American Civil War, Wikipedia

American Civil War 1
American Civil War

The American Civil War (1861Ä1865), also less commonly known as the War Between the States (among other
names), was a civil war in the United States of America. Eleven Southern slave states declared their secession from
the United States and formed the Confederate States of America, also known as "the Confederacy". Led by Jefferson
Davis, the Confederacy fought for its independence from the United States. The U.S. federal government was
supported by twenty mostly-Northern free states in which slavery already had been abolished, and by five slave
states that became known as the border states. These twenty-five states, referred to as the Union, had a much larger
base of population and industry than the South. After four years of bloody, devastating warfare (mostly within the
Southern states), the Confederacy surrendered and slavery was outlawed everywhere in the nation. The restoration of
the Union, and the Reconstruction Era that followed, dealt with issues that remained unresolved for generations.
In the presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party, led by Abraham Lincoln, had campaigned against the
expansion of slavery beyond the states in which it already existed. The Republicans were strong advocates of
nationalism and in their 1860 platform explicitly denounced threats of disunion as avowals of treason. After a
Republican victory, but before the new administration took office on March 4, 1861, seven cotton states declared
their secession and joined together to form the Confederate States of America. Both the outgoing administration of
President James Buchanan and the incoming administration rejected the legality of secession, considering it
rebellion. The other eight slave states rejected calls for secession at this point. No country in the world recognized
the Confederacy.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military installation at Fort Sumter in
South Carolina. Lincoln responded by calling for a volunteer army from each state to recapture federal property. This
led to declarations of secession by four more slave states. Both sides raised armies as the Union seized control of the
border states early in the war and established a naval blockade that virtually ended cotton sales on which the South
depended for its wealth, and blocked most imports. Land warfare in the East was inconclusive in 1861Ä62, as the
Confederacy beat back Union efforts to capture its capital, Richmond, Virginia. In September 1862, Lincoln's
Emancipation Proclamation made ending slavery in the South a war goal,[1] and dissuaded the British from
intervening.[2]
Confederate commander Robert E. Lee won battles in Virginia, but in 1863 his northward advance was turned back
with heavy casualties after the Battle of Gettysburg. To the west, the Union gained control of the Mississippi River
after their capture of Vicksburg, Mississippi, thereby splitting the Confederacy in two. The Union was able to
capitalize on its long-term advantages in men and materiel by 1864 when Ulysses S. Grant fought battles of attrition
against Lee, while Union general William Tecumseh Sherman captured Atlanta and marched to the sea. Confederate
resistance ended after Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and
mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The practices of total war, developed by Sherman in Georgia,
and of trench warfare around Petersburg foreshadowed World War I in Europe. It remains the deadliest war in
American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers and an undetermined number of civilian casualties. Ten
percent of all Northern males 20Ä45 years of age died, as did 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18Ä40.[3]
Victory for the North meant the end of the Confederacy and of slavery in the United States, and strengthened the role
of the federal government. The social, political, economic and racial issues of the war decisively shaped the
reconstruction era that lasted to 1877.
Causes of secession
The Abolitionist movement in the United States had roots in the Declaration of Independence. Slavery was banned in
the Northwest Territory with the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. By 1804 all the Northern states had passed laws to
gradually abolish slavery. Congress banned the African slave-trade in 1808, although slavery grew in new states in
the deep south. The Union was divided along the Mason Dixon Line into the North (free of slaves), and the South,
where slavery remained legal.[4]
Despite compromises in 1820 and 1850, the slavery issues exploded in the 1850s. Lincoln did not propose federal
laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, expressed a desire to
"arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest in the belief that it is in the course of
ultimate extinction."[5] Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly
created territories.[6] [7] Both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand it would wither and die.[8] [9]
[10]
Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery forces, and Northern resentment of the
influence that the Slave Power already wielded in government, brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s.
Disagreements between Abolitionists and others over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and the
economic merits of free labor versus slave plantations caused the Whig and "Know-Nothing" parties to collapse, and
new ones to arise (the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the Constitutional Union in 1860). In 1860,
the last remaining national political party, the Democratic Party, split along sectional lines.
Northerners ranging from the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison to the moderate Republican leader Lincoln[11]
emphasized Jefferson's declaration that all men are created equal. Lincoln mentioned this proposition many times,
including his 1863 Gettysburg Address.
Almost all the inter-regional crises involved slavery, starting with debates on the three-fifths clause and a
twenty-year extension of the African slave trade in the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The 1793 invention of the
cotton gin by Eli Whitney increased by fiftyfold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day and greatly
increased the demand for slave labor in the South.[12] There was controversy over adding the slave state of Missouri
to the Union that led to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. A gag rule prevented discussion in Congress of petitions
for ending slavery from 1835Ä1844, while Manifest Destiny became an argument for gaining new territories, where
slavery could expand. The acquisition of Texas as a slave state in 1845 along with territories won as a result of the
MexicanÄAmerican War (1846Ä1848) resulted in the Compromise of 1850.[13] The Wilmot Proviso was an attempt
by Northern politicians to exclude slavery from the territories conquered from Mexico. The extremely popular
anti-slavery novel Uncle TomÄs Cabin (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe greatly increased Northern opposition to the
Fugitive Slave Law of 1850.[14] [15]
The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to annex

Cuba as a slave state. The Second Party System broke down after passage of the
Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854, which replaced the Missouri Compromise ban on
slavery with popular sovereignty, allowing the people of a territory to vote for or
against slavery. The Bleeding Kansas controversy over the status of slavery in
the Kansas Territory included massive vote fraud perpetrated by Missouri
pro-slavery Border Ruffians. Vote fraud led pro-South Presidents Franklin Pierce
and James Buchanan to attempt to admit Kansas as a slave state. Buchanan
supported the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution.[16]
Violence over the status of slavery in Kansas erupted with the Wakarusa War,[17]
the Sacking of Lawrence,[18] the caning of Republican Charles Sumner by the
John Brown being adored by an Southerner Preston Brooks,[19] [20] the Pottawatomie Massacre,[21] the Battle of
enslaved mother and child as he Black Jack, the Battle of Osawatomie and the Marais des Cygnes massacre. The
walks to his execution on December
1857 Supreme Court Dred Scott decision allowed slavery in the territories even
2, 1859.
where the majority opposed slavery, including Kansas.
The Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 included Northern Democratic leader Stephen A. Douglas' Freeport Doctrine.
This doctrine was an argument for thwarting the Dred Scott decision that, along with Douglas' defeat of the
Lecompton Constitution, divided the Democratic Party between North and South. Northern abolitionist John Brown's
raid at Harpers Ferry Armory was an attempt to incite slave insurrections in 1859.[22] The North-South split in the
Democratic Party in 1860 due to the Southern demand for a slave code for the territories completed polarization of
the nation between North and South.
Slavery
Support for secession was strongly correlated to the number of
plantations in the region.[23] States of the Deep South, which had the
greatest concentration of plantations, were the first to secede. The
upper South slave states of Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and
Tennessee had fewer plantations and rejected secession until the Fort
Sumter crisis forced them to choose sides. Border states had fewer
plantations still and never seceded.[24] [25]
As of 1860 the percentage of Southern families that owned slaves has US Postage, 1958 issue, commemorating the
been estimated to be 43 percent in the lower South, 36 percent in the Lincoln and Douglas debates.
upper South and 22 percent in the border states that fought mostly for
the Union.[26] Half the owners had one to four slaves. A total of 8000 planters owned 50 or more slaves in 1850 and
only 1800 planters owned 100 or more; of the latter, 85% lived in the lower South, as opposed to one percent in the
border states.[27] According to the 1860 U.S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8 percent of all US families,
owned 3,950,528 slaves.[28]
Ninety-five percent of African-Americans lived in the South, comprising one third of the population there as
opposed to one percent of the population of the North, chiefly in larger cities like New York and Philadelphia.
Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North.[29]
The Supreme Court decision of 1857 in Dred Scott v. Sandford escalated the
controversy. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney's decision said that slaves were "so far
inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect".[30]
Taney then overturned the Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery in
territory north of the 36Ä30' parallel. He stated, "[T]he Act of Congress which
prohibited a citizen from holding and owning [enslaved persons] in the territory
of the United States north of the line therein is not warranted by the Constitution
and is therefore void."[31] Democrats praised the Dred Scott decision, but
Republicans branded it a "willful perversion" of the Constitution. They argued
that if Scott could not legally file suit, the Supreme Court had no right to
Abraham Lincoln, 16th President
consider the Missouri Compromise's constitutionality. Lincoln warned that "the
(1861Ä1865)
next Dred Scott decision"[32] could threaten Northern states with slavery.
Lincoln said, "This question of Slavery was more important than any other;
indeed, so much more important has it become that no other national question
can even get a hearing just at present."[33] The slavery issue was related to
sectional competition for control of the territories,[34] and the Southern demand
for a slave code for the territories was the issue used by Southern politicians to
split the Democratic Party in two, which all but guaranteed the election of
Lincoln and secession. When secession was an issue, South Carolina planter and
state Senator John Townsend said that, "our enemies are about to take possession
of the Government, that they intend to rule us according to the caprices of their
fanatical theories, and according to the declared purposes of abolishing
slavery."[35] Similar opinions were expressed throughout the South in editorials,
political speeches and declarations of reasons for secession. Even though Lincoln Jefferson Davis, only President of the
had no plans to outlaw slavery where it existed, whites throughout the South Confederate States of America
expressed fears for the future of slavery. (1861Ä1865)
Southern concerns included not only economic loss but also fears of racial equality.[36] [37] [38] [39] The Texas
Declaration of Causes for Secession[40] [41] said that the non-slave-holding states were "proclaiming the debasing
doctrine of equality of all men, irrespective of race or color", and that the African race "were rightfully held and
regarded as an inferior and dependent race". Alabama secessionist E. S. Dargan warned that whites and free blacks
could not live together; if slaves were emancipated and remained in the South, "we ourselves would become the
executioners of our own slaves. To this extent would the policy of our Northern enemies drive us; and thus would we
not only be reduced to poverty, but what is still worse, we should be driven to crime, to the commission of sin."[42]
Beginning in the 1830s, the US Postmaster General refused to allow mail which carried abolition pamphlets to the
South.[43] Northern teachers suspected of any tinge of abolitionism were expelled from the South, and abolitionist
literature was banned. Southerners rejected the denials of Republicans that they were abolitionists.[44] The North felt
threatened as well, for as Eric Foner concludes, "Northerners came to view slavery as the very antithesis of the good
society, as well as a threat to their own fundamental values and interests."[45]
During the 1850s, slaves left the border states through sale, manumission and escape, and border states also had
more free African-Americans and European immigrants than the lower South, which increased Southern fears that
slavery was threatened with rapid extinction in this area. Such fears greatly increased Southern efforts to make
Kansas a slave state. By 1860, the number of white border state families owning slaves plunged to only 16 percent of
the total. Slaves sold to lower South states were owned by a smaller number of wealthy slave owners as the price of
slaves increased.[46]
Even though Lincoln agreed to the Corwin Amendment, which would have protected slavery in existing states,
secessionists claimed that such guarantees were meaningless. Besides the loss of Kansas to free soil Northerners,
secessionists feared that the loss of slaves in the border states would lead to emancipation, and that upper South slave
states might be the next dominoes to fall. They feared that Republicans would use patronage to incite slaves and
antislavery Southern whites such as Hinton Rowan Helper. Then slavery in the lower South, like a "scorpion
encircled by fire, would sting itself to death."[47]
According to historian Chandra Manning, both Union and Confederate soldiers who did the actual fighting believed
slavery to be the cause of the Civil War. A majority of Confederate soldiers fought to protect slavery, which they
viewed as an integral part of southern economy, culture, and manhood. Union soldiers believed the primary reason
for the war was to bring emancipation to the slaves. However, many Union soldiers did not fully endorse the idea of
shedding their own blood for African American slaves, whom they viewed as inferior. Manning's research involved
reading military camp newspapers and personal correspondence between soldiers and families during the Civil War.
Manning stated that the primary debate in Confederate states over secession was not over state rights, but rather "the
power of the federal government to affect the institution of slavery, specifically limiting it in newly added
territories."[48]
Sectionalism
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and
South.[49] [50] It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence,
industrialized, urbanized and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture
based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for the poor whites. The South expanded into rich new lands
in the Southwest (from Alabama to Texas).[51] However, slavery declined in the border states and could barely
survive in cities and industrial areas (it was fading out in cities such as Baltimore, Louisville and St. Louis), so a
South based on slavery was rural and non-industrial. On the other hand, as the demand for cotton grew the price of
slaves soared. Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the
agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian
Charles Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary.[52]
Fears of slave revolts and abolitionist propaganda made the South militantly hostile to abolitionism.[53] [54]
Southerners complained that it was the North that was changing, and was prone to new "isms", while the South
remained true to historic republican values of the Founding Fathers (many of whom owned slaves, including
Washington, Jefferson and Madison). Lincoln said that Republicans were following the tradition of the framers of
the Constitution (including the Northwest Ordinance and the Missouri Compromise) by preventing expansion of
slavery.[55] The issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and missionaries) split the
largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and
Southern denominations.[56] Industrialization meant that seven European immigrants out of eight settled in the
North. The movement of twice as many whites leaving the South for the North as vice versa contributed to the
South's defensive-aggressive political behavior.[57]
Nationalism and honor

Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen like Andrew Jackson and
Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal
to the entire United States (called "unionists") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the
Confederacy.[58] C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group, "A great slave society...had grown up and miraculously
flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois
origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses....When
the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins."[59] Insults
to Southern national honor included Uncle Tom's Cabin (1854)[60] and John Brown in 1859.[61]
While the South moved toward a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more
nationally-minded, and rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national platform of 1860 warned
that disunion was treason and would not be tolerated:
we denounce those threats of disunion...as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal
of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever
silence.[62] The South ignored the warnings and did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the
Union together.[63]
States' rights
Everyone agreed that states had certain rightsÅbut did those rights carry over when a citizen left that state? The
Southern position was that citizens of every state had the right to take their property anywhere in the U.S. and not
have it taken awayÅspecifically they could bring their slaves anywhere and they would remain slaves. Northerners
rejected this "right" because it would violate the right of a free state to outlaw slavery within its borders. Republicans
committed to ending the expansion of slavery were among those opposed to any such right to bring slaves and
slavery into the free states and territories. The Dred Scott Supreme Court decision of 1857 bolstered the Southern
case within territories, and angered the North.[64]
Secondly the South argued that each state had the right to secedeÅleave the UnionÅat any time, that the
Constitution was a "compact" or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected
that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a "perpetual union".[64]
Historian James McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other
Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the
state's-rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, state's rights for what purpose?
State's rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal
more than a principle.[65]
Slave power and free soil issues

Antislavery forces in the North identified the "Slave Power" as a direct threat to republican values. They argued that
rich slave owners were using political power to take control of the Presidency, Congress and the Supreme Court,
thus threatening the rights of the citizens of the North.[66]
"Free soil" was a Northern demand that the new lands opening up in the west be available to independent yeoman
farmers and not be bought out by rich slave owners who would buy up the best land and work it with slaves, forcing
the white farmers onto marginal lands. This was the basis of the Free Soil Party of 1848, and a main theme of the
Republican Party.[67] Free Soilers and Republicans demanded a homestead law that would give government land to
settlers; it was defeated by Southerners who feared it would attract to the west European immigrants and poor
Southern whites.[68]
Tariffs
The Tariff of 1828, was a high protective tariff or tax on imports passed by Congress in 1828. It was labeled the
"Tariff of Abominations"[69] by its southern detractors because of its effect on the Southern economy. The 1828
tariff was repealed after strong protests and threats of nullification by South Carolina.
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and
kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The South had no complaints but the low rates
angered Northern industrialists and factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their
growing iron industry. The Whigs and Republicans favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth, and
Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were finally enacted in 1861 after
Southerners resigned their seats in Congress.[70] [71]
Historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue, noting that few people in 1860Ä61 said it was of central
importance to them. Some secessionist documents do mention the tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the
preservation of slavery. However, a few libertarian economists place more importance on the tariff issue.[72]
Election of Lincoln
The election of Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.[73] Efforts at compromise, including
the "Corwin Amendment" and the "Crittenden Compromise", failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop
the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a
minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and
Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave
states had declared their secession and joined together to form the Confederacy.
Battle of Fort Sumter

The Lincoln Administration, just as the outgoing Buchanan administration before it, refused to turn over Ft.
SumterÅlocated in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of
the fort. Union Maj. Anderson gave a conditional reply which the Confederate government rejected, and Davis
ordered Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. After a heavy bombardment on April
12Ä13, 1861, (with no intentional casualties), the fort surrendered. Lincoln then called for 75,000 troops from the
states to recapture the fort and other federal property. Rather than furnish troops and access for an attack on their
fellow southern states, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas elected to join them in secession. North
and South the response to Ft. Sumter was an overwhelming demand for war to uphold national honor. Only
Kentucky tried to remain neutral. Hundreds of thousands of young men across the land rushed to enlist.[74]
Secession begins
Secession of South Carolina

South Carolina did more to advance nullification and secession than
any other Southern state. South Carolina adopted the "Declaration of
the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of
South Carolina from the Federal Union" on December 24, 1860. It
argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a
complaint about states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to
Status of the states, 1861.ÅÅ States that seceded
the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling
before April 15, 1861ÅÅ States that seceded after
their federal obligations under the Constitution. All the alleged April 15, 1861ÅÅ Union states that permitted
violations of the rights of Southern states were related to slavery. slaveryÅÅ Union states that banned slaveryÅÅ
Territories
Secession winter
Before Lincoln took office, seven states had declared their secession
from the Union. They established a Southern government, the
Confederate States of America on February 4, 1861.[75] They took
control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries
with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose
term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott
decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that
The Union: blue, yellow (slave);
the Union "was intended to be perpetual", but that "the power by force
The Confederacy: brown
of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the *territories in light shades; control of Confederate
"enumerated powers granted to Congress".[76] One quarter of the U.S. territories disputed
ArmyÅthe entire garrison in TexasÅwas surrendered in February
1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that
had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morill
Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the
authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the
income tax to help finance the war.
The Confederacy
Seven Deep South cotton states seceded by February 1861, starting with South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida,
Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These seven states formed the Confederate States of America (February 4,
1861), with Jefferson Davis as president, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the U.S. Constitution.
Following the attack on Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for a volunteer army from each state. Within two
months, four more Southern slave states declared their secession and joined the Confederacy: Virginia, Arkansas,
North Carolina and Tennessee. The northwestern portion of Virginia subsequently seceded from Virginia, joining the
Union as the new state of West Virginia on June 20, 1863. By the end of 1861, Missouri and Kentucky were
effectively under Union control, with Confederate state governments in exile.
The Union states

Twenty-three states remained loyal to the Union: California, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New
York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin. During the war, Nevada and West
Virginia joined as new states of the Union. Tennessee and Louisiana were returned to Union military control early in
the war.
The territories of Colorado, Dakota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Washington fought on the Union
side. Several slave-holding Native American tribes supported the Confederacy, giving the Indian Territory (now
Oklahoma) a small, bloody civil war.[77] [78] [79]
Border states
The border states in the Union were West Virginia (which separated from Virginia and became a new state), and four
of the five northernmost slave states (Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky).
Maryland had numerous pro-Confederate officials who tolerated anti-Union rioting in Baltimore and the burning of
bridges. Lincoln responded with martial law and sent in militia units from the North.[80] Before the Confederate
government realized what was happening, Lincoln had seized firm control of Maryland and the District of Columbia,
by arresting all the prominent secessionists and holding them without trial (they were later released).
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate
Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel
Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also:
Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the
Unionist provisional government of Missouri.[81]
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in
September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During
a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a
governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never
controlled Kentucky.[82]
After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a
new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34% approved the statehood bill (96% approving).[83] The
inclusion of 24 secessionist counties[84] in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war[85] engaged about 40,000 Federal
troops for much of the war.[86] Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia
provided about 22Ä25,000 Union soldiers,[87] and at least 16,000 Confederate soldiers.[88]
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested
over 3000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.[89]
Overview
Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40% of
them in Virginia and Tennessee.[90] Since separate articles deal with
every major battle and many minor ones, this article only gives the
broadest outline. For more information see List of American Civil War
battles and Military leadership in the American Civil War.
The beginning of the war, 1861

A Roman Catholic Union army chaplain
Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South celebrating a Mass
Carolina's declaration of secession from the Union. By February 1861,
six more Southern states made similar declarations. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional
constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama.
A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington in a failed attempt at resolving the crisis. The
remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy. Confederate forces seized most of the federal
forts within their boundaries. President Buchanan protested but made no military response apart from a failed
attempt to resupply Fort Sumter using the ship Star of the West, which was fired upon by South Carolina forces and
turned back before it reached the fort.[91] However, governors in Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania
quietly began buying weapons and training militia units.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the
Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a
binding contract, and called any secession "legally void".[92] He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, nor
did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property.
His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.[93]
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty
with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the
Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition
of it as a sovereign government.[94] However, Secretary of State William Seward engaged in unauthorized and
indirect negotiations that failed.[94]
Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, and Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, and Fort
Taylor, all in Florida, were the remaining Union-held forts in the Confederacy, and Lincoln was determined to hold
them all. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, troops controlled by the Confederate
government under P. G. T. Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12, forcing its capitulation. Northerners
rallied behind Lincoln's call for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts and to preserve the Union,[95] citing
presidential powers given by the Militia Acts of 1792. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln
called for 75,000 volunteers for 90Ådays.[96] For months before that, several Northern governors had discreetly
readied their state militias; they began to move forces the next day.[97] Confederate sympathizers seized Liberty
Arsenal in Liberty, Missouri on April 20, eight days after Fort Sumter. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an
additional 42,034 volunteers for a period of three years.[98]
Four states in the upper South (Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and
Virginia), which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, now refused to
send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the
Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to
Richmond.[99] The city was the symbol of the Confederacy. Richmond was in a
highly vulnerable location at the end of a tortuous Confederate supply line.
Although Richmond was heavily fortified, supplies for the city would be reduced
by Sherman's capture of Atlanta and cut off almost entirely when Grant besieged
Petersburg and its railroads that supplied the Southern capital.
US Postage, 1894 issue, honoring
William T. Sherman
Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861

Winfield Scott, the commanding general of
the U.S. Army, devised the Anaconda Plan
to win the war with as little bloodshed as
possible.[100] His idea was that a Union
blockade of the main ports would weaken
the Confederate economy; then the capture
of the Mississippi River would split the
South. Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of
a blockade to squeeze to death the
Confederate economy, but overruled Scott's
warnings that his new army was not ready
for an offensive operation because public
opinion demanded an immediate attack.[101]
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union

1861 cartoon of Scott's "Anaconda Plan"
blockade of all Southern ports; commercial
ships could not get insurance and regular
traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the
time they realized the mistake it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less than 10% of its
cotton.[102] British investors built small, fast blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from
Bermuda, Cuba and the Bahamas in return for high-priced cotton and tobacco.[103] When the Union Navy seized a
blockade runner the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were
mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. Shortages of
food and supplies were caused by the blockade, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main
rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the impressment of crops by Confederate armies. The standard of living fell
even as large-scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency. By 1864 the internal food
distribution had broken down, leaving cities without enough food and causing bread riots across the
Confederacy.[104]
On March 8, 1862, the Confederate Navy waged a fight against the Union Navy when the ironclad CSS Virginia
attacked the blockade. Against wooden ships, she seemed unstoppable. The next day, however, she had to fight the
new Union warship USS Monitor in the Battle of the Ironclads.[105] Their battle ended in a draw. The Confederacy
lost the Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of Monitor. Lacking
the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain. The Union
victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January 1865 closed the last useful Southern port and virtually ended
blockade running.
Conscription and desertion

In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the
initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was
not enough. Both sides used a draft lawÅconscriptionÅas a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively
few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to
35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt.[106] The U.S. Congress followed in July,
authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the
states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for
white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or,
until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted.
Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home.
There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New
York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the machine vote, not
realizing it made them liable for the draft.[107] Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986
were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.[108]
North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. An estimated 120,000 men evaded conscription in the North,
many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 Northern soldiers deserted during the war,[109] [110] along with
at least 100,000 Southerners, or about 10% all together.[111] However, desertion was a very common event in the
19th century; in the peacetime Army about 15% of the soldiers deserted every year.[112] In the South, many men
deserted temporarily to take care of their families, then returned to their units.[113] In the North, "bounty jumpers"
enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to
sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.[114]
Eastern theater 1861Ä1863

Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at
Manassas, Virginia, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the
command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces
there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First Manassas,[115]
McDowell's troops were forced back to Washington, D.C., by the
Confederates under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and
P. G. T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General
Thomas Jackson received the nickname of "Stonewall" because he
stood like a stone wall against Union troops.[116]
A Union Regimental Fife and Drum Corps
Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states
from leaving the Union, the U.S. Congress passed the
Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the
Union and not to end slavery.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly
general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W.
Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive
operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and
James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula
Campaign,[117] [118] [119]
Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of Seven Pines,
then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James
Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson[120] defeated
McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his
retreat. The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included
the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another
victory for the South.[121] McClellan resisted
General-in-Chief Halleck's orders to send reinforcements
to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it
easier for Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number
of combined enemy troops. Generals Sherman, Grant & SheridanUS Presidents on US postage
stamps#Ulysses S. GrantIssue of 1937
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made
its first invasion of the North. General Lee led 45,000
men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the
Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln
then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and
Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam[120] near Sharpsburg,
Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single
day in United States military history.[122] Lee's army,
checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan
could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory
because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided
an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation
Proclamation.[123] Generals Robert E. LeeLee and Thomas 'Stonewall'
JacksonJacksonPostage stamps and postal history of the
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Confederate StatesIssue of 1937
Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose

Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[124] on December 13, 1862, when over 12
thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights.
After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering
the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the
Battle of Chancellorsville[125] in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj.
Gen. George Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in
June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg[126] (July 1 to
July 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been
called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often
considered the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled
the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army
Confederate dead behind the stone wall of
suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000).[127] However,
Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed
during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863 Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and after
Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western
Theater for new leadership. At the same time the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union
control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader
Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
Western theater 1861Ä1863

While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the
West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[128] Leonidas Polk's
invasion of Columbus, Kentucky ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy.
Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local food supplies and
livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of
Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri,
and then Memphis, Tennessee. In April 1862, the Union Navy captured
New Orleans[129] without a major fight, which allowed Union forces to
begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg,
Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky

ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at
the Battle of Perryville,[130] although Bragg was forced to end his The Battle of Chickamauga was one of the
attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the deadliest battles in the Western Theater.
Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen.

William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River[131] in Tennessee.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James
Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen.
George Henry Thomas. Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry and
Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[132]
and the Battle of Vicksburg,[133] which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the
turning points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of
Chattanooga,[134] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the
Confederacy.
Trans-Mississippi theater 1861Ä1865

Guerrilla activity turned much of Missouri into a battleground. Missouri had, in total, the third-most battles of any
state during the war.[135] The other states of the west, though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, saw
numerous small-scale military actions. Battles in the region served to secure Missouri, Indian Territory, and New
Mexico Territory for the Union. Confederate incursions into New Mexico territory were repulsed in 1862 and a
Union campaign to secure Indian Territory succeeded in 1863. Late in the war, the Union's Red River Campaign was
a failure. Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war, but was cut off from the rest of the Confederacy
after the capture of Vicksburg in 1863 gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.
Conquest of Virginia and end of war: 1864Ä1865

At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all
Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the
Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command
of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total
war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter
defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would bring an
end to the war.[136] This was total war not in terms of killing civilians
but rather in terms of destroying homes, farms, and railroads. Grant
devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire
The Peacemakers (1868) by George P.A. Healy.
Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and
Aboard the River Queen on March 28, 1865,
Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General William T. Sherman, General Ulysses S.
General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Grant, Lincoln, and Admiral David Dixon Porter
Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and discuss military plans for the final months of the
Civil War.
march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and
William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in
West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture
Mobile, Alabama.
Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought
several battles during that phase ("Grant's Overland Campaign") of the
Eastern campaign. Grant's battles of attrition at the Wilderness,
Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor[137] resulted in heavy Union losses, but
forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to
outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped
inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Grant was tenacious and,
despite astonishing losses (over 65,000 casualties in seven weeks),[138]
Confederate dead of General Ewell's Corps who
kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. He
attacked the Union lines at the Battle of
pinned down the Confederate army in the Siege of Petersburg, where Spotsylvania, May 19, 1864.
the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of
1864. Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle
of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley,[139] a strategy
similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston
and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as
president.[140] Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee
in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.[141] Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin,
and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to
about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea". He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in
December 1864. Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the
March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines
from the south,[142] increasing the pressure on Lee's army.
Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. Union forces won a decisive
victory at the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, forcing Lee to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. The Confederate
capital fell[143] to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west and
after a defeat at Sayler's Creek, it became clear to Robert E. Lee that continued fighting against the United States was
both tactically and logistically impossible.
Confederacy surrenders
Lee surrendered his Army of Northern
Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the
McLean House in the village of
Appomattox Court House.[144] In an
untraditional gesture and as a sign of
Grant's respect and anticipation of
peacefully restoring Confederate states
to the Union, Lee was permitted to
keep his sword and his horse,
Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President
Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes
Booth, a Southern sympathizer.
Lincoln died early the next morning,
and Andrew Johnson became
Map of Confederate territory losses year by year
president. Meanwhile, Confederate
forces across the South surrendered as
news of Lee's surrender reached them.[145]
Emancipation during the war

At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they
were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862,
when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of
what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy
and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem
unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce
and destroying Southern production. As one Congressman put it, the
slaves "...cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be
allies of the rebels, or of the Union."[146] The same CongressmanÅand
his fellow Radical RepublicansÅput pressure on Lincoln to rapidly
Charleston, South Carolina, Broad Street at war's emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept
end gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization.[147] Copperheads
and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter
eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union. The Irish Catholics generally opposed
emancipation, and when the draft began in the summer of 1863 they launched a major riot in New York City that
was suppressed by the military, as well as much smaller protests in other cities.[148] Many Catholics in the North had
volunteered to fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties, especially at
Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862.[149]
In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that
"to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game."[150] At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at
emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. FrÇmont (in Missouri) and David Hunter
(in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats.
Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on
compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected.[151] Only the District of Columbia accepted
Lincoln's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed
emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would
seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[152] In September 1862 the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity,
and the subsequent War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[153] Lincoln had already
published a letter[154] encouraging the border states especially to accept emancipation as necessary to save the
Union. Lincoln later said that slavery was "somehow the cause of the war".[155] Lincoln issued his preliminary
Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In
his letter to Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have
never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and
feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me."[156]
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only included territory held by
Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add
emancipation to the Union's definition of liberty.[157] Lincoln also played a leading role in getting Congress to vote
for the Thirteenth Amendment,[158] which made emancipation universal and permanent.
Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union
lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in
occupied areas like Nashville, Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of
Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools
for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. The American Missionary Association entered
the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and
on nearby plantations. In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as soldiers and
sailors with Union troops. Most of those were escaped slaves. Probably the most prominent of these
African-American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry.
Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers

especially were shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre.[159]
This led to a breakdown of the prisoner and mail exchange program [160] and the
growth of prison camps such as Andersonville prison in Georgia,[161] where
almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of starvation and disease.[162]
In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leadersÅÅ until
1865ÅÅ opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war
effort. As Howell Cobb said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory
of slavery is wrong." Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee
argued in favor of arming blacks late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was
eventually persuaded to support plans for arming slaves to avoid military defeat.
The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this plan could be
implemented.[163]
Historian John D. Winters, in The Civil War in Louisiana (1963), referred to the
exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana: "As
the troops moved up to Alexandria, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch
Union Army soldier on his release
the passing army. They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, from Andersonville prison in May,
and some dancing in the exuberance of their emotions.' All of the Negroes were 1865. After the war, Henry Wirz, the
attracted by the pageantry and excitement of the army. Others cheered because prison's commandant, was tried for
war crimes by a military commission
they anticipated the freedom to plunder and to do as they pleased now that the
and executed.
Federal troops were there."[164]
The Emancipation Proclamation[165] greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid from Britain or France.
Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in getting border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves fighting on
the same side for the Union. The Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West
Virginia) were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky
and Delaware.[166] The great majority of the 4Åmillion slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as Union
armies moved South. The 13th amendment,[167] ratified December 6, 1865, finally made slavery illegal everywhere
in the United States, thus freeing the remaining slavesÅ65,000 in Kentucky (as of 1865),[168] 1,800 in Delaware,
and 18 in New Jersey as of 1860.[169]
Historian Stephen Oates said that many myths surround Lincoln: "man of the people", "true Christian", "arch villain"
and racist. The belief that Lincoln was racist was caused by an incomplete picture of Lincoln, such as focusing on
only selective quoting of statements Lincoln made to gain the support of the border states and Northern Democrats,
and ignoring the many things he said against slavery, and the military and political context within which such
statements were made. Oates said that Lincoln's letter to Horace Greeley has been "persistently misunderstood and
misrepresented" for such reasons.[170]
Blocking international intervention

The Confederacy's best hope was military intervention into the war by Britain and France against the Union.[171] The
Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any
country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America (none ever did). In 1861,
Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would
force Britain to enter the war in order to get cotton. Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of
cotton, while the 1860Ä62 crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It was said
that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton", as US grain went from a quarter of the British import trade
to almost half.[172]
When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and
India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, iron workers, and British ships to transport
weapons.[173]
Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept as minister to Britain for the U.S. and Britain was reluctant to
boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial ship builders in
Britain. The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However,
public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain (who had
herself abolished slavery in her own colonies in 1834). War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over
the Trent Affair, involving the U.S. Navy's boarding of a British mail steamer to seize two Confederate diplomats.
However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two.
In 1862, the British considered mediationÅthough even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. Lord
Palmerston reportedly read Uncle TomÄs Cabin three times when deciding on this.[174] The Union victory in the
Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation further reinforced the
political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of
Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return
for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris.
Victory and aftermath
Comparison of Union and CSA[175]

Union CSA
Total population 22,100,000 (71%) 9,100,000 (29%)
Free population 21,700,000 5,600,000
Slave population, 1860 400,000 3,500,000
Soldiers 2,100,000 (67%) 1,064,000 (33%)
Railroad length 21788Åmiles (35064 km) (71%) 8838Åmiles (14223Åkm) (29%)
Manufactured items 90% 10%
Firearm production 97% 3%
Bales of cotton in 1860 Negligible 4,500,000
Bales of cotton in 1864 Negligible 300,000
Pre-war U.S. exports 30% 70%
Historians have debated whether the

Confederacy could have won the war.
Most scholars emphasize that the
Union held an insurmountable
long-term advantage over the
Confederacy in terms of industrial
strength and population. Confederate
actions, they argue, only delayed
defeat. Civil War historian Shelby US Postage, 1938 issue, honoring Presidents Lincoln, Johnson and Grant
Foote expressed this view succinctly:
"I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its
back...If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the
North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its
back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War."[176]
The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln;
however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the
election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At
that point, Lincoln had succeeded in getting the support of the border
Andersonville National Cemetery is the final
states, War Democrats, emancipated slaves, Britain, and France. By
resting place for the Union prisoners who
defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the perished while being held at Camp Sumter.
Copperheads and their peace platform.[177] Lincoln had found military
leaders like Grant and Sherman who would press the Union's numerical advantage in battle over the Confederate
Armies. Generals who did not shy from bloodshed won the war, and from the end of 1864 onward there was no hope
for the South.
On the other hand, James McPherson has argued that the NorthÇs advantage in population and resources made
Northern victory likely, but not inevitable. Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but
only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed
to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win.[178]
Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border
states committed to the Union cause. Although Lincoln's approach to emancipation was slow, the Emancipation
Proclamation was an effective use of the President's war powers.[179]
The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly the United
Kingdom and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had
created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade goods; as
a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and the United
Kingdom's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades,
severely decreased any chance that either the United Kingdom or France would enter the war.
The more industrialized economy of the North aided in the production of arms, munitions and supplies, as well as
finances and transportation. The table shows the relative advantage of the Union over the Confederate States of
America (CSA) at the start of the war. The advantages widened rapidly during the war, as the Northern economy
grew, and Confederate territory shrank and its economy weakened. The Union population was 22Åmillion and the
South 9Åmillion in 1861. The Southern population included more than 3.5Åmillion slaves and about 5.5Åmillion
whites, thus leaving the South's white population outnumbered by a ratio of more than four to one.[180] The disparity
grew as the Union controlled an increasing amount of southern territory with garrisons, and cut off the
trans-Mississippi part of the Confederacy. The Union at the start controlled over 80% of the shipyards, steamships,
riverboats, and the Navy. It augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program. This enabled the Union to control
the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline.[181] Excellent railroad links between Union cities
allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies. Transportation was much slower and more
difficult in the South, which was unable to augment its much smaller rail system, repair damage, or even perform
routine maintenance.[182] The failure of Davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors
(especially governor Joseph E. Brown of Georgia and governor Zebulon Baird Vance of North Carolina) damaged
his ability to draw on regional resources.[183] The Confederacy's "King Cotton" misperception of the world economy
led to bad diplomacy, such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started.[184] The Emancipation
Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About
190,000 volunteered,[185] further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the
Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the
legitimacy of slavery. Emancipated slaves mostly handled garrison duties, and fought numerous battles in
1864Ä65.[186] European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany
and 144,000 born in Ireland.[187] The railroad industry became the nation's largest employer outside of agriculture.
The American Civil War was followed by a boom in railroad construction, which contributed to the Panic of
1873.[188] [189]
Results
Slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended
when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the
Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those
located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the
Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on
December 18, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. The full
restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar
era known as Reconstruction. The war produced about 1,030,000
Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the
casualties (3% of the population), including about 620,000 soldier
Republic, organized after the war.
deathsÅtwo-thirds by disease.[190] The war accounted for roughly as
many American deaths as all American deaths in other U.S. wars
combined.[191]
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering
contention today. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6%
in the North and 18% in the South.[192] [193] About 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the Civil War.[194] One
reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the use of Napoleonic tactics, such as charging. With
the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, MiniÇ balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating
firearms such as the Spencer repeating rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led
to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined the better part of World War I.
Reconstruction
Reconstruction began during the war (and continued to 1877) in an effort to solve the issues caused by reunion,
specifically the legal status of the 11 breakaway states, the Confederate leadership, and the freedmen. Northern
leaders during the war agreed that victory would require more than the end of fighting. It had to encompass the two
war goals: secession had to be repudiated and all forms of slavery had to be eliminated. Lincoln and the Radical
Republicans disagreed sharply on the criteria for these goals. They also disagreed on the degree of federal control
that should be imposed on the South, and the process by which Southern states should be reintegrated into the Union.
These disputes became central to the political debates after the Confederacy collapsed.
Memory and historiography
1963 Gettysburg parade

On November 19, 1963 a parade was held in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania in honor of President Lincoln's Gettysburg
Address given six months after the Battle of Gettysburg. Lincoln had given the address 100 years earlier during the
Civil War in Gettysburg in 1863. The sedan motorcade parade followed the same route that President Lincoln and
Gov. Andrew G. Curtin took 100 years before. Former President Dwight D. Eisenhower was there accompanied by
Gov. William W. Scranton. The attendance at the 1963 commemoration was lower than the 20,000 to 30,000 persons
who attended the original address by President Lincoln in 1863. Thousands of photographers attended the 1963 event
while U.S. Airforce jets passed overhead. Also attending the event were the 28th Division of the Pennsylvania
National Guard headed by Maj. Gen. Henry F. Fluck , the U.S. Marine Band, and the 3rd Infantry of the U.S. Army.
The parade ended at the rear entrance into the Gettysburg National Cemetery.[195]
Historical views and perspectives

The year 2011 will include the American Civil War's 150th anniversary. Many in the south are attempting to
incorporate both African American and white perspectives. One African American, Benard Simelton, president of
the Alabama NAACP, said celebrating the Civil War is like celebrating the "Holocaust". In reference to slavery
Simelton said that black "rights were taken away" and that blacks "were treated as less than human beings." National
Park historian Bob Sutton said that slavery was the "principal cause" of the war. Sutton also claimed that the issue of
state rights was incorporated by the Confederacy as a justification for the war in order to get recognition from
Britain. Sutton went on to mention that during the 100th anniversary of the Civil War white southerners focused on
the genius of southern generals, rather than slavery. In Virginia during the fall of 2010, a conference took place that
addressed the slavery issue. During November 2010, black Civil War reenactors from around the country have
participated in a parade at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.[196]
Filmography
É Andersonville (1996)
É The Birth of a Nation (1915)
É The Blue and the Gray (1982 TV series)
É The Civil War (1990)
É Civil War Minutes: Confederate (2007)
É Civil War Minutes: Union (2001)
É Cold Mountain (2003)
É The Colt (2005)
É Dog Jack (2010)
É Gettysburg (1993)
É Glory (1989)
É Gods and Generals (2003)
É Gone with the Wind (1939)
É The Good The Bad and The Ugly (1967)
É The Hunley (1999)
É North and South (TV miniseries) Trilogy (1985, 1986, 1994)
É The Red Badge of Courage (1951)
É Ride with the Devil (1999)
É Shenandoah (1965)
É Sommersby (1993)
Notes
[1] Frank J. Williams, "Doing Less and Doing More: The President and the ProclamationÅLegally, Militarily and Politically," in Harold Holzer,
ed. The Emancipation Proclamation (2006) pp. 74Ä5.
[2] Howard Jones, Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War (1999) p. 154.
[3] " Killing ground: photographs of the Civil War and the changing American landscape (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=YpAuHGkuIe0C& pg=PA& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". John Huddleston (2002). Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN 0-8018-6773-8
[4] Hart, Albert Bushnell (1906). Slavery and abolition, 1831Å1841. The American Nation: A History from Original Sources by Associated
Scholars, Albert Bushnell Hart. 16. Harper & brothers. pp.Å152Ä155. ISBNÅ0-7905-5700-2.
[5] Abraham Lincoln, House Divided Speech, Springfield, Illinois, June 16, 1858.
[6] Glenn M. Linden (2001). Voices from the Gathering Storm: The Coming of the American Civil War (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=F20ZsA5ZeeEC& pg=PA184& lpg=PA184& dq=Prevent+ "any+ of+ our+ friends+ from+ demoralizing+ themselves"). United States:
Rowman & Littlefield. p.Å236. ISBNÅ0-8420-2999-0. . "Prevent, as far as possible, any of our friends from demoralizing themselves, and our
cause, by entertaining propositions for compromise of any sort, on slavery extension. There is no possible compromise upon it, but which puts
us under again, and leaves all our work to do over again. Whether it be a Mo. Line, or Eli Thayer's Pop. Sov. It is all the same. Let either be
done, & immediately filibustering and extending slavery recommences. On that point hold firm, as with a chain of steel. Ä Abraham Lincoln
to Elihu B. Washburne, December 13, 1860"
[7] Let there be no compromise on the question of extending slavery. If there be, all our labor is lost, and, ere long, must be done again. The
dangerous groundÅthat into which some of our friends have a hankering to runÅis Pop. Sov. Have none of it. Stand firm. The tug has to
come, & better now, than any time hereafter. Ä Abraham Lincoln to Lyman Trumbull, December 10, 1860.
[8] James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, pp. 241, 253.
[9] Declarations of Causes for: Georgia, Adopted on January 29, 1861; Mississippi, Adopted in 1861 (no exact date found); South Carolina,
Adopted on December 24, 1860; Texas, Adopted on February 2, 1861.
[10] The New Heresy, Southern Punch, editor John Wilford Overall, September 19, 1864 is one of many references that indicate that the
Republican hope of gradually ending slavery was the Southern fear. It said in part, "Our doctrine is this: WE ARE FIGHTING FOR
INDEPENDENCE THAT OUR GREAT AND NECESSARY DOMESTIC INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY SHALL BE PRESERVED."
[11] Lincoln's Speech in Chicago, December 10, 1856 in which he said, "We shall again be able not to declare, that 'all States as States, are
equal,' nor yet that 'all citizens as citizens are equal,' but to renew the broader, better declaration, including both these and much more, that 'all
men are created equal.'"; Also, Lincoln's Letter to Henry L. Pierce, April 6, 1859.
[12] The People's Chronology, 1994 by James Trager.
[13] William E. Gienapp, "The Crisis of American Democracy: The Political System and the Coming of the Civil War." in Boritt ed. Why the
Civil War Came 79Ä123.
[14] McPherson, Battle Cry pp. 88Ä91.
[15] Most of her slave owners are "decent, honorable people, themselves victims" of that institution. Much of her description was based on
personal observation, and the descriptions of Southerners; she herself calls them and Legree representatives of different types of
masters.;Gerson, Harriet Beecher Stowe, p. 68; Stowe, Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1953) p. 39.
[16] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 201Ä204, 299Ä327.
[17] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, p. 208.
[18] David Potter, The Impending Crisis, pp. 208Ä209.
[19] Fox Butterfield; All God's Children p. 17.
[23] Lipset looked at the secessionist vote in each Southern state in 1860Ä61. In each state he divided the counties into high, medium or low
proportion of slaves. He found that in the 181 high-slavery counties, the vote was 72% for secession. In the 205 low-slavery counties. the vote
was only 37% for secession. (And in the 153 middle counties, the vote for secession was in the middle at 60%). Seymour Martin Lipset,
Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics (Doubleday, 1960) p. 349.
[24] James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom 1988 p 242, 255, 282Ä83. Maps on p. 101 (The Southern Economy) and p. 236 (The Progress
of Secession) are also relevant.
[26] James G. Randall and David Donald, Civil War and Reconstruction (1961) p. 68
[27] Randall and Donald, p. 67
[28] 1860 Census Results (http:/ / www. civil-war. net/ pages/ 1860_census. html), The Civil War Home Page.
[29] James McPherson, Drawn with the Sword, p. 15.
[31] Roger B. Taney: Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857).
[32] First Lincoln Douglas Debate at Ottawa, Illinois August 21, 1858.
[33] Abraham Lincoln, Speech at New Haven, Conn., March 6, 1860.
[34] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 195.

[35] John Townsend, The Doom of Slavery in the Union, its Safety out of it, October 29, 1860.
[36] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 243.
[38] William C. Davis, Look Away, pp. 130Ä140.
[39] William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, p. 42.
[40] A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union, February 2, 1861 Ä A declaration of the
causes which impel the State of Texas to secede from the Federal Union. (http:/ / www2. tsl. state. tx. us/ ref/ abouttx/ secession/ 2feb1861.
html)
[41] Winkler, E. "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union." (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/
19th_century/ csa_texsec. asp). Journal of the Secession Convention of Texas. . Retrieved 2007-10-16.
[42] Speech of E. S. Dargan to the Secession Convention of Alabama, January 11, 1861, in Wikisource.
[43] Schlesinger Age of Jackson, p. 190.
[44] David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage (2006) p 197, 409; Stanley Harrold, The Abolitionists and the South, 1831Å1861 (1995) p. 62; Jane
H. and William H. Pease, "Confrontation and Abolition in the 1850s" Journal of American History (1972) 58(4): 923Ä937.
[45] Eric Foner. Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War (1970), p. 9.
[46] William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion: Secessionists Triumphant 1854Ä1861, pp. 9Ä24.
[47] William W. Freehling, The Road to Disunion, Secessionists Triumphant, pp. 269Ä462, p. 274 (The quote about slave states "encircled by
fire" is from the New Orleans Delta, May 13, 1860).
[48] Eskridge, Larry (Jan 29, 2011). "After 150 years, we still ask: Why Éthis cruel warÇ?." (http:/ / www. cantondailyledger. com/ topstories/
x1868081570/ After-150-years-we-still-ask-Why-this-cruel-war). Canton Daily Ledger (Canton, Illinois). . Retrieved January 29, 2011.
[49] Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819Å1848 (1948)
[50] Robert Royal Russel, Economic Aspects of Southern Sectionalism, 1840Å1861 (1973)
[51] Adam Rothman, Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (2005).
[52] Kenneth M. Stampp, The Imperiled Union: Essays on the Background of the Civil War (1981) p 198; Woodworth, ed. The American Civil
War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996), 145 151 505 512 554 557 684; Richard Hofstadter, The Progressive Historians: Turner,
Beard, Parrington (1969).
[53] Clement Eaton, Freedom of Thought in the Old South (1940)
[54] John Hope Franklin, The Militant South 1800Å1861 (1956).
[55] Abraham Lincoln, Cooper Union Address, New York, February 27, 1860.
[56] Sydney E. Ahlstrom, A Religious History of the American People (1972) pp 648Ä69.
[57] James McPherson, "Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question," Civil War History 29 (September 1983).
[58] David M. Potter, "The Historian's Use of Nationalism and Vice Versa," American Historical Review, Vol. 67, No. 4 (July 1962), pp.
924Ä950 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 1845246).
[59] C. Vann Woodward, American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue (1971), p.281.
[60] Bertram Wyatt-Brown, The Shaping of Southern Culture: Honor, Grace, and War, 1760sÅ1880s (2000).
[61] Avery Craven, The Growth of Southern Nationalism, 1848Å1861 (1953).
[62] "Republican Platform of 1860," in Kirk H. Porter, and Donald Bruce Johnson, eds. National Party Platforms, 1840Å1956, (University of
Illinois Press, 1956) p.32
[63] Susan-Mary Grant, North over South: Northern Nationalism and American Identity in the Antebellum Era (2000); Melinda Lawson, Patriot
Fires: Forging a New American Nationalism in the Civil War North (2005)
[64] Forrest McDonald, States' Rights and the Union: Imperium in Imperio, 1776Å1876 (2002)
[65] James McPherson, This Mighty Scourge, pp. 3Ä9.
[66] Before 1850, slave owners controlled the presidency for fifty years, the Speaker's chair for forty-one years, and the chairmanship of the
House Ways and Means Committee that set tariffs for forty-two years, while 18 of 31 Supreme Court justices owned slaves. Leonard L.
Richards, The Slave Power: The Free North and Southern Domination, 1780Å1860 (2000) pp. 1Ä9
[67] Eric Foner, Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War (1970)
[68] Charles C. Bolton, Poor Whites of the Antebellum South: Tenants and Laborers in Central North Carolina and Northeast Mississippi (1993)
p 67
[69] (http:/ / clerk. house. gov/ art_history/ highlights. html?action=view& intID=45), Office of the Clerk
[70] Frank Taussig, The Tariff History of the United States (1931), pp 115Ä61
[71] Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War," The American Historical Review Vol. 44, No. 1 (Oct., 1938), pp.Å50Ä55
full text in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 1840850)
[72] Mark Thornton and Robert B. Ekelund, Jr., Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War (2004)
[74] Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (1999)
[75] James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 254.
[76] President James Buchanan, Message of December 8, 1860 online (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=29501).
[77] Gibson, Arrell. Oklahoma, a History of Five Centuries (University of Oklahoma Press, 1981) pg.Å117Ä120
[78] "United States Volunteers Å Indian Troops" (http:/ / www. civilwararchive. com/ Unreghst/ unindtr. htm). civilwararchive.com.
2008-01-28. . Retrieved 2008-08-10.
[79] "Civil War Refugees" (http:/ / digital. library. okstate. edu/ encyclopedia/ entries/ C/ CI013. html). Oklahoma Historical Society. Oklahoma
State University. . Retrieved 2008-08-10.
[80] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 284Ä287.
[81] Nevins, The War for the Union (1959) 1:119-29
[82] Nevins, The War for the Union (1959) 1:129-36
[83] "A State of Convenience, The Creation of West Virginia" (http:/ / www. wvculture. org/ History/ statehood/ statehood10. html). West
Virginia Archives & History. .
[84] Curry, Richard Orr, A House Divided, A Study of the Statehood Politics & the Copperhead Movement in West Virginia, Univ. of Pittsburgh
Press, 1964, map on page 49
[85] Weigley, Russell F., "A Great Civil War, A Military and Political History 1861Ä1865, Indiana Univ. Press, 2000, pg. 55
[86] McPherson, James M., Battle Cry of Freedom, The Civil War Era, Oxford Univ. Press, 2003, pg. 303
[87] "West Virginia's Civil War Soldiers Database" (http:/ / www. shepherd. edu/ gtmcweb/ research_database. html). George Tyler Moore
Center for the Study of the Civil War. .
[88] Jack L. Dickinson, "Tattered Uniforms and Bright Bayonets, West Virginia's Confederate Soldiers", 2nd revised ed., 2004, pg. 75.
Enumerates 16,355 individual soldiers.
[89] Mark Neely, Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties 1993 pp. 10Ä11.
[90] Gabor Boritt, ed. War Comes Again (1995) p. 247.
[92] Abraham Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, Monday, March 4, 1861.
[93] Lincoln, First Inaugural Address, March 4, 1861.
[95] "Lincoln's Call for Troops" (http:/ / www. civilwarhome. com/ lincolntroops. htm). .
[97] Massachusetts in the Civil War, William Schouler, 1868 book republished by Digital Scanning Inc, 2003 Ä See the account at (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?vid=ISBN1582180016& id=ub8cqVKoXwgC& pg=PA35& lpg=PA34& vq=baltimore& dq=schouler+ massachusetts+
civil& sig=g5za9rXjH9ttx1vzmWNN39F3YFQ).
[98] "Proclamation 83 Ä Increasing the Size of the Army and Navy" (http:/ / www. presidency. ucsb. edu/ ws/ index. php?pid=70123). .
[100] Allan Peskin, Winfield Scott and the profession of arms (2003) pp 249Ä52
[101] .Timothy D. Johnson, Winfield Scott (1998) p. 228
[102] Dean B. Mahin, One war at a time: the international dimensions of the American Civil War (2000) ch 6
[104] Heidler, 1651Ä53.
[106] Albert Burton Moore. Conscription and Conflict in the Confederacy (1924) online edition (https:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o&
d=10517499)
[107] Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007)
[108] Eugene Murdock, One million men: the Civil War draft in the North (1971)
[109] Mark Johnson, That body of brave men: the U.S. regular infantry and the Civil War in the West (2003) p 575
[110] (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ mem/ archive-free/ pdf?res=9C0CE0D91630E033A2575BC2A9639C94659ED7CF)"Desertion No Bar to
Pension", New York Times, May 28, 1894
[111] Mark A. Weitz, More Damning than Slaughter: Desertion in the Confederate Army (2005)
[112] Edward M. Coffman, The Old Army: A Portrait of the American Army in Peacetime, 1784Å1898 (1986) p 193
[113] Ella Lonn, Desertion during the Civil War (1928) pp205-6
[114] Robert Fantina, Desertion and the American soldier, 1776Å2006 (2006) p. 74
[117] Shelby Foote, The Civil War: Fort Sumter to Perryville, pp. 464Ä519.
[118] Bruce Catton, Terrible Swift Sword, pp. 263Ä296.
[123] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 557Ä558.

[135] "Civil War in Missouri Facts" (http:/ / home. usmo. com/ ~momollus/ MOFACTS. HTM). 1998. . Retrieved 2007-10-16.
[136] Mark E. Neely Jr.; "Was the Civil War a Total War?" Civil War History, Vol. 50, 2004 pp 434+
[138] James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, pp. 741Ä742.
[144] William Marvel, Lee's Last Retreat: The Flight to Appomattox (2002) pp 158Ä81
[145] Unaware of the surrender of Lee, on April 16 the last major battles of the war were fought at the Battle of Columbus, Georgia and the
Battle of West Point.
[146] McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom p. 495.
[147] McPherson, Battle Cry pp. 355, 494Ä6, quote from George Washington Julian on 495.
[148] Barnet Schecter, The Devil's Own Work: The Civil War Draft Riots and the Fight to Reconstruct America (2007), ch 6
[149] Craig A. Warren, "'Oh, God, What a Pity!': The Irish Brigade at Fredericksburg and the Creation of Myth," Civil War History, Sept 2001,
Vol. 47 Issue 3, pp 193Ä221
[150] Lincoln's letter to O. H. Browning, September 22, 1861
[151] James McPherson in Gabor S. Boritt, ed. Lincoln, the War President pp. 52Ä54.
[152] Stephen B. Oates, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, p. 106.
[153] Images of America: Altoona, by Sr. Anne Francis Pulling, 2001, 10.
[154] Letter to Greeley, August 22, 1862
[155] Abraham Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865 Ä Here Lincoln states, "One-eighth of the whole population were colored
slaves, not distributed generally over the Union, but localized in the southern part of it. These slaves constituted a peculiar and powerful
interest. All knew that this interest was somehow the cause of the war. To strengthen, perpetuate, and extend this interest was the object for
which the insurgents would rend the Union even by war, while the Government claimed no right to do more than to restrict the territorial
enlargement of it."
[156] Lincoln's Letter to A. G. Hodges, April 4, 1864
[157] James McPherson, The War that Never Goes Away
[158] James McPherson, Drawn With the Sword, from the article Who Freed the Slaves?
[159] Bruce Catton, Never Call Retreat, p. 335.
[160] "Civil War Topics" (http:/ / www. dce. k12. wi. us/ historyday/ Topics/ CivilWar. htm). Dce.k12.wi.us. . Retrieved 2010-10-31.
[161] " Blacks labored in Andersonville (http:/ / www. washingtontimes. com/ news/ 2009/ nov/ 12/
book-review-blacks-labored-in-andersonville/ )". Washington Times. November 12, 2009.
[164] John D. Winters, The Civil War in Louisiana, Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963, ISBN 0-8071-0834-0, p. 237
[165] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 557Ä558, 563.
[166] Harper, Douglas (2003). "SLAVERY in DELAWARE" (http:/ / www. slavenorth. com/ delaware. htm). . Retrieved 2007-10-16.
[168] Lowell Hayes Harrison and James C. Klotter, A New History of Kentucky (1997) p 235, the number in late 1865.
[169] U. S. Census of 1860.
[170] Stephen B. Oates, Abraham Lincoln: The Man Behind the Myths, 1984, Harper & Row.
[172] McPherson, Battle Cry p. 386.
[173] Allen Nevins, War for the Union 1862Å1863, pp. 263Ä264.
[174] Stephen B. Oates, The Approaching Fury: Voices of the Storm 1820Å1861, p. 125.
[175] Railroad length is from: Chauncey Depew (ed.), One Hundred Years of American Commerce 1795Å1895, p. 111; For other data see: 1860
US census (http:/ / www2. census. gov/ prod2/ decennial/ documents/ 1860c-01. pdf) and Carter, Susan B., ed. The Historical Statistics of the
United States: Millennial Edition (5 vols), 2006.
[176] Ward 1990 p 272

[178] James McPherson, Why did the Confederacy Lose?
[179] Fehrenbacher, Don (2004). "Lincoln's Wartime Leadership: The First Hundred Days" (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ journals/ jala/
9/ fehrenbacher. html). University of Illinois. . Retrieved 2007-10-16.
[180] Crocker III, H. W. (2006). Don't Tread on Me. New York: Crown Forum. p.Å162. ISBNÅ978-1-4000-5363-6.
[181] McPherson 313Ä16, 392Ä3
[182] Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 1591Ä98
[183] McPherson 432Ä44
[184] Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History (2002), 598Ä603
[185] "Black Regiments" (http:/ / www. spartacus. schoolnet. co. uk/ USACWcolored. htm). . Retrieved 2007-10-16.
[186] Ira Berlin et al., eds. Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (1998)
[187] Albert Bernhardt Faust, The German Element in the United States (1909) p. 523 online (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=4xgOAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA522& lpg=PA522& dq=germans+ AND+ civil+ AND+ war+ AND+ gould& source=web&
ots=KhtwwD2mGo& sig=7rs7jopLtN3azHzg0pBDsKVlTf4& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=1& ct=result#PPA523,M1)
[188] Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. (1907) Jay Cooke: Financier Of The Civil War, Vol. 2 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=8jHiEwVmB8MC) at Google Books, pp. 378Ä430
[189] Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson. (1926) A History of the United States Since the Civil War 3:69Ä122
[190] Nofi, Al (2001-06-13). "Statistics on the War's Costs" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070711050249/ http:/ / www. cwc. lsu. edu/ other/
stats/ warcost. htm). Louisiana State University. Archived from the original (http:/ / www. cwc. lsu. edu/ other/ stats/ warcost. htm) on
2007-07-11. . Retrieved 2007-10-14.
[191] C. Vann Woodward, "Introduction" in James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. xix.
[192] " Toward a social history of the American Civil War: exploratory essays (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gySktxKYPGoC&
pg=PA7& dq& hl=en#v=onepage& q=& f=false)". Maris Vinovskis (1990). Cambridge University Press. p.7. ISBN 0-521-39559-3
[193] Richard Wightman Fox (2008)." National Life After Death (http:/ / www. slate. com/ toolbar. aspx?action=read& id=2180856)".
Slate.com.
[194] " U.S. Civil War Prison Camps Claimed Thousands (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2003/ 07/
0701_030701_civilwarprisons. html)". National Geographic News. July 1, 2003.
[195] The Gettysburg Times (Wednesday, November 20, 1963), Procession To Cemetery Was Similar To '63 Event, pp. 1, 10
[196] Associated Press (Dec 10, 2010). "Civil War's 150th anniversary stirs debate on race" (http:/ / www. google. com/ hostednews/ ap/ article/
ALeqM5g02LT3cnj71haIQ8NXfRM-jR69yQ?docId=17de1f3fa7fe4a6999feb41ff12de8a1). Charles, South Carolina. . Retrieved 2010-12-18.
References
Overviews
É Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, Why the South Lost the Civil War (1986) influential
analysis of factors; The Elements of Confederate Defeat: Nationalism, War Aims, and Religion (1988), abridged
version
É Catton, Bruce, The Civil War, American Heritage, 1960, ISBN 0-8281-0305-4, illustrated narrative
É Davis, William C. The Imperiled Union, 1861Å1865 3v (1983)
É Donald, David et al. The Civil War and Reconstruction (latest edition 2001); 700 page survey
É Eicher, David J., The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, (2001), ISBN 0-684-84944-5.
É Fellman, Michael et al. This Terrible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath (2nd ed. 2007), 544 page survey
É Foote, Shelby. The Civil War: A Narrative (3 volumes), (1974), ISBN 0-394-74913-8. Highly detailed military
narrative covering all fronts
É Katcher, Philip. The History of the American Civil War 1861Å5, (2000), ISBN 0-600-60778-X. Detailed analysis
of each battle with introduction and background
É McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988), 900 page survey of all aspects of the
war; Pulitzer prize
É McPherson, James M. Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (2nd ed 1992), textbook
É Nevins, Allan. Ordeal of the Union, an 8-volume set (1947Ä1971). the most detailed political, economic and
military narrative; by Pulitzer Prize winner
É 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847Ä1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852Ä1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party
Chaos, 1857Ä1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859Ä1861; vol. 5Ä8 have the series title "War for the Union"; 5.
The Improvised War, 1861Ä1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862Ä1863; 7. The Organized War,
1863Ä1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864Ä1865
É Rhodes, James Ford. A History of the Civil War, 1861Å1865 (1918), Pulitzer Prize; a short version of his
5-volume history
É Ward, Geoffrey C. The Civil War (1990), based on PBS series by Ken Burns; visual emphasis
É Weigley, Russell Frank. A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861Å1865 (2004); primarily
military
Biographies
É American National Biography 24 vol (1999), essays by scholars on all major figures; online and hardcover
editions at many libraries (http://www.anb.org/aboutanb.html)
É McHenry, Robert ed. Webster's American Military Biographies (1978)
É Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders, (1964), ISBN 0-8071-0822-7
É Warner, Ezra J., Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders, (1959), ISBN 0-8071-0823-5
Soldiers
É Berlin, Ira, et al., eds. Freedom's Soldiers: The Black Military Experience in the Civil War (1998)
É Hess, Earl J. The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat (1997)
É McPherson, James. For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (1998)
É Wiley, Bell Irvin. The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy (1962) (ISBN
0-8071-0475-2)
É Wiley, Bell Irvin. Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union (1952) (ISBN 0-8071-0476-0)
Reference books and bibliographies
É Blair, Jayne E. The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies And Commanders (2006)
É Carter, Alice E. and Richard Jensen. The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites- 2nd ed. (2003)
É Current, Richard N., et al. eds. Encyclopedia of the Confederacy (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged
version) (ISBN 0-13-275991-8)
É Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War (1986) (ISBN 0-06-181261-7)
2000 short entries
É Esposito, Vincent J., West Point Atlas of American Wars online edition 1995
É Heidler, David Stephen, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History
(2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions
É North & South - The Official Magazine of the Civil War Society deals with book reviews, battles, discussion &
analysis, and other issues of the American Civil War.
É Resch, John P. et al., Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 2: 1816Å1900 (2005)
É Savage, Kirk, Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race, War, and Monument in Nineteenth-Century America
(http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/36470304). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997. (The definitive
book on Civil War monuments.)
É Tulloch, Hugh. The Debate on the American Civil War Era (1999), historiography
É Wagner, Margaret E. Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds. The Library of Congress Civil War Desk
Reference (2002)
É Woodworth, Steven E. ed. American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research (1996) (ISBN
0-313-29019-9), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography online edition (http://www.questia.com/read/
14877569?title=The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research)
Primary sources
É Commager, Henry Steele (ed.). The Blue and the Gray. The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants.
(1950), excerpts from primary sources
É Hesseltine, William B. ed.; The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction (1962), excerpts from primary
sources
External links
É Causes of the Civil War (http://civilwarcauses.org/). primary sources
É Civil War Letters (http://civil.war-letters.com/) Å Primary Sources and First Person Accounts.
É Declarations of Causes of Secession (http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/reasons.html)
É Alexander Stephens' Cornerstone Speech (http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.
asp?documentprint=76)
É Lincoln's Call for Troops (http://www.civilwarhome.com/lincolntroops.htm)
É The Civil War Home Page (http://www.civil-war.net/)
É The Civil War (http://www.sonofthesouth.net/) Ä site with 7,000 pages, including the complete run of Harper's
Weekly newspapers from the Civil War.
É The American Civil War (http://www.theuscivilwar.org/) Ä Detailed listing of events, documents, battles,
commanders and important people of the US Civil War
É Civil War: Death and Destruction (http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/41622/
civil-war-death-and-destruction) Ä slideshow by Life magazine
É Civil War photos (http://www.archives.gov/research/civil-war/photos/index.html) at the National Archives
É View images (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/search?st=grid&c=100&co=cwp) from the Civil War
Photographs Collection (http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/) at the Library of Congress
É University of Tennessee: U.S. Civil War Generals (http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/generals.html)
É The Civil War (http://www.pbs.org/civilwar), a PBS documentary by Ken Burns
É Individual state's contributions to the Civil War: California (http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.
html), Florida (http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/FloridaCivilWar/index.cfm), Illinois #1
(http://www.illinoiscivilwar.org/), Ohio (http://www.ohiocivilwar.com/), Pennsylvania (http://www.
pacivilwar.com/)
É WWW-VL: History: USA Civil War 1855Ä1865 (http://www.vlib.us/eras/civil_war.html)
É Civil War Preservation Trust (http://www.civilwar.org/)
É ÇFort Morgan and the Battle of Mobile BayÇ, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP)
lesson plan (http://www.nps.gov/history/nr/twhp/wwwlps/lessons/73morgan/73morgan.htm)
É "WWW Guide to Civil War Prisons" (2004) (http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/prisons.htm)
É TOCWOC Civil War Blog (http://www.brettschulte.net/CWBlog) A group Civil War blog consisting of
informed amateurs.
É Civil War Books and Authors Blog (http://cwba.blogspot.com/) A Civil War blog focusing mainly on book
reviews.
É Civil War Bookshelf (http://cwbn.blogspot.com/) American Civil War historiography and publishing blogged
daily by Dimitri Rotov.
É American Civil War in Alabama, Encyclopedia of Alabama (http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/face/
Article.jsp?id=h-1429)
É Grand Valley State University Civil War digital collection (http://www.gvsu.edu/library/digitalcollections/
index.cfm?id=9A240EF6-E2F4-52AB-1F9B01D680D9DCFB)
É Seven Civil War Stories Your Teacher Never Told You (http://www.cnn.com/2009/LIVING/06/12/mf.
civil.war/index.html) by Eric Johnson, CNN, June 12, 2009
É The American Civil War Timeline Project (http://www.cannonade.net/civil) Ä A community contributed
project to, chronologically and geographically, map the events of the war.
É Civil War Era Digital Collection at Gettysburg College (http://www.gettysburg.edu/library/gettdigital/
civil_war/civilwar.htm) This collection contains digital images of political cartoons, personal papers, pamphlets,
maps, paintings and photographs from the Civil War Era held in Special Collections at Gettysburg College.
É The Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Civil War Papers (http://www2.hsp.org/collections/
manuscripts/c/CivilWar1546.html), including government documents, personal and official correspondence,
muster rolls and other Civil War ephemera, are available for research use at the Historical Society of
Pennsylvania.
É HarperÉs WeeklyÉs Sampler of Civil War Literature (http://www.civilwarliterature.com/)
É Civil War 150 (http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/artsandliving/civilwar/) Washington Post
interactive website on 150th Anniversary of the American Civil War.
É Time Line The Civil War (http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2010/10/29/opinion/20101029-civil-war.
html) New York Times interactive Timeline of the Civil War with Commentary
Article Sources and Contributors 31
Article Sources and Contributors

American Civil War ÅSource: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=423717224 ÅContributors: $1LENCE D00600D, (HUN)Villy, *Kat*, -Demosthenes-, 041744, 07ed01, 100110100,
1234wert, 13ddas, 14539, 15scottj1, 172, 193.133.134.xxx, 1up king, 2005, 22star, 24fan24, 3in1, 75th Trombone, 8th Ohio Volunteers, A D Monroe III, A Softer Answer, A. B., A455bcd9,
ABCD, ACfan, AEdwards, AaronCBurke, Abdalla A, Absecon 59, AbsolutDan, Abtract, Acalamari, Accurizer, Acjelen, Acroterion, Adam Bishop, Adambiswanger1, Adashiel, Adelep,
AdjustShift, Agamemnus, Ahkond, Ahoerstemeier, Ahudson, Aidepolcycne, Ajaxkroon, Akradecki, Alan Peakall, Alanraywiki, Alanscottwalker, Alansohn, Alarics, Albertgenii12,
Alchemistoxford, Aldis90, Alephh, Alex Bakharev, Alex earlier account, Alex1011, AlexMc, AlexPlank, Alfred0027, Algebra, AlistairMcMillan, Allen Info, Alonza, AlphaEta, Alphachimp,
Alsandro, Althena, Alvinrune, Ambyr, AmiDaniel, Amorelli, Amorrow, Ampersand, Anclation, Andkore, Andonic, Andre Engels, Andrew Dalby, Andrewpmk, Andrwsc, Andy M. Wang,
Andy120290, AndyZ, Andyman531, Andypandy.UK, Andys Sister, Angela, Angielaj, Angr, Anonymous editor, Anonymous44, Another wiki cheese-ology vandal, Anotherclown, Antandrus,
Antiedman, Aoreias, Arm, ArnoldReinhold, Art LaPella, Arthana, Arthur Ellis, Artichoke-Boy, Arx Fortis, Asiaticus, Atlant, Atletiker, Aude, Authr, Avazina, Avraham, Az1568, Az81964444,
Aznch1nk916, B0lt, BD2412, BWH76, Bam63, Banno, Barberio, Bark, Barriodude, Barry Wells, BartBenjamin, Basilbrushleo, Basketballer3, Beardo, Bearly541, Beaudoin, Bebgsurg, Bedford,
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Bushie340, BusterD, BusterD public, C3H5N3O92010, CDChen, CO, CQ, CSProfBill, Caerwine, Calimango, Cameron Nedland, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, CanadianCaesar, Cannonade,
CapSexton40, Capt Jim, Captainj, Carre, Casper2k3, CelticSicilian, Centrx, Chad A. Woodburn, ChadyWady, Chamberlain63, ChaoticGhost, ChaoticLogic, Chapmlg, Chasnor15, Che y
Marijuana, CheatMaster29, Chick Bowen, Chochopk, ChowRiit, Chris 73, Chris Capoccia, Chris the speller, Chrislk02, Christian Historybuff, Christian List, Christianbrewerrox, Chromega,
Chuck Adams, Civil Engineer III, Clarityfiend, Cleared as filed, Cliff smith, Clintville, Clucko, Cmadler, Cman, Cmb0219, Cmguy777, Codito, Colin Keigher, Colin Kimbrell,
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American Civil War 1

American Civil War

The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to annex

Nationalism and honor

Slave power and free soil issues

Battle of Fort Sumter

Secession of South Carolina

The Union states

The beginning of the war, 1861

Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861

In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union

Conscription and desertion

Eastern theater 1861Ä1863

Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose

Western theater 1861Ä1863

General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky

Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen.

Trans-Mississippi theater 1861Ä1865

Conquest of Virginia and end of war: 1864Ä1865

Emancipation during the war

Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers

Blocking international intervention

Victory and aftermath

Comparison of Union and CSA[175]

Total population 22,100,000 (71%) 9,100,000 (29%)

Free population 21,700,000 5,600,000

Slave population, 1860 400,000 3,500,000

Soldiers 2,100,000 (67%) 1,064,000 (33%)

Railroad length 21788Åmiles (35064 km) (71%) 8838Åmiles (14223Åkm) (29%)

Manufactured items 90% 10%

Firearm production 97% 3%

Bales of cotton in 1860 Negligible 4,500,000

Bales of cotton in 1864 Negligible 300,000

Pre-war U.S. exports 30% 70%

Historians have debated whether the

Memory and historiography

1963 Gettysburg parade

Historical views and perspectives

[34] McPherson, Battle Cry, p. 195.

[127] James McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, p. 664.

[177] McPherson, Battle Cry, pp. 771Ä772.

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