PSYCHOLOGY

Evolution of Psychology
- Investigating human behavior scientifically:
- formulate precise behavioral questions and test possible answers
through systematic observation.
- Psychology evolved from early speculation about behavior to modern
science.
- Psyche: soul & logos: study of a subject. Psychology – “the study of the
mind”.
- Originated through philosophers and physiologists who were interested in
the mind (how the
mind and body interact?)

How Psychology came to be:

- Wilhelm Wundt campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline.
- German universities were expanding therefore had room for new
research. Academic community approved Wundt’s proposals.
- 1879 is psychology’s “date of birth” in Germany, Wundt established
the first formal lab for psych at University of Leipeg.
- Became the scientific study of conscious experience.
- Focused on the mind but with methods of physics and chem.
(science)
- Spread to North America after people studied under him.

Structuralism vs. Functionalism:

- First 2 schools of thought
Structuralism: (1890’s) idea that psychology is to analyze consciousness into
basic elements and see how they are related. To examine consciousness,
used introspection (careful systematic, self-observation of one’s own
experience). Subjects were trained then exposed to optical illusions etc. and
asked to analyze their experience.

Functionalism: (1890’s) belief that psych should investigate the purpose of

consciousness, not structure. Consciousness must be an important part of
humans therefore study the functions of it not the structure. Consciousness is
a continuous flow of thoughts, wanted to study the flow vs. certain points in it
like the structuralists.

Sigmund Freud & Unconsciousness (1900-1933)

- Australian physician, wanted to be famous in medicine. Became influential
figure for later work with people in psych.
- Psychoanalysis: treated people with psychological problems, fears,
obsession, anxiety etc.
- Discovered unconsciousness – thoughts, memories and desires we are
unaware of but have an effect on our behaviors.
- Concluded psychological disturbances are caused by internal conflicts on an
unconscious level.
John Watson Alters Psychology
- Psychology should be the study of behavior and not consciousness.
- Cannot see one’s thoughts, psych should be a science, the study and
observation of behavior.
- Nature vs. Nurture (Inheritance vs. experience)
- Argued nurture. Said one develops based on experience no matter what
their heredity.
- Stimulus-response psychology = relation of responses of observable events.
(dog ex. drooling)
- Study of the mind became the study of responses on lab animals.

Skinner (1950’s) (continued Watson’s idea of behavior)

- Argued thoughts can’t be studied scientifically, but based on responses we
can describe
thoughts.
- If eating is the response of the stimulus hunger, it applies to all things.
- Behavior is influenced by environment. Organisms repeat responses with
positive outcomes.
- Said could train things into behavior./ Book “Beyond Freedom and Dignity”
(1971)
- Said we are controlled by environment not conscious decisions. & Free will
is an illusion.

•By 1950’s Psychoanalytic theory & behaviorism were popular but people
said these thoughts were “dehumanizing”. Both theories suggested humans
were not the masters of their destinies.

• Humanism theory developed as opposition. Emphasizes uniqueness of

humans, freedom.
- Carl Rogers (1900s), humans behavior is based on self-concept, animals
lack. To understand behavior, must see human drive to personal growth.
People need to evolve and fulfill potentials.

• WWII impacted needs for psychologists. Veterans had psychological scars &
needed treatment

Psych Returns to Roots – Cognition and Physiology (1950-60s)

- Cognitive theorists said to understand human behavior fully, must know
their thoughts.
- Mental processes affect behavior. Can be tested by problem solving,
decisions and reasoning.
- Right and left halves of the brain meant to handle different mental tasks.

• Evolutionary Psychology: behavioral processes of members of species over

many generations.

• Positive Psychology: (1997) better understand positive, adaptive & fulfilling

aspects of humans
- study of positive experiences; happiness, love, gratitude etc.
- positive individual traits; personal strengths and virtues
- positive communities; strong families, good work environments etc.
- Theorists want to find the origins of the positive traits.

Research & Professional Specialties in Psych

- review research areas and specialties

Seven Unifying Themes

Psychology is:
1) Empirical: knowledge should be acquired through observation.
E.g. are men more aggressive than women. Questions answered
through observation.
2) Theoretically Diverse: Use theories; related ideas that explain
observations.
3) Sociohistorical Context: Psychology and society influence each other.
Subject Matter: Behavior determined by culture, heredity,
environment & experience.
4) Behavior has Many Causes: Multiple causation of behavior. E.g. reasons for
a grade in a class
5) Behavior Influenced by Culture: cultural background effects behavior.
Culture is shared customs, beliefs, values etc. transmitted through
generations. Culture is outside because practices molding behavior can be
seen, but lies inside because some beliefs, assumptions etc. are in people’s
heads and cannot be seen.
6) Heredity and Environment: who we are, what are interests are, etc. is
influenced by genes and environment.
7) Experience of the World: perception is personalized and subjective. We see
what we want and expect to see.

The Research Enterprise in Psychology

Goals for Scientific Enterprise

1. Measurement and description: a way to measure observations being
studied.
2. Understanding and prediction: scientists believe to understand events
must be able to
explain. E.g. hypothesis and variables.
3. Application and control: Once problem understood, control can be put over
it. Want to solve
everyday issues. E.g. Cause of math anxiety and develop program to calm
math anxiety.

Scientific Investigation
- formulate a hypothesis out of theory
naïve realism – when people think that they’re right and the opponent
is wrong/bias
- select research method & design the study
How to put the hypothesis to an empirical(observational) test. Then
detailed plan
- Collect data
Tests, surveys etc. are ways of getting data, sometimes fast, others
long.
- Analyze date & conclude
Data usually turned into numbers (stats) analyzed if hypothesis
rejected/approved
- Report Findings
Write summary of research and findings and submit to science or
journal
• Goes through peer review*

• Scientific approach to behavior gives clarity and precision rather than

making assumptions or common sense. Scientists research thoroughly, test
and criticize therefore findings are accurate.

Independent and Dependent Variables (Cause and Effect)

- Independent is controlled/manipulated and dependent is affected
- Experimental & Control, they are treated similar, except for the independent
variable factor. The control will not receive this but treated the same, to see
if the effects vary for each group.
Extraneous variables: other than the independent that seem to influence the
dependent var.
Confounding variables: 2 variables somewhat linked so its hard to sort their
effects. Social E.g.
- Can have more than one independent and dependent variable.
- Correlation; when 2 variables are related / Correlation coefficient (+1, 0, -1)
Negative – variables go in different directions. Positive – variables go in
same direction.

• Naturalistic Observation: good because can test the natural environment

without factors in the way. Bad because if observation is too obvious,
subjects become unnatural.

• Case study research: investigators analyze many case studies for patterns
to draw conclusions.
See what they expect, bc focus on info that fits with expectations that leans
towards the theory.

•Sampling bias – sample is not representative of the population.

• Placebo effect – participants expectations make them change when
receiving fake treatment.
• Self-report data – people can give socially approved answers, forget,
misunderstand questions.
• Experimenter bias – a researcher’s preference for the outcome influence
results.
• Internet research – less participants and variables are less controlled.
•Deception research – subjects are lied t in an experiment to get accurate
reactions/results.
Some argue against, some argue for stating knowledge leads to
improve welfare.

Nervous System
Neurons: individual cells receive integrate and transmit information. Mainly
communicate with other neurons and some outside with the nervous system.

soma – cell body containing the nucleus.

dendrite – part of neuron to receive information.
axon - transmits signals away from the soma.
myelin sheath – material over axons, protecting it.
terminal buttons – emit neurotransmitters.
synapses – information transmitted from one neuron to another.

Glia: cells in the nervous system providing types of support for neurons. (over
50% of brain vol.)

Neural Impulse
An electro-chemical reaction. Fluids containing electrically charged atoms
and molecules – ions.
Resting Potential – stable negative charge, cell is inactive.
Action Potential – brief change in neuron charge, travelling along an axon.
Absolute refractory period – max. time after action potential when another
action potential cannot begin. “down time”.
•neural transmission only take a few thousandths of a second.

synaptic cleft – gap between terminal button of neuron and cell membrane of
another neuron.
presynaptic neuron – sends the signal across the gap
postsynaptic neuron – receives the signal
postsynaptic potential – voltage change at receptor site on postsynaptic
membrane.
excitatory: positive voltage shift
inhibitory: negative voltage shift
•millions of neurons must fire to create thoughts or twitches.

• Acetylcholine (ACh) – transmitter between muscles and neurons. Every

move depends on ACh
released.
Agonist – chemical that acts like a neurotransmitter
antagonist – chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter.

• Monoamine – dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin – any irregular amounts

causes negative
effects such as anorexia, schizophrenia etc.
GABA – amino acid, produces only postsynaptic potentials.
Glutamate – amino acid, produces only excitatory effects. Contributes to
learning and memory.

• Endorphins – internally produced chemicals resembling opiates (plant

morphine made from).

The Endocrine System: Another Way to Communicate

Endocrine system = the second communication system of the nervous
system.
consist glands that emit chemicals into the blood stream helping body
functioning.
Hormones – chemicals release by endocrine glands.
(hormone release is pulsatile, several times, small bursts)
Hypothalamus – structure at base of brain, endocrine system controlled by
nervous system through this.
Pituitary gland – releases hormones in the body stimulating other endocrine
glands.

Heredity and Behavior

Chromosomes – strands of DNA that carry genetic information.
Every cell has 46 chromosomes, pairing into 23, one chromosome of each
pair from each parent.
Each parent’s 23 chromosomes can mix in over 8 million ways = 70 trillion
with egg & sperm
Polygenetic traits – characteristics effected by more than one pair of genes.

Hereditary Influence
Family Studies: examination of blood relatives to see how much they
resemble in a trait.
- Closer relatives look more alike because they share more of the same
genes.
- Schizophrenic relatives have more of a chance of developing the disease.
- Family studies provide info on heredity but not full because they share the
same environment.

Twin Studies: examination of resemblance of twins to a specific trait.

Identical twins: a single egg splits resulting in the same genetic
overlap.
Fraternal twins: separate eggs are fertilized at the same time, same as
regular siblings.
- If identical twins have more similarity to a trait than fraternal twins, one can
assume it is due to heredity.

Adoption Studies: examination of resemblance between adopted children and

their biological and adoptive parents.
- If adopted children resemble biological parents, were not raised by them,
genetic factors probably influence the trait.
- If adopted children resemble adoptive parents (with no genes)
environmental factors probably influence the trait.

Heredity and Environment

- heredity and experience both influence behavior.