mainly three types of thermistor.

]
 





]





: With this type, the resistance value decreases
continuously as the temperature rises.

]





]





: With this type, the resistance value increases suddenly
when the temperature rises above a specific point.

]à]
 




à






: With this type, the resistance value decreases suddenly
when the temperature rises above a specific point.
The NTC type is used for the temperature control.

The relation between the temperature and the resistance value of the
NTC type can be calculated using the following formula.

R : The resistance value at the temperature T

T : The temperature [K]
R0 : The resistance value at the reference temperature T0
T0 : The reference temperature [K]
B : The coefficient

As the reference temperature, typically, 25°C is used.

The unit with the temperature is the absolute temperature(Value
of which 0 was -273°C) in K(Kelvin).
25°C are the 298 kelvins.
Resistor color code




]
  
  


(%)
  0 0 -

 1 1 ±1
Example 1 à
 2 2 ±2
(Brown=1),(Black=0),(Orange=3)
10 x 103 = 10k ohm

 3 3 ±0.05
Tolerance(Gold) = ±5%
!
 4 4 -
"

 5 5 ±0.5

 6 6 ±0.25

 7 7 ±0.1
"
# 8 8 -

 9 9 -
Example 2 " - -1 ±5
(Yellow=4),(Violet=7),(Black=0),(Red=2)
470 x 102 = 47k ohm $

 - -2 ±10
Tolerance(Brown) = ±1% 
 - - ±20







 
 
 



The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy.
The capacitor also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC),
and blocking direct current (DC).
This symbol is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram.

The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing eachother,

but separated by an insulator.

When DC voltage is applied to the

capacitor,|
||   is stored
on each electrode. While the capacitor
is charging up, current flows. The
current will stop flowing when the
capacitor has fully charged.

When a circuit tester, such as an analog meter set to measure resistance, is

connected to a 10 microfarad (µF) electrolytic capacitor, a current will
flow, but only for a moment. You can confirm that the meter's needle
moves off of zero, but returns to zero right away.
When you connect the meter's probes to the capacitor in reverse, you will
note that current once again flows for a moment. Once again, when the
capacitor has fully charged, the current stops flowing. So the capacitor can
be used as a filter that blocks DC current. (A "DC cut" filter.)
However, in the case of alternating current, the current will be allowed to
pass. Alternating current is similar to repeatedly switching the test meter's
probes back and forth on the capacitor. Current flows every time the
probes are switched.

The value of a capacitor (the capacitance), is designated in units called the

Farad ( F ).
The capacitance of a capacitor is generally very small, so units such as the
microfarad ( 10-6F ), nanofarad ( 10-9F ), and picofarad (10-12F ) are used.
Recently, an new capacitor with very high capacitance has been
developed. The Electric Double Layer capacitor has capacitance
designated in Farad units. These are known as "Super Capacitors."
Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor.
There are two ways in which the capacitance can be written. One uses
letters and numbers, the other uses only numbers. In either case, there are
only three characters used. [10n] and [103] denote the same value of
capacitance. The method used differs depending on the capacitor supplier.
In the case that the value is displayed with the three-digit code, the 1st and
2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd figure, and the 3rd
digit is a multiplier which determines how many zeros are to be added to
the capacitance. Picofarad ( pF ) units are written this way.
For example, when the code is [103], it indicates 10 x 103, or 10,000pF =
10 nanofarad( nF ) = 0.01 microfarad( µF ).
If the code happened to be [224], it would be 22 x 104 = or 220,000pF =
220nF = 0.22µF.
Values under 100pF are displayed with 2 digits only. For example, 47
would be 47pF.

The capacitor has an insulator( the dielectric ) between 2 sheets of

electrodes. Different kinds of capacitors use different materials for the
dielectric.

Breakdown voltage
When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage
which can be used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown
voltage depends on the kind of capacitor being used. You must be
especially careful with electrolytic capacitors because the breakdown
voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown voltage of electrolytic
capacitors is displayed as Working Voltage.
The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the
dielectric (insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct.
When this happens, the failure can be catastrophic.

I will introduce the different types of capacitors below. Electrolytic

Capacitors (Electrochemical type capacitors)

Aluminum is used for the electrodes by using a thin oxidization

membrane.
Large values of capacitance can be obtained in comparison with the size
 of the capacitor,
because the dielectric
used is very thin.
The most important
characteristic of
electrolytic
capacitors is that
they have polarity.
They have a positive
and a negative
electrode.[Polarised]
This means that it is
very important which
way round they are connected. If the
capacitor is subjected to voltage
exceeding its working voltage, or if it
is connected with incorrect polarity, it
may burst. It is extremely dangerous,
because it can quite literally explode.
Make absolutely no mistakes.
Generally, in the circuit diagram, the
positive side is indicated by a "+"
(plus) symbol.
Electrolytic capacitors range in value from about 1µF to thousands of µF.
Mainly this type of capacitor is used as a ripple filter in a power supply
circuit, or as a filter to bypass low frequency signals, etc. Because this
type of capacitor is comparatively similar to the nature of a coil in
construction, it isn't possible to use for high-frequency circuits. (It is said
that the frequency characteristic is bad.)

The photograph on the left is an example of the different values of

electrolytic capacitors in which the capacitance and voltage differ.
From the left to right:
1µF (50V) [diameter 5 mm, high 12 mm]
47µF (16V) [diameter 6 mm, high 5 mm]
100µF (25V) [diameter 5 mm, high 11 mm]
220µF (25V) [diameter 8 mm, high 12 mm]
1000µF (50V) [diameter 18 mm, high 40 mm]
 The size of the capacitor sometimes
depends on the manufacturer. So the
sizes shown here on this page are just
examples.

In the photograph to the right, the mark indicating the negative lead of the
component can be seen.
You need to pay attention to the polarity indication so as not to make a
mistake when you assemble the circuit.

Tantalum Capacitors

Tantalum Capacitors are electrolytic capacitors that is use a material

called tantalum for the electrodes. Large values of capacitance similar to
aluminum electrolytic capacitors can be obtained. Also, tantalum
capacitors are superior to aluminum electrolytic capacitors in temperature
and frequency characteristics. When tantalum powder is baked in order to
solidify it, a crack forms inside. An electric charge can be stored on this
crack.
These capacitors have polarity as well. Usually, the "+" symbol is used to
show the positive component lead. Do not make a mistake with the
polarity on these types.
 Tantalu
m
capacitor
s are a
little bit
more
expensiv
e than
aluminu
m
electrolyt
ic capacitors. Capacitance can change with temperature as well as
frequency, and these types are very stable. Therefore, tantalum capacitors
are used for circuits which demand high stability in the capacitance
values. Also, it is said to be common sense to use tantalum capacitors for
analog signal systems, because the current-spike noise that occurs with
aluminum electrolytic capacitors does not appear. Aluminum electrolytic
capacitors are fine if you don't use them for circuits which need the high
stability characteristics of tantalum capacitors.

The photograph on the left illustrates the tantalum capacitor.

The capacitance values are as follows, from the left:

0.33 µF (35V)
0.47 µF (35V)
10 µF (35V)

The "+" symbol is used to show the positive lead of the component. It is
written on the body.
 Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are constructed with materials
such as titanium acid barium used as the dielectric.
Internally, these capacitors are not constructed as a
coil, so they can be used in high frequency
applications. Typically, they are used in circuits
which bypass high frequency signals to ground.
These capacitors have the shape of a disk. Their
capacitance is comparatively small.

The capacitor on the left is a 100pF capacitor with a diameter of about 3

mm.
The capacitor on the right side is printed with 103, so 10 x 103pF becomes
0.01 µF. The diameter of the disk is about 6 mm.
Ceramic capacitors have no polarity.
Ceramic capacitors should not be used for analog circuits, because they
can distort the signal.

Multilayer Ceramic Capacitors

The multilayer ceramic capacitor has a many-layered dielectric. These

capacitors are small in size, and have good temperature and frequency
characteristics.
Square wave signals used in digital circuits can have a
comparatively high frequency component included.
This capacitor is used to bypass the high frequency to ground.

In the photograph, the capacitance of the component on the left is

displayed as 104. So, the capacitance is 10 x 104 pF = 0.1 µF. The
thickness is 2 mm, the height is 3 mm, the width is 4 mm.
The capacitor to the right has a capacitance of 103 (10 x 103 pF = 0.01
µF). The height is 4 mm, the diameter of the round part is 2 mm.
These capacitors are not polarized. That is, they have no polarity.
 Polystyrene Film Capacitors
In these devices, polystyrene

film is used as the dielectric. This type

of capacitor is not for use in high
frequency circuits, because they are constructed like a coil inside. They
are used well in filter circuits or timing circuits which run at several
hundred KHz or less.

The component shown on the left has a red color due to the copper leaf
used for the electrode. The silver color is due to the use of aluminum foil
as the electrode.

The device on the left has a height of 10 mm, is 5 mm thick, and is rated
100pF.
The device in the middle has a height of 10 mm, 5.7 mm thickness, and is
rated 1000pF.
The device on the right has a height of 24 mm, is 10 mm thick, and is
rated 10000pF.
These devices have no polarity.

Electric Double Layer Capacitors (Super Capacitors)

This is a "Super Capacitor," which is quite a wonder.

The capacitance is 0.47 F (470,000 µF).
I have not used this capacitor in an actual circuit.
 Care must be taken when using a
capacitor with such a large capacitance in
power supply circuits, etc. The rectifier in
the circuit can be destroyed by a huge
rush of current when the capacitor is
empty. For a brief moment, the capacitor
is more like a short circuit. A protection
circuit needs to be set up.

The size is small in spite of capacitance.

Physically, the diameter is 21 mm, the
height is 11 mm.
Care is necessary, because these devices do have polarity.

Polyester Film Capacitors

This capacitor uses thin
polyester film as the dielectric.
They are not high tolerance,
but they are cheap and handy.
Their tolerance is about ±5%
to ±10%.

From the left in the photograph

Capacitance: 0.001 µF (printed
with 001K)
[the width 5 mm, the height 10
mm, the thickness 2 mm]
Capacitance: 0.1 µF (printed with 104K)
[the width 10 mm, the height 11 mm, the thickness 5mm]
Capacitance: 0.22 µF (printed with .22K)
[the width 13 mm, the height 18 mm, the thickness 7mm]

Care must be taken, because different manufacturers use different methods

to denote the capacitance values.

Here are some other polyester film capacitors.

 Starting from the left
Capacitance: 0.0047 µF
(printed with 472K)
[the width 4mm, the height
6mm, the thickness 2mm]
Capacitance: 0.0068 µF
(printed with 682K)
[the width 4mm, the height
6mm, the thickness 2mm]
Capacitance: 0.47 µF (printed
with 474K)
[the width 11mm, the height 14mm, the thickness 7mm]

These capacitors have no polarity.

Polypropylene Capacitors
This capacitor is used when a higher tolerance is necessary than polyester
capacitors offer. Polypropylene film is used for the dielectric. It is said
that there is almost no change of capacitance in these devices if they are
used with frequencies of 100KHz or less.
The pictured capacitors have a tolerance of ±1%.

From the left in the photograph

Capacitance: 0.01 µF (printed with 103F)
[the width 7mm, the height 7mm, the thickness 3mm]
Capacitance: 0.022 µF (printed with 223F)
[the width 7mm, the height 10mm, the thickness 4mm]
Capacitance: 0.1 µF (printed with 104F)
[the width 9mm, the height 11mm, the thickness 5mm]

When I measured the capacitance of a 0.01 µF capacitor with the meter

which I have, the error was +0.2%.

These capacitors have no polarity.

 Mica Capacitors

These capacitors use Mica

for the dielectric. Mica
capacitors have good stability
because their temperature
coefficient is small. Because
their frequency characteristic
is excellent, they are used for
resonance circuits, and high
frequency filters. Also, they
have good insulation, and so
can be utilized in high voltage
circuits. It was often used for
vacuum tube style radio
transmitters, etc.
Mica capacitors do not have
high values of capacitance,
and they can be relatively
expensive.

Pictured at the right are "Dipped mica capacitors." These can handle up to
500 volts.
The capacitance from the left
Capacitance: 47pF (printed with 470J)
[the width 7mm, the height 5mm, the thickness 4mm]
Capacitance: 220pF (printed with 221J)
[the width 10mm, the height 6mm, the thickness 4mm]
Capacitance: 1000pF (printed with 102J)
[the width 14mm, the height 9mm, the thickness 4mm]

These capacitors have no polarity.

Metallized Polyester Film Capacitors

These capacitors are a kind of a polyester film capacitor. Because their
electrodes are thin, they can be miniaturized.
From the left in the photograph
Capacitance: 0.001µF (printed with 1n. n means nano:10-9)
Breakdown voltage: 250V
[the width 8mm, the height 6mm, the thickness 2mm]
Capacitance: 0.22µF (printed with u22)
Breakdown voltage: 100V
[the width 8mm, the height 6mm, the thickness 3mm]
Capacitance: 2.2µF (printed with 2u2)
Breakdown voltage: 100V
[the width 15mm, the height 10mm, the thickness 8mm]
Care is necessary, because the component lead easily breaks off from
these capacitors. Once lead has come off, there is no way to fix it. It must
be discarded.

These capacitors have no polarity.

Variable Capacitors

Variable capacitors are used for adjustment etc. of frequency mainly.

On the left in the photograph is a "trimmer," which uses ceramic as the

dielectric. Next to it on the right is one that uses polyester film for the
dielectric.
The pictured components are meant to be mounted on a printed circuit
board.

When adjusting the value of a variable capacitor, it is advisable to be

careful.
One of the component's leads is connected to the adjustment screw of the
capacitor. This means that the value of the capacitor can be affected by the
 capacitance of the screwdriver in
your hand. It is better to use a
special screwdriver to adjust these
components.

Pictured in the upper left

photograph are variable capacitors
with the following specifications:
Capacitance: 20pF (3pF - 27pF
measured)
[Thickness 6 mm, height 4.8 mm]
Their are different colors, as well. Blue: 7pF (2 - 9), white: 10pF (3 - 15),
green: 30pF (5 - 35), brown: 60pF (8 - 72).

In the same photograph, the device on the right has the following
specifications:
Capacitance: 30pF (5pF - 40pF measured)
[The width (long) 6.8 mm, width (short) 4.9 mm, and the height 5 mm]

The components in the photograph on the right are used for radio tuners,
etc. They are called "Varicons" but this may be only in Japan.
The variable capacitor on the left in the photograph, uses air as the
dielectric. It combines three independent capacitors.
For each one, the capacitance changed 2pF - 18pF. When the adjustment
axis is turned, the capacitance of all 3 capacitors change simultaneously.
Physically, the device has a depth of 29 mm, and 17 mm width and height.
(Not including the adjustment rod.)
There are various kinds of variable capacitor, chosen in accordance with
the purpose for which they are needed. The pictured components are very
small.

To the right in the photograph is a variable capacitor using polyester film

as the dielectric. Two independent capacitors are combined.
The capacitance of one side changes 12pF - 150pF, while the other side
changes from 11pF - 70pF.
Physically, it has a depth of 11mm, and 20mm width and height. (Not
including the adjustment rod.)
The pictured device also has a small trimmer built in to each capacitor to
allow for precise adjustment up to 15pF.
 Diodes
A diode is a semiconductor device which allows
current to flow through it in only one direction.
Although a transistor is also a semiconductor
device, it does not operate the way a diode does. A
diode is specifically made to allow current to flow through it in only one
direction.
Some ways in which the diode can be used are listed here.
A diode can be used as a rectifier that converts AC (Alternating Current)
to DC (Direct Current) for a power supply device.
Diodes can be used to separate the signal from radio frequencies.
Diodes can be used as an on/off switch that controls current.
This symbol is used to indicate a diode in a circuit diagram.

The meaning of the symbol is (Anode) (Cathode).

Current flows from the anode side to the cathode side.

Although all diodes operate with the same general principle, there are
different types suited to different applications. For example, the following
devices are best used for the applications noted.

Voltage regulation diode(Zener Diode)

The circuit symbol is .
It is used to regulate voltage, by taking advantage of the fact that Zener
diodes tend to stabilize at a certain voltage when that voltage is applied
in the opposite direction.
Light emitting diode
The circuit symbol is .
This type of diode emits light when current flows through it in the
forward direction. (Forward biased.)
Variable capacitance diode
The circuit symbol is .
The current does not flow when applying the voltage of the opposite
direction to the diode. In this condition, the diode has a capacitance
like the capacitor. It is a very small capacitance. The capacitance of the
diode changes when changing voltage. With the change of this
 capacitance, the frequency of the oscillator can be changed.

The graph on the right shows the electrical characteristics of a typical

diode.

When a small voltage is applied to the diode in the forward direction,

current flows easily.
Because the diode has a certain amount of resistance, the voltage will drop
slightly as current flows through the diode. A typical diode causes a
voltage drop of about 0.6 - 1V (VF) (In the case of silicon diode, almost
0.6V)
This voltage drop needs to be taken into consideration in a circuit which
uses many diodes in series. Also, the amount of current passing through
the diodes must be considered.

When voltage is applied in the reverse direction through a diode, the diode
will have a great resistance to current flow.
Different diodes have different characteristics when reverse-biased. A
given diode should be selected depending on how it will be used in the
circuit.
The current that will flow through a diode biased in the reverse direction
will vary from several mA to just µA, which is very small.

The limiting voltages and currents permissible must be considered on a

 case by case basis. For example, when
using diodes for rectification, part of
the time they will be required to
withstand a reverse voltage. If the
diodes are not chosen carefully, they
will break down.

Rectification / Switching / Regulation Diode

The stripe stamped on one end of the diode shows indicates the polarity of
the diode.
The stripe shows the cathode side.
The top two devices shown in the picture are diodes used for rectification.
They are made to handle relatively high currents. The device on top can
handle as high as 6A, and the one below it can safely handle up to 1A.
However, it is best used at about 70% of its rating because this current
value is a maximum rating.
The third device from the top (red color) has a part number of 1S1588.
This diode is used for switching, because it can switch on and off at very
high speed. However, the maximum current it can handle is 120 mA. This
makes it well suited to use within digital circuits. The maximum reverse
voltage (reverse bias) this diode can handle is 30V.
The device at the bottom of the picture is a voltage regulation diode with a
rating of 6V. When this type of diode is reverse biased, it will resist
changes in voltage. If the input voltage is increased, the output voltage
will not change. (Or any change will be an insignificant amount.) While
the output voltage does not increase with an increase in input voltage, the
output current will.
This requires some thought for a protection circuit so that too much
current does not flow.
The rated current limit for the device
is 30 mA.
Generally, a 3-terminal voltage
regulator is used for the stabilization
of a power supply. Therefore, this
diode is typically used to protect the
circuit from momentary voltage
spikes. 3 terminal regulators use
voltage regulation diodes inside.

Diode bridge

Rectification diodes are used to

make DC from AC. It is possible
to do only 'half wave
rectification' using 1 diode.
When 4 diodes are combined,
'full wave rectification' occurrs.
Devices that combine 4 diodes in
one package are called diode
bridges. They are used for full-
wave rectification.
 The photograph on the
left shows two examples
of diode bridges.

The cylindrical device on

the right in the photograph has a current limit of 1A. Physically, it is 7 mm
high, and 10 mm in diameter.
The flat device on the left has a current limit of 4A. It is has a thickness of
6 mm, is 16 mm in height, and 19 mm in width.

The photograph on the right

shows a large, high-power diode
bridge.
It has a current capacity of 15A.
The peak reverse-bias voltage is
400V.
Diode bridges with large current
capacities like this one, require a
heat sink. Typically, they are
screwed to a piece of metal, or
the chasis of device in which
they are used. The heat sink
allows the device to radiate
excess heat.
As for size, this one is 26 mm
wide on each side, and the height
of the module part is 10 mm.

Light Emitting Diode ( LED )

 Light emitting diodes must be choosen
according to how they will be used, because
there are various kinds.
The diodes are available in several colors. The
most common colors are red and green, but
there are even blue ones.

The device on the far right in the photograph

combines a red LED and green LED in one package. The component lead
in the middle is common to both LEDs. As for the remaing two leads, one
side is for the green, the other for the red LED. When both are turned on
simultaneously, it becomes orange.

When an LED is new out of the package, the polarity of the device can be
determined by looking at the leads. The longer lead is the Anode side, and
the short one is the Cathode side.

The polarity of an LED can also be determined using a resistance meter,

or even a 1.5 V battery.

When using a test meter to determine polarity, set the meter to a low
resistance measurement range. Connect the probes of the meter to the
LED. If the polarity is correct, the LED will glow. If the LED does not
glow, switch the meter probes to the opposite leads on the LED. In either
case, the side of the diode which is connected to the black meter probe
when the LED glows, is the Anode side. Positive voltage flows out of the
black probe when the meter is set to measure resistance.

It is possible to use an LED to obtain a fixed voltage.

The voltage drop (forward voltage, or VF) of an LED is comparatively
stable at just about 2V.

I explain a circuit in which the voltage was stabilized with an LED in

"Thermometer of bending apparatus-2".
 Shottky barrier diode

Diodes are used to rectify alternating current into

direct current. However, rectification will not occur
when the frequency of the alternating current is too
high. This is due to what is known as the "reverse
recovery characteristic."
The reverse recovery characteristic can be explained as follows:
IF the opposite voltage is suddenly applied to a forward-biased diode,
current will continue to flow in the forward direction for a brief moment.
This time until the current stops flowing is called the Reverse Recovery
Time. The current is considered to be stopped when it falls to about 10%
of the value of the peak reverse current.
The Shottky barrier diode has a short reverse recovery time, which makes
it ideally suited to use in high frequency rectification.

The shottky barrier diode has the following characteristics.

The voltage drop in the forward direction is low.
The reverse recovery time is short.
However, it has the following disadvantages.
The diode can have relatively high leakage current.
The surge resistance is low.
Because the reverse recovery time is short, this diode is often used for the
switching regulator in a high frequency circuit.
 P




The transistor's finction is to amplify an electric current.
Many different kinds of transistors are used in analog circuits, for different
reasons. This is not the case for digital circuits. In a digital circuit, only
two values matter; on or off. The amplification abilitiy of a transistor is
not relevant in a digital circuit. In many cases, a circuit is built with
integrated circuits(ICs).
Transistors are often used in digital circuits as buffers to protect ICs. For
example, when powering an electromagnetic switch (called a 'relay'), or
when controlling a light emitting diode. (In my case.)

Two different symbols are used for the transistor.

PNP type and NPN type

The name (standard part

number) of the transistor, as
well as the type and the way it
is used is shown below.
2SAXXXX PNP type
high frequency
2SBXXXX PNP type
low frequency
2SCXXXX NPN type
high frequency
2SDXXXX NPN type
low frequency
The direction of the current
flow differs between the PNP
and NPN type.
When the power supply is the
side of the positive (plus), the
NPN type is easy to use.
 Appearance of the Transistor
The outward appearance of the transistor
varies. Here, two kinds are shown.

On the left in the photograph is a 2SC1815

transistor, which is good for use in a digital
circuit. They are inexpensive when I buy them
in quantity. In Japan it costs 2,000 yen for a
pack of 200 pieces. (About 10 US cents/piece
in 1998)

On the right is a device which is used when a large current is to be

handled. Its part number is 2SD880.

The electrical characteristics of each is as follows.

è
 %$]&'&( %$)''*
]+  50 60
è] , 150 3A
]  400 30W
-+ 70 - 700 60 - 300
. 80 3

: The maximum voltage that can be handled across the

]+
collector(C)
 and emitter(E) when the base(B) is open. (Not connected)
(It may be shown as VCE)
è] : The maximum collector(C) current.
Maximum collector(C) loss that continuously can cause it
consumed
] :
at surroundings temperature (Ta)=25°C
(no radiator)
The current gain to DC at the emitter(E).
-+ :
(IC/IB)
 : The maximum DC switching frequency. (the transision
frequency)

Component Lead of the Transistor

Because the component leads differ between kinds of transistors,

you need to confirm the leads with a datasheet, etc.
 Example of 2SC1815 transistor
Part number is printed on the flat face of the
transistor, and indicates the front.

Right side : Base

Center : Collector
Left side : Emitter

Example of 2SD880 transistor

Part number is printed on the flat face of the transistor, and indicates the
front.

Right side : Emitter

Center : Collector
Left side : Base

2SC1815 is opposite.


 º  


When assembling an
electronic circuit, a
board is needed on
which the
components can be
mounted and wired
together. This board
is called a Printed
Wiring Board
(PWB).
In Japan, the printed
wiring board used to
be called a "Printed
Circuit Board."
Nowadays in Japan the name "Printed Circuit Board" is not used because
the initials of "Printed Circuit Board" are "PCB." PCB also stands for
"Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)," which is a poison. So in Japan, we
refer to the boards as "Printed Wiring Boards." In other countries, they are
still refered to as "Printed Circuit Boards," or PCBs.

Making a PWB takes a lot of work, and can be very difficult. For this
reason, for many hand-made circuits, I often use a universal PWB.
The universal PWB consists of an insulation board drilled with .8mm
holes at 0.1 inch (2.54 mm) intervals. The board is completely covered
with these holes from edge to edge. The insulation board is comprised of
fiberglass (glass epoxy), paper epoxy, or bakelite plastic.
Centered around each hole on the bottom of the PWB is an
(approximately) 2mm copper leaf (known as the "land" or "pad").

To use the board, the parts are mounted on the face of the board, and the
component leads are passed through the nearest holes, to project through
the bottom of the board, where the wires can be soldered together.
The interval between the holes is 0.1 inches (2.54 mm), so DIP or SIP ICs
can be easily mounted.

The photograph shows a PWB made of glass epoxy. The color is green.
 Paper epoxy boards have a beige color. In case of bakelite, the color is
thin brown.

As for the size of the board, there are several kinds by the number of the
holes.
From the left side in the photograph
55 x 40 holes (size 160 x 115 mm)
30 x 25 holes (size 95 x 72 mm)
25 x 15 holes (size 72 x 47 mm)

There are various sizes in addition to what I have shown, so you can select
a board according to your needs.
The boards can also be cut to size.

On the top right in the photograph, the back side is shown. The copper leaf
on this board has been pre-soldered ("tinned") to make soldering easier, so
it has a silver color. If the board has not been pre-soldered, then it is seen
to have a copper color.



 
 
à 


The relay takes advantage of the fact that when electricity flows through a
coil, it becomes an electromagnet.
The electromagnetic coil attracts a steel plate, which is attached to a
switch. So the switch's motion (ON and OFF) is controled by the current
flowing to the coil, or not, respectively.

A very useful feature of a relay is that it can be used to electrically isolate

different parts of a circuit.
It will allow a low voltage circuit (e.g. 5VDC) to switch the power in a
high voltage circuit (e.g. 100 VAC or more).

The relay operates mechanically, so it can not operate at high speed.

There are many kind of relays. You can select one according to your
needs.
The various things to consider when selecting a relay are its size, voltage
and current capacity of the contact points, drive voltage, impedance,
number of contacts, resistance of the contacts, etc.
The resistance voltage of the contacts is the maximum voltage that can be
conducted at the point of contact in the switch. When the maximum is
exceeded, the contacts will spark and melt, sometimes fusing together.
The relay will fail. The value is printed on the relay.
 On the left in the
photograph is a small
relay with a coil driving
voltage of 12 VDC. It has
two electrically
independant points of
contact (switches.)
Although the resistance
and permissible voltage
and current at the point of contact are indistinct, I think that it will handle
several hundred mA.

The relay on the right in the photograph can be used to control a 100 VAC
system. Its driving voltage is 3 VDC, and if it is used to control an AC
system, the maximum resistance voltage is 125 VAC, and the permissible
current limit is 1A. If it is used to control a DC system, the maximum
resistance voltage is DC30V, and the permissible current limit is 2A. It
has one contact only.

Both types of relay can be mounted on the PWB; the spacing of the
component leads is a multiple of 0.1 inches. It can also be mounted on the
universal PWB.

The physical dimensions of the relay on the left are width 19.5 mm, height
10 mm, and depth 10 mm.
The one that is on the right has the width 20 mm, height 15 mm, and depth
11 mm.
 The relay pictured to the right is able to handle
a little larger electric power.
Its driving voltage is 12 VDC, maximum
resistance voltage is AC 240V, and the
permissible current limit is 5A in case of AC
system. In a DC system, the maximum
resistance voltage is DC 28V, and the
permissible current limit is 5A. It has 2 contacts.

This type of relay can not be mounted on the PWB. It needs a socket, and
mounts on the case or some other place with a screw.

The dimensions are width 22 mm, height 35 mm, and depth 20 mm.

 



Wire is used to electrically connect circuit parts, devices, equipment etc.
There are various kinds of wiring materials. On this page, I introduce the
type that is used for the assembly of electronic circuits.

The different types of wire can be divided largely into two categories:
single wire and twisted strand wire. It really doesn't matter which kind you
use for a given application, but usually, single wire is used to connect
devices (resistors, capacitors ect) together on the PWB. (Parts that don't
move)
It is also used for jumper wiring.
Twisted strand wire can bend freely, so it can be used for wiring on the
PWB, and also to connect discrete pieces of equipment.
If single wire is used to connnect separate equipment, it will break soon,
as it is not very flexible.

It is convenient to use the single tin coated wire of the diameter 0.32 mm
for the wiring of PWB.
If the diameter is
larger, soldering
becomes a little bit
difficult. And if the
diameter is too thin, it
becomes difficult to
bend the wire the way
you want it to stay.
It's best to use
whatever wire you are
comfortable with, and
not worry about those
things.

If you want to connect

separated parts on the
PWB, twisted wire
covered with soft
insulation material is
most convenient for
wiring.
It's convenient to
wire the circuit using
different color wires
for different
purposes. Otherwise,
wiring the circuit with
many wires the same
color gets confusing.

The photograph on the

left shows several
colors of twisted wire.
It is called 0.12/7PVC.
The pictured wire is
comprised of 7 tin
 coated wires 0.12 mm
each in diameter,
covered by very thin
PVC plastic.

In the photograph to the right is pictured tin coated wire with a diameter of
0.32 mm.
It is convenient to use for wiring components, jumper wiring etc. when
you are building a circuit on a universal PWB.
Pictured at the left is polyurethane wire, 0.4 mm in diameter.
It is used for making coils.
There are several kinds of coated wires. Tin coated wire colored silver,
polyurethane enameled copper wire(UEW) which has a thin brown color,
polyester enameled copper wire (PEW) which is also thin brown, and
enameled wire with a burnt brown color.
Coated wire is used for making coil components like a transformers.

The PEW can not be soldered, because the polyester coating will not melt
at the soldering temperature. So if you want to solder PEW wire, you need
to scrape the enamel off the wire.
In case of the UEW, you do not need to scrape the insulation off the wire,
because the polyurethane will melt at the soldering temperature.
 In this photograph is
a tool used for
wiring.
Copper wire can be
drawn out from the
tip like the core of a
pencil.
First, the wire is attached and solderd to the first lead of a given
component.
Next, the wire is drawn out from the tool and can be soldered at the
desired lead of another component.
The wire is polyurethane coated single wire of 0.2 mm thickness.








$

/0


 for circuit designing .We first make schematic in it. This in turn creates lay out of PCB.

1
 for compiling. Microcontroller understands hex files. But as hex files are very complicated
therefore we make use of the software keil. Programming in keil makes use of C or Assembly
language which are easily programmable. Keil on its own converts these files to hex files.

  After the formation of hex file we need to insert this hex file into the micro controller so
that it executes the program written in the keil. For this purpose we make use of proload.

6 


Soldering is a process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and
flowing a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal having a relatively low melting point. Soft
soldering is characterized by the melting point of the filler metal, which is below 400 °C
(800 °F). The filler metal used in the process is called solder.

Soldering is distinguished from brazing by use of a lower melting-temperature filler metal; it is

distinguished from welding by the base metals not being melted during the joining process. In a
soldering process, heat is applied to the parts to be joined, causing the solder to melt and be
drawn into the joint by capillary action and to bond to the materials to be joined by wetting
action. After the metal cools, the resulting joints are not as strong as the base metal, but have
adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and water-tightness for many uses. Soldering is an
ancient technique mentioned in the Bible and there is evidence that it was employed up to 5000
years ago in Mesopotamia.

×


One of the most frequent applications of soldering is assembling electronic components to

printed circuit boards (PCBs). Another common application is making permanent but reversible
connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems. Joints in sheet metal objects such as
food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators have also historically been
soldered, and occasionally still are. Jewelry components are assembled and repaired by
soldering. Small mechanical parts are often soldered as well. Soldering is also used to join lead
came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also be used to affect a semi-
permanent patch for a leak in a container cooking vessel.


 

Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing applications. In
electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or 60/40, which is almost
identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of choice. Other alloys are used for
plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other applications.

A eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering; chief among these is the
coincidence of the liquidus and solidus temperatures, i.e. the absence of a plastic phase. This
allows for quicker wetting out as the solder heats up, and quicker setup as the solder cools. A
non-eutectic formulation must remain still as the temperature drops through the liquidus and
solidus temperatures. Any differential movement during the plastic phase may result in cracks,
giving an unreliable joint. Additionally, a eutectic formulation has the lowest possible melting
point, which minimizes heat stress on electronic components during soldering.

Lead-free solders are suggested anywhere children may come into contact (since children are
likely to place things into their mouths), or for outdoor use where rain and other precipitation
may wash the lead into the groundwater. Common solder alloys are mixtures of tin and lead,
respectively:

| 63/37: melts at 183 °C (361.4 °F) (eutectic: the only mixture that melts at a point, instead
of over a range)
| 60/40: melts between 183 190 °C (361 374 °F)
| 50/50: melts between 185 215 °C (365 419 °F)
Lead-free solder alloys melt around 250 °C (482 °F), depending on their composition.

For environmental reasons, 'no-lead' solders are becoming more widely used. Unfortunately most
'no-lead' solders are not eutectic formulations, making it more difficult to create reliable joints
with them. See complete discussion below; see also RoHS.

Other common solders include low-temperature formulations (often containing bismuth), which
are often used to join previously-soldered assemblies without un-soldering earlier connections,
and high-temperature formulations (usually containing silver) which are used for high-
temperature operation or for first assembly of items which must not become unsoldered during
subsequent operations. Specialty alloys are available with properties such as higher strength,
better electrical conductivity and higher corrosion resistance.

Ô


In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the primary
purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead solder, for
example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the various oxides of copper, which form
quickly at soldering temperatures. Flux is a substance which is nearly inert at room temperature,
but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing the formation of metal
oxides. Secondarily, flux acts as a wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface
tension of the molten solder and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined.

Fluxes currently available include water-soluble fluxes (no VOC's required for removal) and 'no-
clean' fluxes which are mild enough to not require removal at all. Performance of the flux needs
to be carefully evaluated; a very mild 'no-clean' flux might be perfectly acceptable for production
equipment, but not give adequate performance for a poorly-controlled hand-soldering operation.

Traditional rosin fluxes are available in non-activated (R), mildly activated (RMA) and activated
(RA) formulations. RA and RMA fluxes contain rosin combined with an activating agent,
typically an acid, which increases the wettability of metals to which it is applied by removing
existing oxides. The residue resulting from the use of RA flux is corrosive and must be cleaned
off the piece being soldered. RMA flux is formulated to result in a residue which is not
significantly corrosive, with cleaning being preferred but optional.

c 
  

 


Soldering operations can be performed with hand tools, one joint at a time, or en masse on a
production line. Hand soldering is typically performed with a soldering iron, soldering gun, or a
torch, or occasionally a hot-air pencil. Sheetmetal work was traditionally done with "soldering
coppers" directly heated by a flame, with sufficient stored heat in the mass of the soldering
copper to complete a joint; torches or electrically-heated soldering irons are more convenient. All
soldered joints require the same elements of cleaning of the metal parts to be joined, fitting up
the joint, heating the parts, applying flux, applying the filler, removing heat and holding the
assembly still until the filler metal has completely solidified. Depending on the nature of flux
material used, cleaning of the joints may be required after they have cooled.

The distinction between soldering and brazing is arbitrary, based on the melting temperature of
the filler material. A temperature of 450 °C is usually used as a practical cut-off. Different
equipment and/or fixturing is usually required since (for instance) a soldering iron generally
cannot achieve high enough temperatures for brazing. Practically speaking there is a significant
difference between the two processes²brazing fillers have far more structural strength than
solders, and are formulated for this as opposed to maximum electrical conductivity. Brazed
connections are often as strong or nearly as strong as the parts they connect, even at elevated
temperatures.

"Hard soldering" or "silver soldering" (performed with high-temperature solder containing up to

40% silver) is also often a form of brazing, since it involves filler materials with melting points
in the vicinity of, or in excess of, 450 °C. Although the term "silver soldering" is used much
more often than "silver brazing", it may be technically incorrect depending on the exact melting
point of the filler in use. In silver soldering ("hard soldering"), the goal is generally to give a
beautiful, structurally sound joint, especially in the field of jewelry. Thus, the temperatures
involved, and the usual use of a torch rather than an iron, would seem to indicate that the process
should be referred to as "brazing" rather than "soldering", but the endurance of the "soldering"
apellation serves to indicate the arbitrary nature of the distinction (and the level of confusion)
between the two processes.

Induction soldering is a process which is similar to brazing. The source of heat in induction
soldering is induction heating by high-frequency AC current. Generally copper coils are used for
the induction heating. This induces currents in the part being soldered. The coils are usually
made of copper or a copper base alloy. The copper rings can be made to fit the part needed to be
soldered for precision in the work piece. Induction soldering is a process in which a filler metal
(solder) is placed between the faying surfaces of (to be joined) metals. The filler metal in this
process is melted at a fairly low temperature. Fluxes are a common use in induction soldering.
This is a process which is particularly suitable for soldering continuously. The process is usually
done with coils that wrap around a cylinder/pipe that needs to be soldered. Some metals are
easier to solder than others. Copper, silver, and gold are easy. Iron and nickel are found to be
more difficult. Because of their thin, strong oxide films, stainless steel and aluminum are a little
more difficult. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, steels, ceramics, and graphites can be soldered
but it involves a process similar to joining carbides. They are first plated with a suitable metallic
element that induces interfacial bonding.

 
   
 

Used solder contains some of the dissolved base metals and is unsuitable for reuse in making
new joints. Once the solder's capacity for the base metal has been achieved it will no longer
properly bond with the base metal, usually resulting in a brittle cold solder joint with a
crystalline appearance.

It is good practice to remove solder from a joint prior to resoldering²desoldering braids or

vacuum desoldering equipment (solder suckers) can be used. Desoldering wicks contain plenty
of flux that will lift the contamination from the copper trace and any device leads that are
present. This will leave a bright, shiny, clean junction to be resoldered.

The lower melting point of solder means it can be melted away from the base metal, leaving it
mostly intact though the outer layer will be "tinned" with solder. Flux will remain which can
easily be removed by abrasive or chemical processes. This tinned layer will allow solder to flow
into a new joint, resulting in a new joint, as well as making the new solder flow very quickly and
easily.

] 


Hand-soldering tools include the electric soldering iron, which has a variety of tips available
ranging from blunt to very fine to chisel heads for hot-cutting plastics, and the soldering gun,
which typically provides more power, giving faster heat-up and allowing larger parts to be
soldered. Hot-air guns and pencils allow rework of component packages which cannot easily be
performed with irons and guns.

Soldering torches are a type of soldering device that uses a flame rather than a soldering iron tip
to heat solder. Soldering torches are often powered by butane[3] and are available in sizes ranging
from very small butane/oxygen units suitable for very fine but high-temperature jewelry work, to
full-size oxy-fuel torches suitable for much larger work such as copper piping.

A soldering copper is a tool with a large copper head and a long handle, which is heated in a
blacksmith's forge fire, and used to apply heat to sheet metal for soldering. Soldering coppers are
sometimes used in auto bodywork, although body solder has been mostly superseded by non-
metallic fillers.

Toaster ovens and hand held infrared lights have been used to reproduce production processes on
a much smaller scale.
Bristle brushes are usually used to apply plumbing paste flux. For electronic work, flux-core
solder is generally used, but additional flux may be used from a flux pen or dispensed from a
small bottle with a syringe-like needle.

Wire brush, wire wool and emery cloth are commonly used to prepare plumbing joints for
connection. Electronic joints rarely require mechanical cleaning.

For PCB assembly and rework, alcohol and acetone are commonly used with cotton swabs or
bristle brushes to remove flux residue. A heavy rag is usually used to remove flux from a
plumbing joint before it cools and hardens. A fiberglass brush can also be used.

For electronic work, solder wick and vacuum-operated "solder sucker" are used to undo solder
connections.

A heat sink, such as a crocodile clips, can also be used to prevent damaging heat-sensitive
components while soldering.
 6 
 


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Power supply



 #

The term power supply is more commonly abbreviated to PSU, this will be used from hereon in.

Telecommunications equipment is designed to operate on voltages lower than the domestic

Mains voltage. In order to reduce this voltage a PSU is used.

To provide a useable low voltage the PSU needs to do a number of things:-

| Reduce the Mains AC (Alternating current) voltage to a lower level.

| Convert this lower voltage from AC to DC (Direct current)
| Regulate the DC output to compensate for varying load (current demand)
| Provide protection against excessive input/output voltages.

à
 ,] 
This is achieved by using a device known as a 



an electromagnetic device
consisting of an ferrous iron core which has a large number of turns of wire wound around it,
known as the 

#

The ends of these turns of wire being connected to the input voltage (in this case Mains AC).

A second number of turns of wire are wound around the 

#, this set being
known as the $

#.

The difference between the number of turns provides us with a way of reducing (in our case) a
high AC voltage to a lower one.
]

,])]
To convert our now low AC voltage to DC we use a à


)
connected to the
$

#.

This is a silicon diode, which has operation analogous to a bicycle tyre valve (as the valve only
allows air to flow into the tyre, the diode only allows current to flow in one direction)

As our low AC voltage will be working at a frequency of 50Hz (Mains AC frequency) it is

desirable to reduce the inherent hum on this to a lower level.

This is achieved by a technique known as $  (³Ironing´ out the bumps in the AC).

A simple way to reduce the hum is to use -  

à
 2

Today this is usually done by four diodes in a bridge configuration known as a 

à


.
(This can be four individual diodes or a dedicated self contained package)

à
     

The +

#]  
is a device capable of storing energy the amount of energy and the
time it remains stored depending on the value.

In a simple PSU the easiest way to provide regulation to compensate for varying load conditions
is to use a pair of relatively high value +

#]  
.

Their values in this case being in the region of 470uF to 2000uF depending on the application
and the amount of current required from the output of the unit.

One of these capacitors is connected across the DC output of the rectifier diode(s) or bridge, this
capacitor also providing an extra degree of smoothing the output waveform.

The second capacitor is connected via a low value, medium to high wattage resistor, which
assists in limiting the current demand.


  
3

 

In a simple PSU the easiest way to do this is by providing fuses at the input to the transformer,
generally in the live side of the mains supply, also at the DC outputs.

In the event of an excessive input voltage, or excessive current being drawn from the output, one
of these fuses should normally blow protecting the PSU and the equipment connected to it.

The transformer may also be fitted with an internal or external thermal fuse, which will open if
the transformer becomes hot due to the aforementioned conditions.






A "transformer" takes one voltage and changes it into another.

  



4 # è

5

A "transformer" changes one voltage to another. This attribute is useful in many

ways.

A transformer doesn't change power levels. If you put 100 Watts into a
transformer, 100 Watts come out the other end. [Actually, there are minor losses in
the transformer because nothing in the real world is 100% perfect. But
transformers come pretty darn close; perhaps 95% efficient.]

A transformer is made from two coils of wire close to each other (sometimes
wrapped around an iron or ferrite "core"). Power is fed into one coil (the
"primary"), which creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field causes current to
flow in the other coil (the "secondary"). Note that this doesn't work for direct
current (DC): the incoming voltage needs to change over time - alternating current
(AC) or pulsed DC.
 Iron core

The number of times the wires are wrapped around the core ("turns") is very
important and determines how the transformer changes the voltage.

| If the primary has fewer turns than the secondary, you have a step-up
transformer that increases the voltage.
| If the primary has more turns than the secondary, you have a step-down
transformer that reduces the voltage.
| If the primary has the same number of turns as the secondary, the outgoing
voltage will be the same as what comes in. This is the case for an isolation
transformer.
| In certain exceptional cases, one large coil of wire can serve as both primary
and secondary. This is the case with variable auto-transformers and xenon
strobe trigger transformers.

|#





In general, transformers are used for two purposes: signal matching and power
supplies.

|






Power transformers are used to convert from one voltage to another, at significant
power levels.

||

$
0 





A "step-up transformer" allows a device that requires a high voltage power supply
to operate from a lower voltage source. The transformer takes in the low voltage at
a high current and puts out the high voltage at a low current.

Examples:
 | You are a Swiss visiting the U.S.A., and want to operate your 220VAC
shaver off of the available 110 VAC.
| The CRT display tube of your computer monitor requires thousands of volts,
but must run off of 220 VAC from the wall.

|$
0






 
A "step-down transformer" allows a device that requires a low voltage power
supply to operate from a higher voltage. The transformer takes in the high voltage
at a low current and puts out a low voltage at a high current.

Examples:

| Your Mailbu-brand landscape lights run on 12VAC, but you plug them into
the 220 VAC line.
| Your doorbell doesn't need batteries. It runs on 220 VAC, converted to
12VAC.

In many cases, step-down transformers take the form of wall warts.

||
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

è 





An "isolation transformer" does not raise or lower a voltage; whatever voltage

comes in is what goes out. An isolation transformer prevents current from flowing
directly from one side to the other. This usually serves as a safety device to prevent
electrocution.
||


 
 0








A "variable auto-transformer" (variac) can act like a step-up transformer or step-

down transformer. It has a big knob on top that allows you to dial in whatever
output voltage you want.

This page from the All Electronics catalog (#103, Winter 2003) shows some
variacs.

WARNING: A variable auto-transformer does not provide isolation from line

current. For that you need an isolation transformer.

|è





An "inverter" takes a DC power source and boosts it up to a higher voltage. The

most common type of inverter takes power from an automobile and cranks out 220
VAC to run appliances and power tools. Inverters are also used to operate
fluorescent lamps from battery power.

Technically, an inverter isn't a transformer; it 

 
 a transformer (and lots of
other stuff).
|$ 




"Signal transformers" also take one thing in and transform it to another thing out.
But in this case, the power levels are low, and the transformed thing carries some
type of information signal.

In most cases, these transformers are thought of as impedance matching.

||


à




£ 
 "#

A rectifier changes alternating current into direct current. This process is called rectification. The
three main types of rectifier are the half-wave, full-wave, and bridge. A rectifier is the opposite
of an inverter, which changes direct current into alternating current.

. 0 
à



 
The simplest type is the half-wave rectifier, which can be made with just one diode. When the
voltage of the alternating current is positive, the diode becomes forward-biased and current flows
through it. When the voltage is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the current stops. The
result is a clipped copy of the alternating current waveform with only positive voltage, and an
average voltage that is one third of the peak input voltage. This pulsating direct current is
adequate for some components, but others require a more steady current. This requires a full-
wave rectifier that can convert both parts of the cycle to positive voltage.

- 0 
à







The full-wave rectifier is essentially two half-wave rectifiers, and can be made with two diodes
and an earthed center tap on the transformer. The positive voltage half of the cycle flows through
one diode, and the negative half flows through the other. The center tap allows the circuit to be
completed because current can not flow through the other diode. The result is still a pulsating
direct current but with just over half the input peak voltage, and double the frequency.



à







The bridge rectifier, also called a diode bridge, consists of four diodes connected together in a
square. Two diodes are connected at their anodes, and the other two are connected at their
cathodes. These form the rectified output terminals. The remaining ends are joined to form two
input terminals. It it usually packaged as one component with four terminals. The bridge rectifier
allows for full-wave rectification without the need for an earthed center tap on the transformer.

$ 


Even the bridge rectifier has some variation in it's output voltage, so a filter is required to smooth
out this ripple. A capacitor connected across the output terminals acts as a basic filter by storing
energy during the peak voltage, and releasing it when the voltage falls. This removes most of the
ripple but does not result in a steady voltage. A choke and second capacitor are usually added to
further smooth the ripple.

à


6


Rectifiers are used mostly in power adapters and alternators to convert alternating current to
direct current. They are also used in radios to demodulate signals from the antenna.


Voltage Regulator 
  

 
  
 



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