BIO 130
Gross
I. Cell Division and Mitosis (Chapter 10)
Vocabulary
Binary fission- is a form
of asexual reproduction
and cell division used by
all prokaryotes, some
protozoa, and some
organelles within
eukaryotic organisms.
This process results in the
reproduction of a living
prokaryotic cell by
division into two parts that
each have the potential to
grow to the size of the
original cell.
Chromosomes- an
organized structure of
DNA and protein that is
found in cells.
Chromatin- is the
combination of DNA,
histone, and other proteins
that make up
chromosomes. It is found
inside the nuclear
envelope of eukaryotic
cells.
Histones- are highly
alkaline proteins found in
eukaryotic cell nuclei,
which package and order
the DNA into structural
units called nucleosomes.
Chromatid- is one of the
two identical copies of
DNA making up a
duplicated chromosome,
which are joined at their
centromeres, for the
process of cell division
(mitosis or meiosis).
Centromere- is a region
of DNA typically found
near the middle of a
chromosome where two
identical sister chromatids
come closest in contact. It
is involved in cell division
as the point of mitotic
spindle attachment.
Kinetochore- is the
protein structure on
chromosomes where the
Study Guide III
spindle fibers attach
during cell division to pull
the chromosomes apart.
Cohesin proteins- that
regulates the separation of
sister chromatids during
cell division, either
mitosis or meiosis.
Spindle fibers- the
structure that separates the
chromosomes into the
daughter cells during cell
division. It is part of the
cytoskeleton in eukaryotic
cells.
Centrioles- are involved
in the organization of the
mitotic spindle and in the
completion of cytokinesis.
Centrosome- is an
organelle that serves as the
main microtubule
organizing center (MTOC)
of the animal cell as well
as a regulator of cell-cycle
progression.
Cell Cycle- is the series of
events that takes place in a
cell leading to its division
and duplication
(replication). In cells
without a nucleus
(prokaryotic), the cell
cycle occurs via a process
termed binary fission.
G1- The period prior to
the synthesis of DNA. In
this phase, the cell
increases in mass in
preparation for cell
division. Note that the G
in G1 represents gap and
the 1 represents first, so
the G1 phase is the first
gap phase.
S- The period during
which DNA is
synthesized. In most cells,
there is a narrow window
of time during which
DNA is synthesized. Note
Dr.
that the S represents
synthesis.
G2- The period after DNA
synthesis has occurred but
prior to the start of
prophase. The cell
synthesizes proteins and
continues to increase in
size.
G0- cell cycle resting
Interphase- is the phase
of the cell cycle in which
the cell spends the
majority of its time and
performs the majority of
its purposes including
preparation for cell
division.
Mitosis- is the process by
which a eukaryotic cell
separates the
chromosomes in its cell
nucleus into two identical
sets in two nuclei.
Prophase- stage of
mitosis in which the
chromatin condenses (it
becomes shorter and
fatter) into a highly
ordered structure called a
chromosome in which the
chromatin becomes
visible.
Prometaphase- The
nuclear envelope breaks
into fragments and
disappears. Microtubules
emerging from the
centrosomes at the poles
(ends) of the spindle reach
the chromosomes, now
highly condensed.
Metaphase- in which
condensed & highly coiled
chromosomes, carrying
genetic information, align
in the middle of the cell
before being separated
into each of the two
daughter cells.
Anaphase- when
chromosomes separate in an
eukaryotic cell. Each
chromatid moves to opposite
poles of the cell, the
opposite ends of the mitotic
spindle, near the microtubule
organizing centers.
Telophase- stage in both
meiosis and mitosis in a
eukaryotic cell. During
telophase, the effects of
prophase and prometaphase
events are reversed. Two
daughter nuclei form in the
cell.
Cytokinesis- the process in
which the cytoplasm of a
single eukaryotic cell is
divided to form two
daughter cells.
Cleavage furrow- the
indentation that begins the
process of cleavage, by
which animal and some algal
cells undergo cytokinesis.
Cell plate- the delivery of
Golgi-derived and
endosomal vesicles carrying
cell wall and cell membrane
components to the plane of
cell division and the
subsequent fusion of these
vesicles within this plane.
Checkpoint- These
checkpoints verify whether
the processes at each phase
of the cell cycle have been
accurately completed before
progression into the next
phase.
Cyclins- family of proteins
that control the progression
of cells through the cell
cycle by activating cyclin-
dependent kinase
Cyclin dependent kinases-
family of protein kinases
first discovered for their role
in regulating the cell cycle
Tumor suppressor
genes- Code for proteins
that stop the cell from
progressing through the
cell
in progressing the cell Oncogenes- is a gene that
Proto-oncogenes- Normal cycle has the potential to cause
genes that code for cancer.
proteins that are involved

Concept Questions
1. Describe the process of binary fission.
2. What are the key roles of cell division?
3. What are the advantages/disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
4. What is the significance of chromosome replication?
5. Label the replicated chromosome:

6. What is meant by the concept that cells go through a cell cycle?

7. List the phases of the cell cycle with a brief description of what occurs in each phase.
8. Label the stages and key features of each stage of mitosis.

9. What is the role of the microtubules in the spindle fibers?

10. How does cytokinesis differ in animal and plant cells?
11. What is the outcome of mitosis?
12. Why is the regulation of the cell cycle critical to normal cells?
13. What are checkpoints? Why are they necessary? How are they controlled?
14. What happens when cancer develops?

II. Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction (Chapter 11)

Vocabulary
Homologous chromosomes
Genes- a unit of heredity in a
living organism.
Alleles- is
one of two or more
forms of the DNA sequence of a
particular gene. Each gene can
have different alleles
Crossing over- Homologues swap
Somatic cells- any biological cell segments
forming the body of an
organism; that is, in a Homologous recombination- a type
multicellular organism, any cell of genetic recombination in
other than a gamete, germ cell, which nucleotide sequences are
gametocyte or undifferentiated exchanged between two similar
stem cell. or identical molecules of DNA.

Diploid- Humans have 23 pairs of
homologous chromosomes, this is
described as being Diploid or 2n
Haploid- two set s of chromosomes,
from father and mother, Each of these
sets is called Haploid or n.
Gametes- a cellthat fuses with
another cell during fertilization
(conception) in organisms that
reproduce sexually.
Meiosis- sexual reproduction, begins Spermatogenesis- theprocess by
which male primary germ cells
with one diploid cell containing
two copies of each chromosome undergo division, and produce a
—one from the organism's number of cells termed
mother and one from its father spermatogonia, from which the
—and produces four haploid primary spermatocytes are
cells containing one copy of derived.
each chromosome.
Oogenesis- creation of an ovum
Tetrad formation- Each duplicated (egg cell). It is the female form
chromosome pairs with homologue of gametogenesis.
Gonads- is the organ that makes joined by means of sexual
gametes. The gonads in males reproduction. Blastula- isa solid sphere of cells
are the testes formed during an early stage of
Cleavage- The repeated division embryonic development in
Random segregation- During of a fertilized ovum, producing animals. The blastula is created
transition between prophase I and a cluster of cells with the same when the zygote undergoes the
metaphase I, microtubules from
spindle poles attach to kinetochores of
size as the original zygote. . (4) cell division process known as
chromosomes (chemistry) The splitting of a cleavage
large or complex molecule into
smaller or simpler molecules. Gastrula- aphase early in the
Fertilization- Male and female embryonic development of most
gametes unite and nuclei fuse Morula- an embryo at an early animals, during which the
stage of embryonic single-layered blastula is
Zygote- is
the initial cell formed development, consisting of cells reorganized into a trilaminar
when two Gametes cells are (called blastomeres) in a solid ("three-layered") structure
ball contained within the zona known as the gastrula
pellucida
Concepts:
1. Why is meiosis called “reduction division”? Why is this process necessary for sexual reproduction?
2. What happens during sexual reproduction? What are gametes? What is fertilization? What is the
point of each of those things?
3. What are the advantages/disadvantages of sexual reproduction?
4. Meiosis is said to be a double division. Explain.
5. What takes place during each of the different phases of meiosis?
6. At what stage of meiosis does crossing over occur? What happens during crossing over?
7. Compare the products of mitosis with meiosis.
8. Summarize the significant differences between mitosis and meiosis.
9. Meiosis is an important source of variation. Define and describe how each of the following
contributes to variation within a species:
• Random segregation • random fertilization
• crossing over
10. What are the main differences between spermatogenesis and oogenesis?
11. What are the early stages of development?

III. Observable Patterns of Inheritance (Mendelian Genetics) (Chapter 12)

Vocabulary:
Gene- Sequences of DNA
that contain information
about specific traits, by
coding for individual
proteins
Locus- specific location
(locus) on a chromosome
Allele- Different versions
of the same trait
Homozygous- = same
alleles; PP, pp
Heterozygous- = different
alleles; Pp
Dominant- Fully
expressed in a hybrid
Designated by a capital
letter
Recessive- no noticeable
effect in a hybrid
Designated by a lowercase
letter
Genotype- Description of
an organism’s genetic
makeup; i.e. which alleles
are present in the
organism
Alleles may be the same
or they may be different:
Phenotype- Description
of an organism’s trait
“visible” characteristic
P, F1, F2 generations- P
generation is the parental
generation in the cross
pollination between two
true-breeding plants that
differ in a particular trait.
F1 is (first filial)
generation the hybrid
offspring produced in the
cross pollination of P
generation plants.
F2 is the progeny of self-
pollinated F1 generation
plants.
Monohybrid crosses- a
method of finding out the
inheritance pattern of a trait
between two single
organisms.
Dihybrid crosses- is a cross
between F1 offspring (first
generation offspring) of two
individuals that differ in two
traits of particular interest.
For example: RRyy/rrYY or
RRYY/rryy parents result in
F1 offspring that are
heterozygous for both R and
Y (RrYy).
Punnett square- diagram
that is used to predict an
outcome of a particular cross
or breeding experiment.
Probability- a way of
expressing knowledge or
belief that an event will
occur or has occurred.
Test cross- Cross-breed
the dominant phenotype
— unknown genotype —
with a homozygous
recessive (pp) to
determine the identity of
the unknown allele
Complete dominance- A
kind of dominance
wherein the dominant
allele completely masks
the effect of the recessive
allele in heterozygous
condition.
Incomplete dominance- a
form of intermediate
inheritance in which one
allele for a specific trait is
not completely dominant
over the other allele.
Codominance- BOTH
alleles express in
heterozygotes
Example: In chickens,
feather color trait has two
alleles:
B= Black feathers
W = White feathers
Multiple alleles- More
than two possible alleles
for one trait. Example: in
ABO blood group, 3
possible alleles: IA, IB, i
Polygenic inheritance
(continuous traits)- Some
phenotypes determined by
additive effects of 2 or
more genes on a single
character
Epistasis- One gene masks
another - coat color in mice
= 2 genes
Pleiotropy- one gene
affects more than one
phenotypic character
Environmental Infuence-
The expression of some
genes can be influenced by
the environment
for example: coat color in
Himalayan rabbits and
Siamese cats

Concepts:
1. Why did Mendel study Pea plants?
2. Explain the concept of complete Dominance.
3. Explain Mendel’s law of Segregation.
4. When does the segregation of alleles occur?
5. What is the difference between an allele and a gene?
6. What is the purpose of a test cross?
7. Practice punnett squares for different types of monohybrid cross. Make sure that you can identify
gametes, join them together in fertilization, and understand the resulting probabilities.
8. When two traits are on different (non-homologous) chromosomes, how are they inherited?
9. Explain Mendel’s law of Independent assortment.
10. Explain the phenotypic ratios that result from a dihybrid cross.
11. Practice punnett squares for different types of dihybrid cross. Make sure that you can identify gametes,
join them together in fertilization, and understand the resulting probabilities.
12. How many different types of gametes could be generated from an individual with the
genotype AaBbCCddEe. Could this person have a gamete with the genotype ABCDe?
13. Describe and give an example of incomplete dominance. Prepare a punnett square of two
heterozygous individuals.
14. How does codominance compare to incomplete dominance? Give an example of
codominance. Prepare a punnett square of two heterozygous individuals.
15. How is blood type an example of multiple alleles and codominance? Practice Punnett
squares with blood type alleles.
16. Define and give an example of pleiotropy.
17. Define and give an example of epistasis.
18. What is observed when traits are polygenic?
19. Define and give an example of the environmental influences on traits.
20. Do the problems in page 742-745 in Lab manual. Do the problems in the following website:
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/geneprob.htm

IV. Human Genetics Part I (Chapter 13)

Vocabulary:
• Genes- Units of information about heritable
traits
• Alleles- Different molecular forms of a gene,
Arise through mutation, Diploid cell has a pair of
alleles at each locus
• Homologous chromosomes- Homologous
autosomes are identical in length, size, shape,
and gene sequence, Sex chromosomes are
nonidentical but still homologous
• Linked genes- Genes found on one type of
chromosome, Linked genes can assort
separately from one another only through
crossing over
o Complete/incomplete linkage- Equal
ratios of two types of gametes / Unequal
ratios of four types of gametes
o Crossover frequency- Proportional to
the distance that separates genes,
Crossing over will disrupt linkage
 between A and B more often than C and
D parents are both heterozygous, child will have a
o Linkage maps- Done by using known
“landmarks” or markers on
chromosomes, These markers are
either genes or DNA fragments whose
location has already been worked out
• Sex determination- depends on the Y
chromosome
• X inactivation- In female mammals, inactivation
of one X chromosome makes the dosage of X-
linked genes the same as males
• Barr Bodies- Tightly coiled condensed X
chromosome
Attached to side of nucleus
• Autosomes- a chromosome that is not a sex
chromosome
• Sex Chromosomes- determine gender
X and Y chromosomes in many species
XX: female
XY: male
• Chromosomal alterations-
o Duplication- broken segment inserted
into homologous chromosome
o Deletion- broken segment lost from
chromosome
o Inversion- broken segment reattached
in reversed orientation
o Translocation- broken segment
attached to nonhomologous
chromosome
• Karyotype- the number and appearance of
chromosomes in the nucleus of a eukaryotic
cell.
• Pedigree- A chart showing the genetic
connections between individuals, A genetic
family tree
• Genetic Abnormality- is an uncommon or rare
trait
E.g. Polydactyly
• Genetic Disorder- an inherited condition that
may cause medical problems
E.g. Cystic Fibrosis
• Autosomal Recessive traits/disorders- If
25% chance of being affected
o Tay-Sachs
o Cystic Fibrosis
o Sickle cell anemia
• Autosomal Dominant traits/disorders- Trait
typically appears in every generation
o Achondroplasia (dwarfism)
o Huntington’s Disease
• Sex-linked traits/disorders
o Hemophilia
o Colorblindness
• Polyploidy- Individuals have three or more of
each type of chromosome (3n, 4n)
o 99% die before birth
• Aneuploidy- Individuals have one extra or less
chromosome
(2n + 1 or 2n - 1)
Major cause of human reproductive failure
• Non-disjunction- the failure of chromosome
pairs to separate properly during cell
division.
• Trisomy- a genetic abnormality in which
there are three copies, instead of the normal
two, of a particular chromosome.
o Downs syndrome- Trisomy of
chromosome 21
o Kleinfelter’s Syndrome- XXY condition
Results mainly from nondisjunction in
mother (67%)
• Monosomy- a form of aneuploidy with the
presence of only one chromosome instead of
the typical two
o Turner’s Syndrome- Inheritance of only
one X (XO)
98% spontaneously aborted
• Genetic Counseling/testing- Allows
prospective parents to reach an informed
decision about having a child or continuing a
pregnancy
o Amniocentesis- Amniotic fluid around
embryo
Chorionic villus sampling- a form of prenatal
diagnosis to determine chromosomal or
genetic disorders in the fetus.

Concepts:
1. How is gender determines in humans? What’s the difference between autosomes and sex chromosomes?
2. What is meant by linked genes? How are linked genes inherited? How is crossing over involved?
3. Describe the differences in the inheritance patterns of Autosomal Recessive disorders, Autosomal Dominant
disorders, and X-linked disorders. Identify the differences between pedigree charts of each of those difference
cases. Be prepared to answer probability questions (punnett squares) for each of those different inheritance
patterns.
4. What are chromosomal mutations and how may they occur? What is the difference between Duplication,
Deletion, Inversion and Translocation?
 5. What is polyploidy?
6. How does nondisjunction lead to aneuploidy? Explain the difference between trisomy and monosomy, and state
case(s) of each.

V. DNA Structure and Replication (Chapter 14)

1. What did scientists originally think was the genetic material? Why?
2. Describe the results of the experiment performed by Griffith. What is transformation? How did Avery’s
experiment contribute to our understanding of Griffith’s original work?
3. What are bacteriophages?
4. Describe the results of the experiment performed by Hershey and Chase. What did the results mean?
5. What are nucleic acids? What is the monomer of nucleic acids?
6. List the components of an individual nucleotide. How many different nucleotides are there?
7. What is the difference between purines and pyrimidines? Which bases are which?
8. What are Chargaff’s rules?
9. If a species has 35% adenine in its DNA, determine the percent of the other three bases.
10. What was the role of Rosalind Franklin in determining the structure of DNA?
11. Describe Watson and Crick’s model of DNA structure:
a. What is meant by Double helix?
b. What make up the backbones of the “ladder”?
c. What are the rungs of the ladder?
d. What types of bonds hold together the two strands?
e. How do the bases pair up?
12. Define semiconservative replication.
13. What is meant by the term “complementary”?
14. What is the role of each of the following enzymes in replication?
a. Helicase c. Ligase
b. DNA polymerase d. Primase
15. Why does the DNA polymerase have to add nucleotides in the 5’ to 3’ direction?
16. Where does DNA polymerase get the energy needed to synthesize DNA?
17. What is the difference between the leading and the lagging strands? Why do they happen? What are Okazaki
fragments?