EMPATH™

ANALYSIS MANUAL©

Framatome ANP, Inc.

145 Whisperwood Lane
Madison, AL
35758
Phone: 256-464-9813
Fax: 256-464-3045
Email: don.ferree@framatome-anp.com
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE NO.

1.0 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………….. 3

2.0 RUNNING SPEED ………………………………………………. 7

3.0 ROTOR BAR HEALTH ………………………………………… 10

4.0 UNBALANCE ……………………………………………………. 12

5.0 POWER ANALYSIS …………………………………………….. 13

6.0 AIR GAP, BEARINGS AND STATOR INDICATIONS ……… 14

7.0 DRIVEN EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS …………………………… 22

8.0 RECIPROCATING EQUIPMENT …………………………….. 30

9.0 MOTOR OPERATED VALVES ……………………………….. 31

10.0 DC MOTORS …………………………………………………… 34

11.0 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES …………………………. 34

12.0 COST SAVINGS ………………………………………………... 39

13.0 TRANSFORMERS ……………………………………………... 39

14.0 SYNCRONOUS MOTORS AND GENERATORS …………… 40

15.0 OUTPUT HORSEPOWER AND TORQUE ………………….. 41

2
1.0 INTRODUCTION

The EMPATH™ motor diagnostic tool provides several analysis techniques to

address motor problems. This manual describes these techniques. Some of these
techniques are pre-programmed into the EMPATH software; these techniques will
only be given a cursory review. Other techniques need to be performed by the
operator; these techniques will be given a thorough presentation.
Operation of the EMPATH diagnostic tool, including data acquisition, is covered
in the EMPATH Instruction Manual. Operating instructions are not repeated in
the Analysis Manual. Further, in those cases where good reference books cover a
subject, the reader will be referred to the reference.

1.1 TIME DOMAIN

Data analysis using EMPATH is performed in both the time and frequency
domain. Data is acquired and stored as time domain data. Some of the time
domain data is converted to frequency domain data. Thus, when a data file is
recalled for analysis, the data acquired and calculated during data acquisition is
returned for user review and analysis.

Time domain means that data is presented as amplitude on the ordinate (y-axis)
and as time on the abscissa (x-axis). All of the EMPATH data is stored as digital
data; thus, no analog data is available to the user. Time domain data is the normal
presentation of data or events. For example, a child’s height may be measured
and recorded as a function of this age. A plot of height versus age would be a
time domain graph.

Two analyses that are performed in the time domain are cycle time analysis and
inrush analysis. The cycle time is the time from one point on a repeating curve to
an equivalent point in the next cycle. In the following figure, showing the inrush
of a nuclear reactor coolant pump motor, the inrush time is seen to be about 11.3
s. From time t = 0 to time t = 2.57 s, the motor is off. At t = 2.57 s, the motor is
energized. At time t = 13.8 s, the motor is at its constant value of operating
current.

In many cases, the inrush current peak will be many times higher than the normal
operating current. If inrush data is to be taken, the EMPATH acquisition settings
must be set to account for this inrush current peak and sufficient time duration to
capture the complete cycle of interest, including enough time before the start of
the event. Using a multiple of ten or twenty times operating current is a good
choice, initially, if no other data is available.

3
Figure 1: Current inrush for a 9000 HP motor.

4
1.2 FREQUENCY DOMAIN

Time domain data is converted into the frequency domain via Fourier Transforms
or via Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT). Basically, an FFT shows the amplitude as
ordinate and frequency as abscissa, and yields the amplitude and frequency of
sine waves that need to be added together to create the time domain waveform, or
just time waveform.
Two examples follow.
Case 1: Nearly pure 60 Hz sine wave.

Figure 2: Spectrum and time domain graph for 60 Hz sine wave.

5
Case 2: 60 Hz sine wave modulated by 2 Hz wave.

Figure 3: Spectrum and time domain graph of 60 Hz sine wave modulated by 2

Hz sine wave.

6
 In Case 1, a pure 60 Hz sine wave runs from beginning to end of our data
acquisition shown as 0 to 0.11 second. The FFT for a pure sine wave is just a
single frequency peak at the sine wave frequency of 60 Hz, in this case.

In Case 2, a modulated 60 Hz wave was acquired. For a modulated wave, it takes

a number of sine waves added together to create the packet. Thus, the FFT is
strong at 60 Hz but has side bands at approximately 2 Hz increments.

Most of the traces look like Case 2 in the EMPATH data.

The conversion from time domain to frequency domain and back is a unique
mathematical relationship. The FFT merely answers the question, “What number
and amplitude of sine waves are necessary to create the given time trace?” The
time trace merely answers the question, “What would the signal look like in the
time domain if we added this number and amplitude of sine waves, assuming the
signal has reached a steady state?”

1.3 LINE FREQUENCY

One of the very important parameters for many analyses is the line frequency
(FL). In the U.S., line frequency is 60 Hz, while Europe runs on a line frequency
of 50 Hz. But, the increasing use of variable frequency drives dictates a definition
of line frequency as the frequency in Hz of the electrical power supplied to the
motor during the period of data acquisition; alternately, it is the largest peak in the
current or voltage spectrum. Line frequency is always measured by EMPATH,
because of its ability to lock onto any line frequency so that the operator never
needs to worry that he/she forgot to record it. But, whenever, a calculation is
made, the actual line frequency measured by EMPATH must be used.

2.0 RUNNING SPEED

The motor running speed (RS) is one of the most important parameters to be
determined by EMPATH. Many variables are multiplied by RS to predict where
a spectral peak should be. The remainder of this section addresses running speed
determinations.
2.1 POLES AND SYNCHRONOUS SPEED

Every motor is wound to create a number of magnetic pole pairs. If “P” is poles,
then P / 2 is the number of pole pairs. The number of poles is always an even
number since there must be both a north and a south pole. The minimum number
for P is 2, the maximum is unlimited; but more than 72 are rare. Most motors
have 2 or 4; some 6, 8 or 10; and only very large motors have more. In most
industrial plants, about 50% of the induction motors will be 4-pole, about 24%
will be 2-pole and about 24% will be 6-pole. The remaining 2% will be induction
motors with more than 6 poles. (Note, this does not address DC, synchronous or
other motor types that are not induction motors.)
Motor synchronous speed (SS) is the speed the motor would run in Hz or RPM, if
there were no slip. Slip is the difference between the motor SS and the motor
7
 actual speed, also in Hz or RPM, and results because the load impressed on the
motor keeps the driven and induced magnetic fields slightly separated.
Mathematically, SS (Hz) = 2FL / P. For FL = 60 Hz, the following table is
true.
P SS SS
___ (Hz) (RPM)

2 60 3600
4 30 1800
6 20 1200
8 15 900
10 12 720

The motor nameplate normally shows the motor RPM at full load. This RPM
may be a number like 1770 RPM, 3580 RPM or 1165 RPM. These numbers are
close but not exactly the numbers listed above. To determine the number of poles
for a motor using nameplate data and a line frequency of 60 Hz, divide 7200 RPM
by the nameplate RPM and throw away all digits to the right of the decimal. For
example, 7200 / 1770 = 4.068, so this is a 4-pole motor; 7200 / 3580 = 2.011, so
this is a 2-pole motor; 7200 / 1165 = 6.180, so this is a 6-pole motor, etc.

[If the line frequency were 50 Hz and the nameplate data were intended for the
motor to be running at 50Hz, then divide 6000 RPM by the nameplate RPM and
throw away all digits to the right of the decimal.]

ABBREVIATIONS – the following list of abbreviations are used throughout this

manual.

SS – Synchronous speed
P – poles
FL – line frequency
S – slip
PPF – pole passing frequency
SE – EMPATH slip (also pole passing frequency)
RS – running speed, normally of the motor
RB – number of rotor bars
N – odd integer, 1,3,5,7, …
M – any integer, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

2.2 SLIP

Slip (S) is the difference between synchronous speed and running speed; or S = SS –
RS.
The slip measured by EMPATH is the pole pass frequency (PPF), which is just the
slip times the number of poles. Thus:
Slip (S) = EMPATH Slip (SE) / P = PPF / P

PPF = SE = P x S

8
2.3 RUNNING SPEED DETERMINATION FOR INDUCTION MOTORS

EMPATH automatically calculates RS and is accurate more than 95% of the time. If
the user wants to determine RS for himself/herself to verify EMPATH calculations,
the following rules and procedure will help. First, here are three rules:
(1) Running speed is always less than synchronous speed; or, RS < SS.
(2) Running speed is different from synchronous speed by the slip; or
RS = SS – S = SS – SE /P = SS – PPF / P
(3) Motor running speed is proportional to the load such that comparing motor
load and running speed to nameplate data will give a good approximation.

Using these rules, here are the steps to determine both slip (S) and running speed
(RS).
Determine FL by measuring the predominant peak in the Current 1 spectrum.
Calculate SS by, SS = (2 x FL) / P, (Hz).
Go to the RMS demodulated spectrum and look for a peak at RS. This peak should
be just to the left, lower frequency, of the SS. Note, there will be no peak in the
spectrum at SS; physically no interaction produces a peak here. But, in most cases
there will be a peak at RS.
Once RS has been determined, slip is found by the formula: slip (S) = SS – RS.
There is no peak in the spectrum at the slip value. The peaks in the current spectrum
show up at pole passing frequencies, PPF. To calculate PPF, multiply S by P, or: PPF
= S x P.
Again, in the RMS demodulated spectrum, look for a peak at PPF.
The agreement between PPF and RS using this methodology should be within 0.25
Hz.

The motor nameplate usually specifies motor running speed at 100% load. Your
determination for RS should be similar to the nameplate value modified only to
account for load. Normally, RS will be higher than or equal to the nameplate value,
since nameplate is at full load. At low loads, the difference from SS will be smaller
than at higher loads.

Please remember that peaks will not show up in the current spectrum or the RMS
demodulated spectrum unless there is a physical cause. For example, if there is no
unbalance or misalignment, the motor will run very smoothly and the running speed
peak may be very small. If there is a lot of unbalance or misalignment, then the
running speed peak will be large. This principle also applies to pole passing
frequency. If there is no rotor damage, then the pole passing peaks will be very
small. Further, these are independent attributes; a smooth running motor could have
bad rotor bars and an unbalanced motor can have no rotor bar damage. This same
principle will apply to other parameters. Most are independent and so EMPATH
looks for the various flaws without regard for their interactions.

9
3.0 ROTOR BAR HEALTH

The condition of the rotor bar health is a very important factor. Determination of the
rotor bar health index, which approximates the number of broken rotor bars, is done
automatically by EMPATH; but, the user should understand the method of
determination to permit the user to verify the EMPATH data.

3.1 CONVENTIONAL DETERMINATION

The difference in dB between the FL peak and the pole passing sidebands has
been used to predict broken rotor bars. Table 2 shows the conventional data for
this prediction.
3.2 EMPATH ALGORITHM

Empirical results have indicated an under prediction of broken rotor bars using the
measurement portrayed in Table 2. This has been corrected by EMPATH. By
using the data from the RMS demodulated spectrum, it is possible to improve the
accuracy of the number of broken rotor bars. This algorithm is programmed into
the EMPATH software and is proprietary, but the user should always find the
following relationship:
Broken rotor bars (EMPATH) ≥ broken rotor bars by Table 2.
The EMPATH algorithm takes into account five factors; namely, dB down
between FL and PPF peaks, motor load, PPF amplitude in the RMS demodulated
spectrum, whether there are PPF harmonics, and, whether there are PPF sidebands
to running speed.

10
 TABLE 2

Motor Current Analysis Severity and Recommended Corrective Action Chart1

Cat. FL/FP FL/FP FP/FL Rotor Condition(1) Recommended

No. dB Ratio Ratio % Assessment Corrective Action(1)

1 >60 >1000 <0.10 Excellent None

2 54-60 501-100 0.10- Good None

0.20
3 48-54 251-501 0.20- Moderate Continue surveys,
0.40 trend only

4 42-48 126-251 0.40- Rotor bar crack may Reduce survey intervals,
0.79 be developing or trend closely
problems with high
resistance joint(s)

5 36-42 63-126 0.79- Two rotor bars likely Perform vibration tests
0.58 cracked or broken & to confirm problem
problems with high source & severity
resistance joints likely
perform vibration
6 30-36 32-63 1.58- Multiple cracked or Overhaul ASAP
3.16 broken rotor bars & end
rings indicated; also slip
ring & joint problems

7 <30 <32 >3.16 Multiple broken rotor bars Overhaul or replace

& end rings very likely; ASAP
severe problems
throughout

Notes:
(1) Minimum induction motor load = 70%
(2) Minimum motor size = 40 HP
(3) FL = Amplitude at line frequency (dB or Amps)
(4) FP = Amplitude of 1st pole pass sideband to left of line frequency (dB or Amps)
(5) Pole pass frequency = #Poles x Slip Frequency (Hz or CPM) = FP
(6) Slip frequency = Synchronous frequency – Motor speed (Hz or CPM) = FS
(7) “CAT NO.” = Category Number (or severity ranking)

1
P/PM Technology, “ Machine Condition Monitoring,” (June 1996): 58.

11
4.0 UNBALANCE

Voltage or current unbalances are good indicators of problems or

impending problems with electric motors. Determination of
unbalances and their meaning follow.
4.1 VOLTAGE UNBALANCE

“When the line voltages applied to a polyphase induction motor are

not equal, unbalanced currents in the stator windings will result. A
small percentage voltage unbalance will result in a much larger
percentage current unbalance. Consequently, the temperature rise
of the motor operating at a particular load and percentage voltage
unbalance will be greater than for a motor operating under the
same conditions with balanced voltages.” [NEMA Std. MG 1-
1998, para. 20.24.]
Should voltages be unbalanced, the rated horsepower of the motor
should be multiplied by the Voltage Derating Factor (VDF) to
reduce the possibility of damage to the motor. Operation of the
motor above a 5% voltage unbalanced condition is not
recommended. AC polyphase motors should operate successfully
under running conditions at rated load, when the voltage unbalance
at the motor terminals does not exceed 1%. Voltage unbalance is
calculated and presented on page 3 of the EMPATH report. The
voltage unbalance is calculated in accordance with NEMA Std.
MG 1-1998, para. 20.24.

4.2 CURRENT UNBALANCE

In general, the voltage applied to a motor comes from the power

supply and is less affected by the motor than the current, which is
drawn – more or less – to meet the needs of the motor, or more
specifically, which is drawn to satisfy the load or torque demands
of the driven load. That is, the current draw of the motor will
depend on the load the motor senses and this current draw will
vary as the load varies. The voltage can be viewed as an infinite
resource or the independent variable, and the current as the
dependent variable or variable resource.

Current unbalance is calculated and presented on page 3 of the

EMPATH report. Current unbalance is calculated just like voltage
unbalance. However, there is no standard for how much current
unbalance is permissible. So, EMPATH imposes the same
standard as for voltage; namely, current unbalances above 5% are
not recommended.

Current unbalances above 3% are cause for concern. Cessation of

operation is recommended for current unbalances in excess of
10%. Assuming the voltages to be identical, current unbalance
means one or more phases of the motor circuit are different.
12
 Long term, unbalanced operation will result in motor damage,
regardless whether voltage or current or both are unbalanced.
Unbalances need to be addressed as soon as possible.

5.0 POWER ANALYSIS

Since three phases of voltage and current are acquired by

EMPATH, power calculations are used to further analyze motor
problems. EMPATH provides data on power factor for all three
phases, harmonic distortion, drawn horsepower, etc. The data may
be seen on-screen using the Calculations button or in the printed
report. Because there are several excellent books on this subject,
no additional information will be offered here. Please consult the
following book: Power Quality Measurement and Troubleshooting,
by Glen A. Mazur, American Technical Publishers, Inc.,
Homewood, IL.

5.1 INPUT HORSEPOWER

Total horsepower is also shown on the third page of the report.

This is the real power (in kW) divided by (0.746 kW). also called
input horsepower. It is related to output horsepower by internal
losses. This is the drawn energy of the motor during the test
presented in horsepower.

5.2 OUTPUT HORSEPOWER

Actual output horsepower can only be measured on a

dynamometer. Output horsepower can be estimated based on input
horsepower by subtracting out losses that occur in the motor.
These include windage losses, friction losses, etc. IEEE Std. 112
offers several methods to determine output horsepower and
therefore motor efficiency.

5.3 HARMONIC ANALYSIS

Losses occur in a motor when the input power includes harmonics

of the line frequency. While one-third of these harmonics assist in
the operation of the motor, one-third turns to heat, and one-third
actually works to retard the motor rotation while generating heat.
EMPATH presents harmonic analysis data on pages 3 and 4 of the
report.

Values of this total in excess of 5% total harmonic distortion are

generally serious and should be corrected.

13
6.0 AIR GAP, BEARINGS AND STATOR INDICATIONS

There are several indications of motor problems that show up in

the high frequency spectrum. These include eccentricity, bearing
degradation and stator problems. Each of these is addressed in this
section.

6.1 ECCENTRICTY

When a round rotor rotates in the center of the round stator, no

eccentricity exists. When a rotor rotates on an axis parallel to the
stator axis but offset from the axis of the stator, static eccentricity
results. [Some other geometries create eccentricity also. These
include non-round rotors or stators. Although not dealt with
directly, the following could apply to these conditions, too.]

When the rotor rotates on an axis that varies with the rotation, then
dynamic eccentricity results.

The following three sketches show these conditions. Looking at

the end of the motor, Case 1 shows pictorially no eccentricity.
Case 2 shows pictorially static eccentricity. Case 3 shows
pictorially dynamic eccentricity.

Figure 4: Pictorial representation of three air gap cases looking at the

end of the motor.

14
6.1.1 STATIC ECCENTRICITY

Static eccentricity can be detected using EMPATH by looking for

“finger” patterns at high frequencies in the current spectra. By
definition, static eccentricity will result in peaks at:
RS x number of rotor bars (RB) + N x FL; N is an odd integer.

The number of rotor bars or stator slots is seldom known. Thus,

making the RS x RB calculation would not be possible. But, there
is an algorithm in EMPATH 2000 that permits the number of rotor
bars to be determined and subsequently, the existence of static
eccentricity. Static eccentricity is therefore sought in the peaks of
the high frequency data and reported both on-screen and on the
written report.

The following figure shows static eccentricity.

Figure 5: Current spectrum of motor with static eccentricity. Note

the peaks near 3000 Hz.

15
6.2 DYNAMIC ECCENTRICITY

Dynamic eccentricity differs from static by the presence of running

speed sidebands around the static eccentricity peaks. The static
eccentricity equation is modified to add a ± running speed
sideband term. Thus, the equation for dynamic eccentricity peaks
is: {RS x RB ± N x FL} ± (M x RS) where N is an odd integer, and
M is any integer.

The long equation above normally results in the following peaks:

RS x RB + FL + RS
RS x RB + FL - RS
RS x RB - FL + RS and
RS x RB - FL - RS, but more peaks may be generated, as shown
in the following spectra.

The following figure shows dynamic eccentricity. The solid

black lines show the multiples of 60 Hz. The green peak at
1100 Hz and the dashed blue lines show static eccentricity.
The other solid, colored cursors show the dynamic
eccentricity peaks. Most of the remaining peaks are bearing
peaks; this motor had many problems.

Figure 6: Current spectrum of a small motor showing static

and dynamic eccentricity.

16
6.3 BEARING PEAKS

Roller element bearings (ball or roller) produce mechanical

vibrations at characteristic frequencies as they fail. Journal or
sleeve bearings do not produce mechanical vibrations at
characteristic frequencies as they fail due to the fact that sleeve
bearings have no metallic moving parts. The determination of
problems in these two types of bearings is addressed separately in
the following. For a complete review of roller element bearing
indications, see The Vibration Analysis Handbook, James I.
Taylor, published by Vibration Consultants, Inc., Tampa, FL,
Chapter 5.

6.3.1 ROLLER ELEMENT BEARING DEFECTS

Based on the geometry of a roller bearing, there are four numerical

multipliers that describe the mechanical vibrations that will exist if
the bearing fails. These multipliers are normally real numbers but
not integers so that when they are multiplied times the running
speed, peak frequencies are generated that are not integer multiples
of running speed. This is the key diagnostic indicator.

There are two methods EMPATH uses to identify bearing

problems. If the bearing manufacturer and number are known, the
multipliers can be found and EMPATH will search the high
frequency spectrum looking specifically for the calculated peaks ±
FL. If the bearing manufacturer and number are not known, then
EMPATH looks for peaks in the high frequency spectrum that are
not integer multiples of running speed. In either case, if peaks are
identified, then EMPATH will identify the potential bearing
problem and suggest that a vibration survey be performed.

6.3.2 SLEEVED BEARING DEFECTS

No bearing multipliers exist for sleeved bearings because there are

no metallic parts to “bang” against each other. To identify
problems with sleeved bearings, an inference method is used. By
looking at static and dynamic eccentricity, a judgment can be made
regarding whether there is looseness that might be caused by a
defective bearing.

6.3.3 ROLLER ELEMENT BEARING EXAMPLE

For bearing degradation to show up in the EMPATH data, the

bearing must be damaged to the extent that it causes current
modulation in the motor current draw. Typically, this implies
severe bearing degradation that can be detected earlier and more
readily with vibration or ultrasonic testing. Bearing indications do
occur in EMPATH data, however, and are found as follows.
17
 EMPATH has algorithms embedded in the software to do these
analyses for the operator. But, if the operator prefers to do these
himself, then the following methodology would apply.

1. Look up the bearing multipliers in a bearing database.

2. Multiply the bearing multipliers by the running speed or
shaft speed on which the bearings are mounted.
3. Increase the potential peak population by including
harmonics up to 20.
4. Search the current spectra to determine if the calculated
peaks exist +/- 1%.

The following example is offered for an SKF 6309 bearing. The

table below shows a motor running speed of 26.78 Hz and bearing
multipliers ranging from 0.3792 to 4.962. The table then shows
where peaks would occur in a vibration spectrum and where they
would appear in a current spectrum if the line frequency were 60
Hz. Data from this example will be used in subsequent sections on
driven load evaluations. Only five harmonics are shown whereas
normally twenty harmonics are calculated and used in the actual
equipment analysis.

Table 6.3 – SKF Bearing 6309 Defect Peak Frequencies

Bearing Defect Frequencies

Motor running speed (rs) 26.78 Hz

SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd)

BPIR 4.962
BPOR 3.036
2 x BSF 3.912
BSF 1.956
FTF 0.3792

Fund. fd x rs Fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 132.88 192.88 72.88
BPOR 81.30 141.30 21.30
2 x BSF 104.76 164.76 44.76
BSF 52.38 112.38 7.62 (1)
FTF 10.15 70.15 49.85 (1)

2x fd x rs Fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 265.76 325.76 205.76
BPOR 162.61 222.61 102.61
2 x BSF 209.53 269.53 149.53
BSF 104.76 164.76 44.76
FTF 20.31 80.31 39.69 (1)

3x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 398.65 458.65 338.65
BPOR 243.91 303.91 183.91
2 x BSF 314.29 374.29 254.29
BSF 157.15 217.15 97.15
FTF 30.46 90.46 29.54 (1)

4x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60

18
 BPIR 531.53 591.53 471.53
BPOR 325.22 385.22 265.22
2 x BSF 419.05 479.05 359.05
BSF 209.53 269.53 149.53
FTF 40.62 100.62 19.38 (1)

5x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 664.41 724.41 604.41
BPOR 406.52 466.52 346.52
2 x BSF 523.82 583.82 463.82
BSF 261.91 321.91 201.91
FTF 50.77 110.77 9.23 (1)

(1) Footnote: the calculation is negative but no negative frequencies exist. Any
negative frequency is reflected around zero to become positive.

6.4 STATOR SLOT PASSING INDICATIONS

Stator slot passing “finger” patterns can indicate stator mechanical

problems. A “two-finger” pattern separated by 120 Hz is an
indication of stator slot passing if, and only if, the center frequency
between the two peaks is an integer divisible by the following
formula:

Center Frequency
Running Speed x Poles x Phases x M

Center frequency = lower peak frequency plus upper peak

frequency divided by 2. Alternately, if the number of stator slots is
known, then the stator mechanical call can be made if peaks exist
in the high frequency spectrum at RS x number of stator slots ±
FL. Only two peaks will appear in this pattern making it readily
discernable from static eccentricity which may have many peaks.

If stator slot passing peaks are large, stator mechanical damage has
occurred. If running speed sidebands are found around stator slot
passing frequencies, there is reason to believe that stator electrical
degradation has occurred.

The following spectra show both stator slot passing frequency and
static eccentricity. The next figure shows the current spectrum
from 0 to 5000 Hz. The area of interest is centered near 3000 Hz.
The second figure is an expanded view of the area of interest.

19
Figures 7 & 8: Current spectra of 1750 HP motor showing static
eccentricity, 0 to 5000 Hz and expanded around 2900 Hz.

20
 The calculation follows:
Peak 1 2433.6 Hz
Peak 2 2436.7 Hz
Peak 3 2554.1 Hz
Peak 4 2557.2 Hz
Peak 5 2793.5 Hz
Peak 6 2914.0 Hz
Peak 7 3153.5 Hz
Peak 8 3274.0 Hz

Note: Peaks 1 and 2, and 3 and 4 are very hard to discern on the
spectra.

The stator slot passing, two-finger pattern is formed by peaks 2 and

4. The center frequency is (2436.7 + 2557.2) / 2 = 2496.95 Hz.

Now, 2496.95 Hz divided by 2 poles x 3 phases x 59.45 Hz

(running speed) = 7.000 = M. Thus, the number of
stator slots = 2 x 3 x 7 = 42, since RS x stator slots = center
frequency.

The static eccentricity finger pattern is formed by peaks 1, 3, 5, 6,

7 and 8.

Thus, since RS = 59.45 and,

Center frequency = 2853 between peaks 5 and 6,
Then,
2853 = 48 bars.
59.45
In one segment of this spectra, both stator slots and rotor bars are
determined in a pump where thermal expansion has caused the
movement of the rotor relative to the stator and where soft foot has
contributed to static eccentricity.

6.5 STATOR DEGRADATION

If the insulation on the coils in the stator weaken or fail, electrical

shorts can occur between coil wires or between coil wires and the
lamination steel. The wire-to-wire shorts can be within one phase
or between phases. In the case of a wire-to-wire short within one
phase, also called a turn-to-turn short, there is a possibility of
identifying the flaw before the motor completely fails. EMPATH
tries to make this turn-to-turn call.

For the phase-to-phase or phase-to-ground short, the motor will

completely fail so quickly that no indication of impending failure
can be detected.

21
7.0 DRIVEN EQUIPMENT ANALYSIS

One very clear advantage of EMPATH over conventional motor

diagnostic tools is its ability to diagnose and/or monitor driven
equipment. This section discusses how to analyze driven
equipment. At present EMPATH does not do these analyses
automatically, so the operator must perform them manually.

7.1 PHYSICAL CONFIGURATION

The analysis of driven equipment mandates a knowledge of the

configuration of the equipment. Normally, the analyst knows less
instead of more about the mechanical system. Obtaining this
information is many times very difficult, and your analysis may
suffer from lack of detail.

Several general configurations will be discussed. These include:

Belt Driven Fan

Direct Drive Fan
Gear Driven Fan

7.2 BELT DRIVEN FAN

Consider figure 7.2.

In figure 7.2:
B =Bearing
M = Motor
PM = Motor Pulley
Belt = Vee Belt
PF = Fan Pulley
F = Fan F
PF
PF

22
For this analysis, assume that the motor is a four-pole motor
running at RS = 29.5 Hz (1770 RPM). Assume PM has a
diameter of 3”, and that PF has a diameter of 12”. Let the distance
from the axis of the fan shaft to the motor shaft be 30”. Let the
fan have six blades.

The fan shaft speed (FS) is related to RS by the pulley diameters;

or,

Diameter (PF) x FS = RS x Diameter (PM)

FS = (29.5 Hz) x 3 /12

= 7.375 Hz = 442.5 RPM.
Belt speed (BS) is found as follows:

First, belt length (BL) = 30” x 2 + 1/2 (CIR[PF + PM]) =

60”+1/2 (π x 3 + π x 12)

= 60” + π x (15) /2

= 60” + 23.55

= 83.55”

BL x BS = RS x CIR(PM) = CIR(PF) x Fan Shaft Speed (FSP)

Now, using the conveyor rotational speed of either pulley, one can
calculate the belt speed. Using the motor pulley speed of 1770
RPM, we have:

CIR = π x D = π x 3

3 x π x 1770 RPM = 16,673.4 inches/minute = 277.89

inches/second

alternately, V = Rω
R1 = l.5 R2 = 6
ω1 = 1770 ω2 = 442.rpm
23
 If the fan pulley had been used, then:

CIR = π DPF = 12 π

12 π x 442.5 RPM = 16,673.4 inches/minute

= 277.89 inches/second

Since the belt length = 83.55”, then the belt rotates:

BS = RS x 3 π = 199.66rpm
83.55

BS = 222.89 inches/second = 3.326 RPS

= 199.56 RPM

= 3.326 Hz

A fixed point sees all six blades once during a revolution, so blade
passing frequency is 6 x FS = 6 x 442.5 = 2655 RPM. Peaks for
blade passing will be seen at + 3600 RPM in the current spectrum
or at 6 x 442.5/60 = 44.25 Hz in the demodulated spectrum

The bearing frequencies are calculated per section 6.3. Assuming

all four bearings are SKF 6309, the Table from section 6.3 can be
used.

These calculations permit the following data to be tabulated about

this fan.

Parameter Speed Speed

(Hz) (RPM)

Motor speed 29.5 1770

Belt speed 3.326 199.56
Fan shaft speed 7.375 442.5
Fan blade passing 44.25 2655

For the bearings on the motor shaft, turning at motor running

speed, the following table shows where peaks would occur for
defective bearings.

Bearing Defect Frequencies

motor running speed (rs) 29.5 Hz

SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd)

BPIR 4.962
BPOR 3.036
24
 2 x BSF 3.912
BSF 1.956
FTF 0.3792

Fund. fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 146.38 206.38 86.38
BPOR 89.56 149.56 29.56
2 x BSF 115.40 175.40 55.40
BSF 57.70 117.70 7.62
FTF 11.19 71.19 49.85

2x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 292.76 352.76 232.76
BPOR 179.12 239.12 119.12
2 x BSF 230.81 290.81 170.81
BSF 115.40 175.40 55.40
FTF 22.37 82.37 39.69

3x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 439.14 499.14 379.14
BPOR 268.69 328.69 208.69
2 x BSF 346.21 406.21 286.21
BSF 173.11 233.11 113.11
FTF 33.56 93.56 29.54

4x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 585.52 645.52 525.52
BPOR 358.25 418.25 298.25
2 x BSF 461.62 521.62 401.62
BSF 230.81 290.81 170.81
FTF 44.75 104.75 19.38

5x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 731.90 791.90 671.90
BPOR 447.81 507.81 387.81
2 x BSF 577.02 637.02 517.02
BSF 288.51 348.51 228.51
FTF 55.93 115.93 9.23

For the bearings on the fan shaft, turning at fan shaft speed, the
following table shows where peaks would occur for defective
bearings.

Bearing Defect Frequencies

motor running speed (rs) 7.375 Hz

SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd)

BPIR 4.962
BPOR 3.036
2 x BSF 3.912
BSF 1.956
FTF 0.3792

Fund. fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 36.59 96.59 23.41
BPOR 22.39 82.39 37.61
2 x BSF 28.85 88.85 31.15
25
 BSF 14.43 74.43 45.57
FTF 2.80 62.80 57.20

2x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 73.19 133.19 13.19
BPOR 44.78 104.78 15.22
2 x BSF 57.70 117.70 2.30
BSF 28.85 88.85 31.15
FTF 5.59 65.59 54.41

3x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 109.78 169.78 49.78
BPOR 67.17 127.17 7.17
2 x BSF 86.55 146.55 26.55
BSF 43.28 103.28 16.72
FTF 8.39 68.39 51.61

4x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 146.38 206.38 86.38
BPOR 89.56 149.56 29.56
2 x BSF 115.40 175.40 55.40
BSF 57.70 117.70 2.30
FTF 11.19 71.19 48.81

5x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 182.97 242.97 122.97
BPOR 111.95 171.95 51.95
2 x BSF 144.26 204.26 84.26
BSF 72.13 132.13 12.13
FTF 13.98 73.98 46.02

Now, to analyze this fan, search through the several current and
demodulated spectra to locate the peaks tabulated in the previous
tables. Many of these peaks are normal and indicate no problem.

Sidebands around BS indicate belt flapping. The actual belt

flapping frequency will be seen at its true value, in the
demodulated spectrum. Belt flapping robs energy from the fan and
should be minimized. Bearing indications are covered in section
6.3. Otherwise, trend the data to determine changes that could be
indicative of deteriorating conditions.

7.3 DIRECT DRIVE FAN

Consider figure 7.3.

26
 In a direct drive fan, the fan shaft speed equals the motor shaft
speed; so, RS = FS.

So, if a six-pole motor drives a ten blade fan, and, if the RS = 19.5
Hz = 1170 RPM, then FS= 1170 RPM. The following data are
obtained.

Parameter Speed Speed

(Hz) (RPM)

Motor speed 19.5 1170

Fan shaft speed 19.5 1170
Fan blade passing 195 11700 [ 10 blades x FS ]

With SKF 6309 bearings, then the following table is calculated.

Bearing Defect Frequencies

motor running speed (rs) 19.5 Hz

SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd)

BPIR 4.962
BPOR 3.036
2 x BSF 3.912
BSF 1.956
FTF 0.3792

Fund. fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 96.76 156.76 36.76
BPOR 59.20 119.20 0.80
2 x BSF 76.28 136.28 16.28
BSF 38.14 98.14 21.86
FTF 7.39 67.39 52.61

2x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 193.52 253.52 133.52
BPOR 118.40 178.40 58.40
2 x BSF 152.57 212.57 92.57
BSF 76.28 136.28 16.28
FTF 14.79 74.79 45.21

3x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 290.28 350.28 230.28
BPOR 177.61 237.61 117.61
2 x BSF 228.85 288.85 168.85
BSF 114.43 174.43 54.43
FTF 22.18 82.18 37.82

4x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 387.04 447.04 327.04
BPOR 236.81 296.81 176.81
2 x BSF 305.14 365.14 245.14
BSF 152.57 212.57 92.57
FTF 29.58 89.58 30.42

5x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 483.80 543.80 423.80
27
 BPOR 296.01 356.01 236.01
2 x BSF 381.42 441.42 321.42
BSF 190.71 250.71 130.71
FTF 36.97 96.97 23.03

Analyzing this fan will be similar to the belt-driven fan, except

there are no belt or belt associated peaks; but there could be peaks
associated with blade passing or passing of coupling segments,
depending on construction.

7.4 GEAR DRIVEN FAN

Consider Figure 7.4.

Here GM is the gear attached to the motor shaft, and GF is the gear
attached to the fan. If a two-pole motor running at 59.5 Hz = 3570
RPM drives a 10-tooth drive gear that meshes with a 100-tooth fan
gear, and the fan has nine blades, then the fan speed (FS) is just
the gear tooth ratio times the motor speed (RS); or,

FS = RS x GM = 3570 RPM x 10
GF 100

FS = 357 RPM = 5.95 Hz

The gear tooth meshing frequency (GTMF) is:

GTMF = RS x gear teeth= 10 x 3570 = 35,700 RPM

or GTMF = 595 Hz.

To analyze the data, look for peaks in the spectra at the calculated
frequencies. Sidebands on calculated peaks are cause for concern;
otherwise trend the data.

28
 These data are listed in the following table.

Parameter Speed Speed

(Hz) (RPM)

Motor speed 59.5 3570

Fan shaft speed 5.95 357
Fan blade passing 53.55 3213 [ 9 blades x FS ]
Gear tooth meshing 595 35700 [ 10 teeth x RS ]

If SKF 6309 bearings are on the motor shaft and on the fan shaft,
then the following two tables show the bearing fault peaks.

Bearing Defect Frequencies

motor running speed (rs) 59.5 Hz

SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd)

BPIR 4.962
BPOR 3.036
2 x BSF 3.912
BSF 1.956
FTF 0.3792

Fund. fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 295.24 355.24 235.24
BPOR 180.64 240.64 120.64
2 x BSF 232.76 292.76 172.76
BSF 116.38 176.38 56.38
FTF 22.56 82.56 37.44

2x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 590.48 650.48 530.48
BPOR 361.28 421.28 301.28
2 x BSF 465.53 525.53 405.53
BSF 232.76 292.76 172.76
FTF 45.12 105.12 14.88

3x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 885.72 945.72 825.72
BPOR 541.93 601.93 481.93
2 x BSF 698.29 758.29 638.29
BSF 349.15 409.15 289.15
FTF 67.69 127.69 7.69

4x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 1180.96 1240.96 1120.96
BPOR 722.57 782.57 662.57
2 x BSF 931.06 991.06 871.06
BSF 465.53 525.53 405.53
FTF 90.25 150.25 30.25

5x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 1476.20 1536.20 1416.20
BPOR 903.21 963.21 843.21
2 x BSF 1163.82 1223.82 1103.82
29
 BSF 581.91 641.91 521.91
FTF 112.81 172.81 52.81

Bearing Defect Frequencies

motor running speed (rs) 5.95 Hz

SKF 6309 bearing multipliers (fd)

BPIR 4.962
BPOR 3.036
2 x BSF 3.912
BSF 1.956
FTF 0.3792

Fund. fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 29.52 89.52 30.48
BPOR 18.06 78.06 41.94
2 x BSF 23.28 83.28 36.72
BSF 11.64 71.64 48.36
FTF 2.26 62.26 57.74

2x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 59.05 119.05 0.95
BPOR 36.13 96.13 23.87
2 x BSF 46.55 106.55 13.45
BSF 23.28 83.28 36.72
FTF 4.51 64.51 55.49

3x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 88.57 148.57 28.57
BPOR 54.19 114.19 5.81
2 x BSF 69.83 129.83 9.83
BSF 34.91 94.91 25.09
FTF 6.77 66.77 53.23

4x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 118.10 178.10 58.10
BPOR 72.26 132.26 12.26
2 x BSF 93.11 153.11 33.11
BSF 46.55 106.55 13.45
FTF 9.02 69.02 50.98

5x fd x rs fd x rs + 60 fd x rs - 60
BPIR 147.62 207.62 87.62
BPOR 90.32 150.32 30.32
2 x BSF 116.38 176.38 56.38
BSF 58.19 118.19 1.81
FTF 11.28 71.28 48.72

8.0 RECIPROCATING EQUIPMENT

The major difference between reciprocating equipment and non-

reciprocating is that reciprocating equipment has a non-uniform
current draw, because the cycle demands more energy during some
parts of the operating cycle than during other parts. The following
30
 graph shows a reciprocating compressor running at 11.9 Hz = 714
RPM, and cycling about every 13 seconds.

The analysis of reciprocating equipment is somewhat more

difficult, unless a time period of steady state current can be
acquired, such as between t1 to t2, or t3 to t4, below.

Figure 9: Time domain graph of reciprocating compressor.

9.0 MOTOR OPERATED VALVES

More data has probably been taken on Motor Operated Valves

(MOV) than on any other product type. The original work by Oak
Ridge National Laboratories (ORNL) was to address problems
with MOVs. Therefore, the following is the most detailed of the
analyses in this manual.

The detection capabilities of EMPATH can be seen in the

following. This allows recommendations to be made for
adjustments or modifications, in order to bring the MOVs back to
their specified performance range.

9.1 VALVE STEM TAPER

Variations in stem taper can be detected by changes in the motor

running current, in both the open-to-close and close- to-open
directions. Confirmation can be obtained by disassembly and
checking the stem with a micrometer. Stem taper, per se, may not
be harmful, but trending its change over time will provide a means
to determine its effect.

9.2 STEM-NUT WEAR

31
 Detailed examination of the initial portion of the valve stroke time
waveform can reveal abnormalities present in the stem-nut by
virtue of peaks and delays in the time between initial motor startup
and stem movement. If the delays increase or the peaks increase
over time, stem-nut galling and changes in stem-nut-to-valve-stem
clearance would be suspect, and merit further inspection.

The motor current frequency spectrum analysis can also provide

additional evidence of stem-nut wear. Sidebands, located around
the worm gear tooth meshing frequency at spacings equal to the
stem-nut rotation speed will change in amplitude during periods of
stem-nut wear because of added stresses that manifest themselves
in increased levels.

9.3 DEGRADED VOLTAGE

The impact of line voltage changes on motor current signature

characteristics can be readily detected from changes in running
current and stroke times or, line voltage can be measured directly
using EMPATH. Motor slip vs. motor current can be used to
determine if local reduced voltage conditions exist at the MOV.
The cause of a change in motor current level can be determined as
due either to a mechanical load change or a line voltage variation,
by comparing the results with the normal characteristics.

9.4 DEGRADED VALVE STEM LUBRICATION

Loss of lubrication may be indicated by changes in current draw

and/or slip frequency for a constant torque switch trip setting. As
the friction load increases, due to lubricant drying, the valve
seating margin, reflected in the difference between average
running current and the current at torque switch trip, will change,
such that as the margin decreases there is less available force to
properly seat the valve gate before motor stall would occur.

9.5 WORM GEAR TOOTH WEAR

The effect of worn gear teeth becomes evident in the time

waveform display of motor current, as large transients appear with
a period equivalent to the gear meshing frequencies. This
deficiency can sometimes correct itself by operation over time,
thus making the wear surfaces become more even. However, the
analysis is used to trend this occurrence to provide assurance that
the wear-out process is not getting worse.

9.6 OBSTRUCTIONS IN THE VALVE SEAT AREA

Examination of the motor current time waveform during the end of

the open-to-close stroke can indicate the presence of an obstruction
blocking fill seating of the gate. The obstruction is identified as the
first departure from the normal cyclic running current
32
 pattern. When no obstruction is present, the waveform retains its
cyclic character completely to the end of the stroke, prior to torque
switch trip.

9.7 MOTOR PINION DISENGAGEMENT

Improper motor pinion orientation will generally result in limited

contact between the motor pinion and the worm shaft clutch gear.
This may, in turn, result in total disengagement between the two
gears and the loss of ability to actuate the valve, electrically.

When the motor pinion looses contact with the worm shaft clutch
gear, it becomes completely unloaded. An increase in motor speed
is seen, decrease in current level, and a much longer valve
operation cycle. This is then confirmed by examining the
frequency spectrum which will show a lack of worm gear tooth
meshing and a lower slip frequency, corresponding to a no-load
condition, and a higher amplitude peak of motor running speed.

9.8 DEGRADED WORM AND WORM GEAR LUBRICATION

When an MOV is actuated the torque switch does not trip, even
though the current exceeds that normally associated with torque
switch trip, then the motor current increase comes from other than
high packing loads.

Abnormally high loads that originate within the drive train

between the motor and the torque switch would be sensed by
EMPATH but not by the torque switch.

The lack of lubricant in this region can result in unusually high

friction loads sufficient to stall the motor. Proper lubrication will
result in time waveform displays that will show a slightly higher
current at tighter packing conditions, but the torque switch will trip
at the normal peak current value.

9.9 STEM PACKING ADJUSTMENTS

Valve stem loads are produced as a result of packing tightness and

contribute to the running loads seen by EMPATH. Running current
levels (both minimum and maximum) will increase as the stem
packing tightness is increased. The motor current level associated
with the no-load portion of the stroke does not change, because the
stem does not move during this portion of the stroke. As motor
current increases, motor speed decreases and slip will increase. In
addition, an increase in worm gear tooth meshing frequency
amplitude will be observed, as a result of increased packing
33
 tightness. If the packing is too tight, the stem friction loads can
exceed the stem piston load resulting from valve internal pressure,
and can prevent closure.

9.10 SWITCH ACTUATIONS

Limit switch and torque bypass switch actuations can be detected

by monitoring the current through the valve position indication
lamps. These lamps can be monitored remotely, in the same
manner as the motor current. Depending on the switch convention
for the particular valve, lamp indication will show when the
switches actuate and when the bypass occurs. This is then related
to the point at which the valve moves so that the margin for bypass
can be established relative to the valve unseating, and the torque
switch activation point set beyond the valve unseating load.

9.11 SELECTIVE WAVEFORM INSPECTION METHOD

(SWIM)

By selective filtering of the recorded motor current signal

optimized for frequency analysis, a unique signature is developed
which reflects the time dependency of a specific periodic load.
When the frequency around the worm gear tooth mesh frequency is
investigated, a reflection of the worm gear loads is obtained, on a
tooth-by-tooth basis. This is then plotted in both rectangular form
and polar form, and a “modulating index” is defined that
characterizes the stress distribution of the gear. The closer to zero
this index is means that the teeth are taking a more equal share of
the load, and less likely to become overstressed, leading to tooth
failure.

10.0 DC MOTORS

The analysis of DC motors is different from the analysis of AC

motors and so is the data acquisition. First, data is acquired using
one Hall-Effect probe versus three CTs. Second, voltage may or
may not be taken. Finally, the analysis of the acquired data is very
straightforward and follows the work of Simoncic and Berry. See
Sections 6 and 10 of the Instruction Manual.

11.0 VARIABLE FREOUENCY DRIVES

The energy savings possible through the use of Variable Frequency

Drives (VFD) are causing VFDs to be increasingly used. The VFD
converts 60 Hz AC to DC and then back to AC at the frequency
determined by the motor speed need. Unfortunately, the process of
converting from AC to DC to AC may generate significant
harmonics--not only of the drive frequency, but also much higher
frequencies between 1200 Hz and 3500 Hz, and higher, depending
on the drive manufacturer. These very high frequencies are related
to the VFD electronics. A very clear example of this is shown in
34
the following case study.

Waste Water Treatment Plant

A local engineering consultant supplied four identical blowers to a

municipal waste water treatment plant. These blowers are powered
by 100 HP motors and three of the four were connected to a 480
volt bus and were working as expected. The fourth blower motor
was driven by a variable frequency drive.

The consultant’s project manager could not figure out why this
new motor was degrading so rapidly. He requested that ESA data
be taken to determine the cause of the increase in vibration
readings.

ESA data were acquired at the variable frequency drive (VFD) on

the conductors going to the motor. The initial data showed that
voltages were being generated by the VFD that were 252 volts
higher than normal for the motor. The VFD was set at 50.7 Hz but
had begun to ‘fibrillate’ at 2975 Hz. This high frequency, high
amplitude voltage was degrading the motor and had caused
permanent damage to the motor by the time the ESA data were
taken.

A short time later, the high voltage excursion had terminated and
the motor was operating normally. However, vibration data taken
at this time showed higher than normal levels and levels higher
than taken earlier in the month. A “trip test” was conducted where
the power to the motor was stopped instantaneously. Vibration
readings were taken during the trip. The vibration stopped almost
immediately when the power was cut proving that the electric
power was causing the high vibration levels also corroborating the
ESA data.

Four figures follow. The first figure is a single cycle of the voltage
waveform from the VFD. The second figure shows several cyles
of all three currents. The third figure shows the voltage spectrum
from 0 to 5000 Hz. The final figure shows the current spectrum
from 0 to 5000 Hz. All figures are when the VFD was set at 50.7
Hz during the over-voltage event that caused fibrillation.

On the fourth figure notice the two large peaks centered at about
1200 Hz, with colored cursors. These are the stator slot passing
peaks indicative of stator mechanical damage. Note that
significant peaks are not evident in the voltage spectrum, third
figure, near 1200 Hz.

This supports one major claim of Motor Current Signature

Analysis; namely, when peaks are evident in the current that are
not evident in the voltage, then the peaks represent a mechanical
modulation of the current draw.
35
Figures 10 and 11: VFD voltage time trace for one cycle on top
and three phases of current in the time domain, below.

36
Figures 12 and 13: VFD voltage spectrum on top and current
spectrum on bottom both from 0 to 5000 Hz.

37
12.0 COST SAVINGS

The push by all businesses today to reduce cost and increase

profits demands that the cost side of motor analysis be addressed.
Besides the obvious savings in maintaining equipment via early
diagnostics, there are also the energy costs and the impact on these
costs the utility contract imposes. For example, most utility
contracts impose a fee or premium if the power factor of a facility
falls below a value like 0.85 or even 0.9. Using EMPATH’s power
factor analysis, it is possible to determine each motor’s
contribution to total facility power factor.

At a large printing company, three chillers were used to cool the

plant. During the hottest, most humid times in the summer, all
three are needed to operate the plant. During the winter, only 50%
of the total is necessary. The plant normally ran all three all the
time. Thus, in the summer, high power factors like 0.90 to 0.95
were measured on all three. In the winter, the power factors were
as low as 0.50. To save energy dollars and to improve the life of
the equipment, one or two units should be turned off in the winter.
Significant savings will result.

The second example applies to the contribution one large motor

might make to a plant’s total power factor. Using EMPATH’s
power measurements, a plant could decide to add capacitance to
the circuitry for incoming power to the motor. The capacitance
causes the current to lead the voltage and improves the motors
power factor. Alternately, a plant can add capacitance to the
incoming power to the entire plant to improve energy usage.

Finally, many utility contracts include a penalty fee that addresses

the peak energy the utility must provide to a plant. This premium
applies when, for example, several high power pieces of equipment
are started in a short time. EMPATH does not measure this
directly, but these issues are addressed when Framatome ANP
engineers discuss power usage with plant personnel.

The key to cost savings is to know your utility contract and to take
action to improve efficient energy usage. The EMPATH power
analysis is a useful tool to help identify motors that are not being
operated efficiently.

13.0 TRANSFORMERS

Simply put, transformers act like motors with no

mechanical/moving parts. Measuring three phases of current and
voltage, several analyses can be performed with EMPATH.
These include three-phase imbalances in either voltage or current;
power factor analysis, and harmonic analysis. These techniques
38
 have been discussed in earlier sections. There is no limit to the
size of transformers EMPATH can analyze, remembering that
maximum voltage into the unit is 600 volts, and maximum output
from the current sensor is + 10 volts.

14.0 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS AND GENERATORS

14.1 SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS

A synchronous motor is very similar in design and construction to

an AC induction motor, except that the rotor is termed an
“armature” and has a set of “mortiser” windings with it. These
mortiser windings are actually powered by DC, while the stator is
powered by AC. These motors are also similar to DC machines in
operation, but the DC machine has DC on both the armature and
stator.

Increases to the DC current level through the mortiser windings

increases the magnetic field, which forces the rotor to go faster.
With the rotor actually ahead of the stator the motor produces a
leading power factor. Thus, the use of the synchronous motor for
power factor correction is possible. EMPATH could be used to
take both AC and DC readings, with the stator being AC and the
rotor (armature) DC.

EMPATH diagnostics should be performed in the same manner as

for any induction motor, with the understanding that the slip will
not be apparent, even when fully loaded. All other diagnostic
characteristics would be accessible and the performance of the
machine can readily be ascertained by acquisition of current and
voltage, as would normally be done.

14.2 AC GENERATOR

An AC generator is essentially the same as an AC induction motor,

with the major exception that its rotation speed is, by definition,
the synchronous speed of the machine. Thus, slip is neither defined
nor visible. For example, if a 2-pole generator is rotating at 3,575
rpm, the output frequency would just be the rpm converted into
Hertz, multiplied by the number of pole pairs, which in this case
would be 59.5833 Hz. For a 1,200 rpm, 6-pole machine, the output
frequency would be 60 Hz; and the 1,200 rpm would be the
synchronous speed.

All of the previously identified motor diagnostic characteristics are

accessible and available for examination. Furthermore, one of the
primary indicators of generator performance is to verify the quality
of the output signal and the generated frequency of that signal.
Power quality is determined by viewing both the time waveform
and spectra for sinusoidal characteristics and harmonic distortion.

39
 The mechanical and electrical performance properties would be
obtained in the same manner as for induction motors, except that
any diagnostics relying on slip would, of course, not be available.

15.0 OUTPUT HORSEPOWER AND TORQUE

Specification IEEE 112 describes several dynamic tests for

estimating output horsepower and torque. These various methods
provide accuracies from a few to several percent of what a
dynamometer would yield. As soon as an algorithm can be shown
to be accurate to 2 or 3 %, then EMPATH will incorporate that
algorithm to estimate output horsepower and torque.

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