Hinduism

Notes prepared by: Neha Malhotra and Ashish Chowdhary

Etymology

The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local
appellation for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian
subcontinent and is first mentioned in the Rig Veda. The usage of the word
Hindu was further popularized by the Arabic term al-Hind referring to the
land of the people who live across river Indus. By the 13th century,
Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name of India, meaning the
"land of Hindus".

Originally, Hindu was a secular term which was used to describe all
inhabitants of the Indian subcontinent (or Hindustan) irrespective of their
religious affiliation. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that the
European merchants and colonists referred collectively to the followers of
Indian religions as Hindus. Eventually, it came to define a precisely religious
identity that includes any person of Indian origin who neither practiced
Abrahamic religions nor non-Vedic Indian religions, such as Jainism, Sikhism
or Buddhism, thereby encompassing a wide range of religious beliefs and
practices related to Sanātana Dharma.

The term Hinduism was introduced into the English language in the 19th
century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native
to India.

Introduction:

Hinduism is a term derived from the nineteenth century when colonized

British foreigners named the people living in the region of the Indus River,
India subcontinent for the purpose of census taking. This particular term may
be considered or known to Westerners as the name of a religion; however, it
actually portrays various religious traditions into one. A more contemporary
and preferred label is Sanatana Dharma as stated in Fisher (2005).
"Sanatana, "eternal" or "ageless," reflects the belief that these ways have
always existed. Dharma, often translated as "religion," encompasses duty,
natural law, social welfare, ethics, health, and transcendental realization.
Dharma is thus a holistic approach to social coherence and the good of all,
corresponding to order in the cosmos," (Fisher, 2005). In the following
paragraphs we will look into what makes up the Hinduism religion, cultural
and societal influences that have made Hinduism vital to the region in which
it originated and the desire for liberation from earthly existence in Hinduism.
In Hinduism or Sanatana Dharma, "the spiritual expressions range from
extreme asceticism to extreme sensuality, from the heights of personal
devotion to a deity to the heights of abstract philosophy, from metaphysical
proclamations of the oneness behind the material world to worship of images
representing a multiplicity of deities," (Fisher, 2005). Moreover, according to
tradition there are 330 million deities in India and they consider the divine to
have countless faces. Additionally, the worship of deities is diverse and does
not follow a central tradition since there are various religious ways to
worship the divine that has countless faces. Therefore, we could assume that
there may be 330 million ways to worship each deity or the divine's
countless faces.

Cultural and societal influences made Hinduism vital to the region in which it
originated by numerous traditions and social systems that were adhered by
the people of India or fellow adepts of Hinduism. Culturally, Hinduism
contains various myths that implied the countless faces of the divine to
interact in various forms with people. In cultural traditions the divine or
deities would bless, punish and protect the people depending on how well
they were venerated. Therefore, myths and traditions were passed on
describing ways to worship and the importance of venerating the deities.
Moreover, various forms of discipline were formed to express veneration and
devotion towards a deity. "From the cradle to the cremation ground, the
Hindu's life is wrapped up in rituals.
There are sixteen rites prescribed in the ancient scriptures to purify and
sanctify the person in his or her journey through life, including rites at the
time of conception, the braiding of the pregnant mother's hair, birth, name-
giving, beginning of solid foods, starting education, investing boys with a
sacred thread, first leaving the family house, starting studies of Vedas,
marriage, and death," (Fisher, 2005).

As for societal influences the Hindu culture has developed a five step caste
system segregating people and shaping their life accordingly. The first group
consisted of priests and philosophers or specialists in spirituality also called
Brahmins. The following is Kshatriyas which was made up of nobility such
as kings, warriors and vassals having their priority to guard and preserve the
society. Thirdly, Vaishyas were the economic specialists made up of farmers
and merchants. Moreover, the Shudra were the manual laborers and
artisans. Of the four original castes group a fifth group formed called the
untouchables that did most of the undesired work such as cleaning human
waste and transporting corpses. The membership in a caste group is
hereditary and maintains strict rules. Contact between castes was limited
until the intervention of Gandhi that renamed the lowest cast "children of
God" or "harijans," according to Fisher (2005). Additionally, "The Vedas,
other scriptures, and historical customs have all conditioned the Indian
people to accept their social roles. These were set out in a major document
known as the Code of Manu, compiled by 100 CE. In it are laws governing all
aspects of life, including the proper conduct of rulers, dietary restrictions,
marriage laws, daily rituals, purification rites, social laws, and ethical
guidance," (Fisher, 2005).

The desire for liberation from earthly existence is mainly the purpose of all
the religious traditions and self disciplines in Hinduism. That is the ultimate
goal to be united with the divine. According to Fisher, to reach the goal of
liberation it may take at least the entire life or many life times (2005).
Hinduism devotees practice various forms of yoga to experience oneness
with the divine. They conduct life threatening pilgrimages to specific sites in
order to meditate and venerate the divine. Moreover, some fast on various
lunar calendar days to show devotion and desire for liberation. Religious
practices, mass bathing and Festivals venerating particular deities are other
forms expressing desire for liberation. The more enthusiastic seekers seek
out a guru which is considered to be a person that has reached the ideal
spiritual state desired by the seeker. Therefore, the person becomes an
apprentice and considers the guru a spiritual parent in return for spiritual
advice.

History:

The earliest evidence for prehistoric religion in India dates back to the late
Neolithic in the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE). The beliefs and
practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical
Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which
is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE. The Vedas center on worship of
deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. Fire-
sacrifices, called yajña were performed, and Vedic mantras chanted but no
temples or icons were built. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong
similarities to Zoroastrianism and other Indo-European religions.

The major Sanskrit epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, were compiled over a
protracted period during the late centuries BCE and the early centuries CE.
They contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India,
and are interspersed with religious and philosophical treatises. The later
Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans
and their battles against demons.

Three major movements underpinned the naissance of a new epoch of Hindu

thought: the advent and spread of Upanishadic, Jaina , and Buddhist
philosophico-religious thought throughout the broader Indian landmass.
Mahavira (24th Tirthankar of Jains) and Buddha (founder of Buddhism)
taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the
authority of the Vedas or the caste system. Buddha went a step further and
claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary. After 200
CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy,
including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Sanskritic culture went into decline after the end of the Gupta period. The
early medieval Puranas helped establish a religious mainstream among the
pre-literate tribal societies undergoing acculturation. The tenets of
Brahmanic Hinduism and of the Dharmashastras underwent a radical
transformation at the hands of the Purana composers, resulting in the rise of
a mainstream "Hinduism" that overshadowed all earlier traditions.

Definitions

Hinduism does not have a "unified system of belief encoded in declaration of faith
or a creed", but is rather an umbrella term comprising the plurality of religious
phenomena originating and based on the Vedic traditions.

The term Hindu in origin is a Persian word in use from the time of the Delhi
Sultanate, referring to any tradition that is native to India as opposed to Islam.
Hindu is used in the sense of "Indian pagan" in English from the 17th century, but
the notion of Hinduism as an identifiable religious tradition qualifying as one of the
world religions emerged only during the 19th century.

The characteristic of comprehensive tolerance to differences in belief, and

Hinduism's openness, makes it difficult to define as a religion according to
traditional Western conceptions. To its adherents, Hinduism is the traditional way
of life, and because of the wide range of traditions and ideas incorporated within or
covered by it, arriving at a comprehensive definition of the term is problematic.
While sometimes referred to as a religion, Hinduism is more often defined as a
religious tradition. It is therefore described as both the oldest of the world's
religions, and the most diverse. Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or
sacred literature, the Vedas, although there are exceptions. Some Hindu religious
traditions regard particular rituals as essential for salvation, but a variety of views
on this co-exist. Some Hindu philosophies postulate a theistic ontology of creation,
of sustenance, and of destruction of the universe, yet some Hindus are atheists.
Hinduism is sometimes characterized by the belief in reincarnation (samsara),
determined by the law of karma, and the idea that salvation is freedom from this
cycle of repeated birth and death. However, other religions of the region, such as
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, also believe in karma, outside the scope of
Hinduism. Hinduism is therefore viewed as the most complex of all of the living,
historical world religions. Despite its complexity, Hinduism is not only one of the
numerically largest faiths, but is also the oldest living major tradition on earth, with
roots reaching back into prehistory.

GOALS OF THE FOUR MAJOR HINDU SECTS

 • SAIVISM: The primary goal of Saivism is realizing one's identity with
God Siva, in perfect union and nondifferentiation. This is termed
nirvikalpa samadhi, Self Realization, and may be attained in this life,
granting moksha, permanent liberation from the cycles of birth and
death. A secondary goal is savikalpa samadhi, the realization of
Satchidananda, a unitive experience within superconsciousness in
which perfect Truth, knowledge and bliss are known. The soul's final
destiny is vishvagrasa, total merger in God Siva.
• SHAKTISM: The primary goal of Shaktism is moksha, defined as
complete identification with God Siva. A secondary goal for the Shaktas
is to perform good works selflessly so that one may go, on death, to
the heaven worlds and thereafter enjoy a good birth on Earth, for
heaven, too, is a transitory state. For Shaktas, God is both the formless
Absolute (Siva) and the manifest Divine (Shakti), worshiped as Parvati,
Durga, Kali, Amman, Rajarajeshvari, etc. Emphasis is given to the
feminine manifest by which the masculine Unmanifest is ultimately
reached.
• VAISHNAVISM: The primary goal of Vaishnavites is videha mukti,
liberation -- attainable only after death -- when the small self realizes
union with God Vishnu's body as a part of Him, yet maintains its pure
individual personality. Lord Vishnu -- all-pervasive consciousness -- is
the soul of the universe, distinct from the world and from the jivas,
"embodied souls," which constitute His body. His transcendent Being is
a celestial form residing in the city of Vaikuntha, the home of all
eternal values and perfection, where the soul joins Him upon mukti,
liberation. A secondary goal -- the experience of God's Grace -- can be
reached while yet embodied through taking refuge in Vishnu's
unbounded love. By loving and serving Vishnu and meditating upon
Him and His incarnations, our spiritual hunger grows and we
experience His Grace flooding our whole being.
• SMARTISM: The ultimate goal of Smartas is moksha, to realize oneself
as Brahman -- the Absolute and only Reality -- and become free from
samsara, the cycles of birth and death. For this, one must conquer the
state of avidya, or ignorance, which causes the world to appear as real.
All illusion has vanished for the realized being, Jivanmukta, even as he
lives out life in the physical body. At death, his inner and outer bodies
are extinguished. Brahman alone exists.

Hindu Philosophy:

Hindu philosophy is divided into six āstika (Sanskrit: आिसतक, "orthodox")

schools of thought, or darshanas (literally, "views"), which accept
the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures. Three other nāstika (Sanskrit:
नािसतक, "heterodox") schools do not accept the Vedas as authoritative.
The āstika schools are:
• Samkhya is a strongly dualist theoretical exposition of mind and
matter, that denies the existence of God. It postulates that everything
in reality stems from purusha (self, atma or soul) and prakriti
(matter, creative agency or energy). There are many living souls
(Jeevatmas) and they possess consciousness. Prakriti consists of three
dispositions known as qualities (gunas): activity (rajas), inactivity
(tamas) and steadiness (sattva) which arises when the two other gunas
are held in equilibrium. Because of the intertwined relationship
between the soul and these dispositions, an imbalance in disposition
causes the world to evolve. Liberation of the soul happens when it
realizes that it is above and beyond these three dispositions. Samkhya
denies the existence of God. Western dualism deals with the distinction
between the mind and the body, whereas in Samkhya it is between the
soul and matter. The concept of the atma (soul) is different from the
concept of the mind. Soul is absolute reality that is all-pervasive,
eternal, indivisible, attributeless, pure consciousness. It is non-matter
and is beyond intellect. Originally, Samkhya was not theistic, but in
confluence with Yoga it developed a theistic variant.

• Yoga : In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six

orthodox philosophical schools. The Yoga philosophical system is
closely allied with the Samkhya school. The Yoga school as expounded
by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is
more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a
divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality. The
parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max Müller
says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished
from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."

The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,
who is regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy. The
Sutras of the Yoga philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali, who may have
been, as Max Müller explains, "the author or representative of the
Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."
• Nyaya: The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. They were
written by Aksapada Gautama, probably in the second century BCE.
The most important contribution made by this school is its
methodology. This methodology is based on a system of logic that has
subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools. This
is comparable to the relationship between Western science and
philosophy, which was derived largely from Aristotelian logic.
Nevertheless, Nyaya was seen by its followers as more than logical in
its own right. They believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the
only way to gain release from suffering, and they took great pains to
identify valid sources of knowledge and distinguish these from mere
false opinions. According to Nyaya, there are exactly four sources of
knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony.
Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or invalid.
Nyaya developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is
probably the closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy. The later
Naiyanikas gave logical proofs for the existence and uniqueness of
Ishvara in response to Buddhism, which, at that time, was
fundamentally non-theistic. An important later development in Nyaya
was the system of Navya-NyÄ ﾁ ya.

• Vaisheshika , an empiricist school of atomism The Vaisheshika

school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic pluralism. All
objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of atoms,
and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes
consciousness in these and the two eventually merged because of
their closely related metaphysical theories. In its classical form,
however, the Vaisheshika School differed from the Nyaya in one crucial
respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the
Vaisheshika accepted only two—–perception and inference.

• Mimamsa, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy. The

main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school was to establish the
authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable
contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic
interpretation. Its adherents believe that one must have
unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the yajñas, or fire-
 sacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the mantras and
yajñas to sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this
belief, they place great emphasis on dharma, which consists of the
performance of Vedic rituals.

The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the

other schools, but felt they did not sufficiently emphasize attention to
right action. They believed that the other schools of thought that
aimed for release (moksha) are not allowed for complete freedom from
desire and selfishness, because the very striving for liberation
stemmed from a simple desire to be free. According to Mimamsa
thought, only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the
Vedas may one attain salvation.

The Mimamsa school later shifted its views and began to teach the
doctrines of Brahman and freedom. Its adherents then advocated the
release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened
activity. Although Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention,
its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu, because all
Hindu ritual, ceremony, and law is influenced by this school.

• Vedanta, the logical conclusion to Vedic ritualism, focusing on

mysticism. Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in
the post-medieval period.

In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current
in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance
of Vaishshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages,
when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita
"non-dualism" and others) began to rise to prominence as the main
divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the 17th century
as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status
as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
 Vedanta and Principles of Vedanta:
Vedanta consists of two words, namely Veda and anta. Veda means
knowledge and anta means end or culmination. So Vedanta means the
end of all knowledge or the essence of all knowledge. We have
knowledge of two kinds. The Mundaka Upanishad classifies knowledge
into two types—aparà vidyà and parà vidyà. Aparà vidyà is empirical
knowledge—knowledge of the sciences, knowledge of the arts, or
whatever knowledge we gain from this world. In other words, this
knowledge is subject-object related knowledge. And what is parà
vidyà? The Mundaka Upanishad says, ‘atha parà—yayà tadaksharam
adhigamyate’. Parà vidyà, the superior knowledge or the supreme
knowledge, is that by which everything else becomes known. So parà
vidyà is the knowledge of the âtman, knowledge of our true nature. So
that is the essence of all knowledge. It is knowledge with capital
‘K’.Empirical knowledge is knowledge with a small ‘k’. Knowledge of
the âtman or knowledge of God is ‘The Knowledge’, knowing which
everything becomes known. Therefore Vedanta means the essence of
all knowledge, the culmination of all knowledge.

By ‘Vedanta’ is meant primarily the Upanishads that form the end portion or
the knowledge portion of the Vedas. We know that the Vedas are divided into
two sections—the ritualistic part called the ‘Karma- Kànda’ and the
knowledge part called the ‘Jnàna-Kànda’. The knowledge part refers to the
Upanishads because it deals with the nature of our real Self, the nature of
God, the nature of the Reality behind this manifest universe. So that kind of
knowledge is referred to as Vedanta, i.e. the end of all knowledge.

Consequently, the Vedanta separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting

the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.

• Advaita: Advaita literally means "non duality." Its first great

consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya (788-820), who continued the
line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his
teacher's teacher Gaudapada. By analysing the three states of
experience—–waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—–he established the
singular reality of Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one
and the same. He saw this form as that of Vishnu.
• Visishtadvaita: Ramanujacharya (1040–1137) was the foremost
proponent of the concept of the Supreme Being having a definite form,
name, and attributes. He saw this form as that of Vishnu.Vishnu is the
only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on
 Vishnu for their existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as
qualified non-dualism.
• Dvaita: According to Dvaita, there are three ultimate realities: Vishnu,
soul, and matter. Five distinctions are made: (1) Vishnu is distinct from
souls; (2) Vishnu is distinct from matter; (3) Souls are distinct from
matter; (4) A soul is distinct from another soul, and (5) Matter is
distinct from other matter. Souls are eternal and are dependent upon
the will of Vishnu. This theology attempts to address the problem of
evil with the idea that souls are not created.
• Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda): Dvaitadvaita was proposed by
Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra
region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of
existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different
from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different
from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter
are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is
separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is
the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of
worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of
gopis, or cowherdesses; of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion
consists in self-surrender.
• Shuddhadvaita: Shuddhadvaita was proposed by Vallabhacharya
(1479–1531), who came from the Andhra region and taught pushti
bhakti. His pushtimarg has especially become prominent in Rajasthan
and Gujarat.
• Acintya Bheda Abheda: Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1534), was
stating that the soul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct
from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda, and that this,
although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving
devotion (bhakti). He followed the Dvaita concept of Sri Madhva. This
philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and difference" is followed by a
number of modern Gaudiya Vaishnava movements, including ISKCON.
ISKCON has recently participated in bringing the academic study of
Krishna-related philosophies into Western academia through the
theological discourse on Krishnology.

Now, when we study Vedanta we need to study in depth four important

principles which are universally applicable. These principles can be practiced
by anyone irrespective of the differences in caste, gender, nationality, or any
other man-made differences.

Principles:
1. Non duality of the ultimate reality: The ultimate or the supreme
Reality is but one—advitiya. It is non-dual. Vedanta calls this supreme
 Reality Brahman. Brahman means the Infinite. Vedanta does not refer
to any particular god or goddess. It only refers to Brahman. This
Brahman is said to be Sat-Chit-ânanda. Sat is eternal being; Chit is
eternal Consciousness or Knowledge; and ànanda’ is eternal Bliss.

In other words, Brahman is eternal Existence, eternal Knowledge and

eternal Bliss. Brahman is the name Vedanta gives to the spiritual
Reality behind the universe of names and forms. But then, each one of
us is also essentially divine and this divinity that is lurking behind the
physical body and the mind is called the âtman. Vedanta says this
spiritual Reality behind this human frame and the spiritual Reality
behind the universe of names and forms is one and the same. This
truth is suggested by the famous Vedantic equation or mahàvàkya—
ayam âtmà brahma, i.e . this âtman is Brahman.

That is why Sri Ramakrishna says, ‘As many faiths, so many paths.’ Sri
Ramakrishna’s life is a glaring testimony to this principle. He did not
teach orally. His life teaches us. He practised spiritual disciplines not
only according to the different paths of Hinduism, but also according to
Christianity and Islam and his firsthand experience was that all these
diverse ways lead one to the same spiritual goal. So, that is all about
the first cardinal principle—the non-duality of the Godhead. The
ultimate Reality is non-dual; call it by any name. Sri Ramakrishna used
to say that a Hindu takes water from a reservoir and he calls it ‘jal’. A
Christian calls it ‘water’. A Muslim calls it ‘paani’. But all three different
names refer to the same substance—water. Similarly, there are so
many names of God and so many forms, but the essence behind all
these names and forms is the same, the same ultimate Reality, the
formless Reality that is eternal Existence, eternal Consciousness and
eternal Bliss.

2. Divinity of the soul: All beings are divine. We are not just the body-
mind complex. We appear differently from outside—man, woman, air,
black, young, old and so on. But these differences are only physical.
Behind this body, behind these physical appearances, we have a mind.
Again, behind this mind we have an eternal dimension and that is
 called âtman. Swami Vivekananda says, ‘Each soul is potentially
divine.’ We are all divine. Only we are not conscious of it all the time.
That is why only the differences that appear to us seem to be very
real. When we interact with people their physical appearances play a
significant role. So the mind and the body appear so real to us. But
essentially, Vedanta says, we are not just a body-mind complex. We
are the âtman. We are divinities.

Though we are divine, this divinity is now in potential form. As of now,

we are not conscious of our divinity. As a result we identify ourselves
with our body, mind and the external objects of the world. The world
becomes our sole reality. We begin to seek fulfillment in finite objects
of the world. We seek to draw eternal bliss from finite things which are
just not possible.

3. Oneness of Existence: According to Vedanta, whatever exists is one.

It does not posit two realities—one Brahman, another màyà or God and
Satan. No. There is only One. What exists is One, call it Spirit or matter.
Swami Vivekananda would say: Sit with your eyes closed and think for
a moment that you are the Spirit. When you think you are the Spirit,
can you at the same time think that you are the body? No. When you
think you are the body, you cannot think you are the Spirit. So what
exists is One. What exists is the Spirit. It appears to us as the world.
Brahman appears to us as the world of diversity of names and forms
because of ignorance of our true nature. We know the celebrated
example of Advaita, the example of the snake and the rope. When we
see a rope in twilight it appears to us as a snake and we experience all
fear and trepidation associated with a snake. But when you bring a
flashlight and focus it on the rope, the rope stands revealed. Neither
does the snake appear nor does it disappear. There was no snake at
all, only rope! Similarly, Vedanta says, what exists is only Brahman—
ekam eva dvitiyam.

This oneness of existence is also the basis of universal love that we

study in the upanishads. The Brihadàranyaka Upanishad teaches this
principle and says that it is not for the sake of the husband that the
 husband is loved, but for the sake of the âtman; it is not for the sake of
the wife that the wife is loved, but for the sake of the âtman and so on.
This list continues and ends with the declaration that it is not for the
sake of anything that anything or anyone is loved, but for the sake of
the âtman. Therefore this universal love is based on the concept of
oneness of existence. And, finally, this oneness of existence lends
meaning to this oft-quoted teaching—loves thy neighbor as thyself. It is
because your neighbour is yourself. So, when we hurt others we really
hurt ourselves. If we are immoral with someone that forges one more
link in the chain that binds us to the world. Thus Vedanta says—be
moral because you are the âtman. If you are immoral, that immorality
strengthens your bad tendencies and binds you all the more to the
world. So that is the third principle of Vedanta—the oneness of
existence.

4. Harmony of religions: The first three principles, namely non-duality

of the ultimate Reality, Divinity of the soul, and oneness of existence—
these three logically lead us to the fourth principle. What is that fourth
principle? That is the harmony of religions. This is an important
teaching of Sri Ramakrishna who says that every religion is a valid
pathway to the same ultimate Reality. Therefore, there is no need to
fight in the name of religion. What we really need is sincerity,
earnestness and yearning. Be true to yourself and be earnest to know
the Truth. If you have these two, Sri Ramakrishna assures us, God
Himself will put you on the right track even if you temporarily lose your
way. That is a great assurance from Sri Ramakrishna.

Swami Vivekananda says, there are three aspects in every religion—

philosophy, mythology and rituals. Philosophy presents the whole
scope of the religion setting forth its basic principles, the goal, and the
means of reaching that goal. The second part is mythology which is
philosophy made concrete. It consists of legends related to the lives of
men and women or of supernatural beings and so forth. The third part
is the ritual. This is still more concrete and is made of forms and
ceremonies. There is a physical attitude in them—flowers and incense
and many other things that appeal to the senses. We need all the
three. However, problem starts when the adherents of these religions
begin to believe that their own philosophy, mythology, and rituals are
the only philosophy, only mythology and only valid rituals. Then comes
bloodshed, then comes discord.

Swami Vivekananda tells us that we can never achieve unity or

universality in matters of these three aspects. Universality is possible
only in respect of the spiritual Truth which is the goal of every religion.
If every religion is sincerely practised, it could be a valid pathway to
attain the same ultimate Truth. He gives us an example and says:
Imagine a circle with infinite circumference. We are all on the
periphery of the circumference of the circle. There are infinite numbers
of points on the circumference. Now, as long as we stand on the
periphery—you at the top of the periphery and I am at a dramatically
opposite point—and we begin to debate which locus is the better one.
As it happens, my point is always right! Naturally, your views have to
be wrong! As long as we keep on staying on the periphery and think
ours is the only right locus there is no end to discord and disharmony.
But once we choose to move towards the centre following any of the
radii, differences keep diminishing. Then we dwell more on concord,
more on unity and we begin to be spiritual, we begin to live religion
and ultimately when we reach the centre we know all the radii lead to
the same centre. Any person who sincerely cares for religion, who
seriously cares to live religion, these principles provide him with a
wonderful framework for the manifestation of the divinity that is
already in man.

TRIMURTI: Hindu God trinity

Trimurti is a concept in Hinduism in which the cosmic functions of
creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified by the forms of
Brahmā the creator, Vishnu the maintainer or preserver, and Śhiva the
destroyer or transformer. These three deities have been called "the
Hindu triad" or the "Great Trinity”,often addressed as "Brahma-Vishnu-
Mahesh."
 One type of depiction for the Trimurti shows three heads on one neck,
and often even three faces on one head, each looking in a different
direction.

• Brahma: To indicate, Brahma the creator, is described as being born from

the navel of Vishnu as he is lying on the great serpent, Ananta in the milky
ocean. One of the earliest iconographic descriptions of Brahma is that of the
four-faced god seated on a lotus. The Lord has in his four hands a water-pot
(kamandalu), a manuscript (Vedas), a sacrificial implement (sruva) and a
rosary (mala). He wears the hide of a black antelope and his vehicle is a swan
(hams).

The description of Brahma like those of other deities of Hinduism bears

a mystic symbolism. The lotus represents the Reality. Brahma sitting
on the lotus indicates that he is ever-rooted in the infinite Reality.
Reality is the foundation on which his personality rests. The four faces
of Brahma represent the four Vedas. They also symbolize the
functioning of the inner personality (antahkarana) which consists of
thoughts. They are the mind (manas), the intellect (buddhi), ego
(ahamkara) and conditioned-consciousness (chitta). They represent the
four ways in which thoughts function. They are the manifestations of
the unmanifest Consciousness.

Brahma is said to be the Lord of creation. The creator must necessarily

possess the knowledge to create. Without knowledge no creation is
possible. Hence Brahma is said to be wedded to the goddess of
knowledge, Saraswati. Life in this world is a manifestation of the three
principles of creation, sustenance and destruction. In fact these three
are interconnected. The apparent destruction is only an essential
forerunner to creation.

• Vishnu: Lord Vishnu, major god of Hinduism and Indian mythology,

popularly regarded as the preserver of the universe. In the ancient
body of literature called the Veda, the sacred literature of the Aryan
invaders, Vishnu ranks with the numerous lesser gods and is usually
associated with the major Vedic god Indra in battles against demonic
forces. In the epics and Puranas-writings belonging to subsequent
periods in the development of Hinduism-Vishnu (especially in his
incarnations) becomes prominent. Some Puranic literature refers to
him as the eternal, all-pervading spirit and associates him with the
 primeval waters believed to have been omnipresent before the
creation of the world. So regarded, Vishnu is depicted frequently in
human form, sleeping on the great serpent Shesha and floating on the
waters. The concept of Lord Vishnu as preserver is comparatively late.
It is based chiefly on two beliefs: humans may attain salvation by
faithfully following predetermined paths of duty, and good and evil
powers (gods and demons) contend for dominion over the world.
Occasionally, the balance of power is upset in favor of evil, and then
Lord Vishnu is believed to descend to earth in a mortal form (his
avatar) to save humankind or the world.

Ten such avatars (descents or incarnations) are commonly recognized,

of which Lord Rama and Lord Krishna are the most important. Nine
descents are thought to have already occurred; the tenth and last is
yet to come. Scholars believe that Vishnu's role as preserver (or
redeemer) arose from the characteristic practice of assimilating local
legendary heroes and gods into the Hindu pantheon by attributing
their deeds to one of the major Hindu deities.

• Shiva: Shiva is one of the gods of the Trinity. He is said to be the god
of destruction. The other two gods are Brahma, the god of creation and
Vishnu, the god of maintenance. The three gods represent the three
fundamental powers of nature which are manifest in the world viz.
creation, destruction and maintenance. These powers exist
perpetually. Creation is going on all the time. So is destruction and
maintenance. All three powers are manifest at all times. They are
inseparable. Creation and destruction are like two sides of a coin. And
maintenance is an integral part of the processes of creation and
destruction. For example, morning dies to give birth to noon. Noon dies
when night is born. In this chain of birth and death the day is
maintained. To indicate that these three processes are one and the
same the three gods are combined in one form of Lord Dattatreya.
Lord Dattatreya has the faces of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Shiva is
married to the Goddess Uma. Uma represents frakriti which means
perishable matter. Shiva's marriage with Uma signifies that the power
of destruction has no meaning without its association with perishable
matter. Destruction manifests itself only when there is perishable
matter. Lord Shiva sits in a meditative pose against the white
background of the snow-capped Himalayas in Mount Kailas. His posture
symbolises perfect inner harmony and poise, experienced by a man of
Realisation. He is rooted in God- consciousness. He revels in the bliss
of the transcendental Reality. Nothing disturbs him. The vicissitudes of
nature, the challenges of life, the trials and tribulations of the
terrestrial world do not affect him at all. He maintains perfect serenity,
equanimity and tranquility in all environments and circumstances.

On the auspicious occasion of MahaShivaratri, Shiva performs the

ecstatic dance of realisation. In the dance pose Shiva is known as
Nataraja. The dance symbolises the thrill of god-realisation. Beyond
the realms of the waking, dream and deep-sleep states of
consciousness. Beyond the ' experiences of the body and its
perceptions, the mind and its feelings, the intellect and its thoughts
lies the bliss of Godhood. Shiva reaches this state of Godhood and
dances with the intoxication of supreme bliss .

Shiva is said to have a third eye known as gyana chakshu. Gyana

chakshu literally means eye of wisdom. The eye whose vision reaches
beyond that of the two mortal eyes. The idea of the third eye is not to
be taken literally to mean that a third fleshy organ exists in Shiva. It
only means that Shiva has a divine vision of Reality. Your vision is
confined merely to perceptions, emotions and thoughts but when you
transcend the limitations of your body, mind and intellect you gain
realisation of your inner Self. That is indicated by the opening of the
gyana chakshu.

The Sacred Texts of the Hindus:

According to Swami Vivekananda, "the accumulated treasury of
spiritual laws discovered by different persons in different times"
constitutes the sacred Hindu texts. Collectively referred to as the
Shastras, there are two types of sacred writings in the Hindu
scriptures: Shruti (heard) and Smriti (memorized).

Sruti

Sruti literature refers to the habit of ancient Hindu saints who led a
solitary life in the woods, where they developed a consciousness that
enabled them to 'hear' or cognize the truths of the universe. Sruti
literatures are of two parts: the Vedas and the Upanishads.
 There are four Vedas:

• The Rig Veda -"Royal Knowledge"

• The Sama Veda - "Knowledge of Chants"
• The Yajur Veda - "Knowledge of Sacrificial Rituals"
• The Atharva Veda - "Knowledge of Incarnations"

There are 108 extant Upanishads, of which 10 are most important: Isa,
Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaka, Mandukya, Taitiriya, Aitareya,
Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka.

Smriti

Smriti Literature refers to 'memorized' or 'remembered' poetry and

epics. They are more popular with Hindus, because they are easy to
understand, explains universal truths through symbolism and
mythology, and contain some of the most beautiful and exciting stories
in the history of religion world literature. The three most important of
Smriti literature are:

• The Bhagavad Gita : The most well known of the Hindu scriptures,
called the "Song of the Adorable One", written about the 2nd century
BC and forms the sixth part of Mahabharata. It contains some of the
most brilliant theological lessons about the nature of God and of life
ever written.
• The Mahabharata: The world's longest epic poem written about 9th
century BC, and deals with the power struggle between the Pandava
and the Kaurava families, with an intertwining of numerous episodes
that make up life.

Mahabharat, which literally means ‘the great story of Bharat dynasty’

is part of the Hindu Itihās, i.e. ‘that which happened’. It is an
extraordinary story of sibling rivalry, diplomatic maneuvering and
shifting of human values culminating in a direct confrontation on the
battlefield of Kurukshetra between five sons of King Pandu (Pandavas)
and hundred sons of King Dhritarastra (Kauravas). It's a tale of tragic
war which pitted brothers against brothers, sons against fathers and
students against teachers. Exceptional characters, in-depth and
complex set of interwoven relationships and dramatization on a grand
scale makes this epic a memorable one. It's also a saga which marks
the end of an era (dvapar Yuga) wherein characters lived up to morals,
values and principles to the beginning of an era (Kali Yuga), wherein
selfishness, deceit and immorality rules the reins.

Besides compelling drama and riveting plot, Mahabharata is unique in

many ways. Larger than life characters including that of Lord Krishna,
 considered as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu; Bhisma - great
grandfather of principle warriors, who pledged to serve the kingdom of
Hastinapur and ended up being a silent witness of its fall; Arjuna -
unparalleled archer of that time, who laid down his arms at the
beginning of the war; Karna - son of Kunti who ended up on the enemy
camp due to misfortune; Yudhisthir - an icon of truth who was
compelled to lie to win over the battle; Duryodhan - son of blind king
whose unending ambitions became the root cause of trouble;
Dronacharya - accomplished teacher of that time, who was forced to
fight against his favorite student Arjuna...all make this epic spectacular
and fascinating.

Every single incident of Mahabharata is full of twists and turns -

whether be it the game of dice between brothers or be it the 13 years
exile of Pandavas in the forest with a condition of anonymity for the
last year, or be it a mysterious fire in the house of wax and Pandava's
miraculous escape thereof or be it the laying down of arms by
dishearten Arjuna in the battlefield, which resulted in delivery of the
message of Bhagavad-Gita (song of the supreme) by Lord Krishna or
be it the deftness of Krishna in navigating Pandavas to victory and
beyond. In a way, Ramayana and Mahabharata form the very basis of
cultural consciousness that symbolize Hinduism. It's not a surprise that
Mahabharata has attracted tremendous interest among literates and
common man alike of India or East Asia but pundits and philosophers
all over the world.

• The Ramayana: The most popular of Hindu epics, composed by

Valmiki around 4th or 2nd centuries BC with later additions up to about
300 CE. It depicts the story of the royal couple of Ayodha - Ram and
Sita and a host of other characters and their exploits.

Puranas:

The Puranas are a genre of important Hindu, Jain or Buddhist religious

texts, notably consisting of narratives of the history of the universe
from creation to destruction, genealogies of kings, heroes, sages, and
demigods, and descriptions of Hindu cosmology, philosophy, and
geography.

Puranas usually give prominence to a particular deity, employing an

abundance of religious and philosophical concepts. They are usually
written in the form of stories related by one person to another. The
Puranas are available in vernacular translations and are disseminated
by Brahmin scholars, who read from them and tell their stories, usually
in Katha sessions (in which a traveling brahmin settles for a few weeks
in a temple and narrates parts of a Purana, usually with a Bhakti
perspective).