Introduction

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into a natural environment that causes

instability, disorder, harm or discomfort to the ecosystem i.e. physical systems or living
organisms.[1] Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise,
heat, or light. Pollutants, the elements of pollution, can be foreign substances or energies,
or naturally occurring; when naturally occurring, they are considered contaminants when
they exceed natural levels. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source
pollution

Forms of pollution

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular pollutants relevant
to each of them:

• Air pollution, the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Common gaseous air pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor
vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are created as nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust is characterized by
their micrometre size PM10 to PM2.5.

• Light pollution, includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical

interference.

• Noise pollution, which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial

noise as well as high-intensity sonar.

1
 • Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground
leakage. Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy
metals, MTBE,[10] herbicides, pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
• Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic
physics, such as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research,
manufacture and deployment. (See alpha emitters and actinides in the
environment.)
• Thermal pollution, is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by
human influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
• Water pollution, by the release of waste products and contaminants into surface
runoff into river drainage systems, leaching into groundwater, liquid spills,
wastewater discharges, eutrophication and littering.

Definition of Pollution

Pollution is the beginning of a waste into the atmosphere making it impossible to make
life on earth possible to sustain.

Pollution harms the Earth’s environment and its people in many ways. Land pollution is
pollution of the Earth’s natural land surface by industrial, commercial, domestic and
agricultural activities. Some of the main contributions to land pollution are deforestation,
construction debris, industrial factories etc. Air pollution is the accumulation of harmful
substances into the atmosphere that danger human life and other living matter on the
earth. The number one way to prevent air pollution is to walk or bike more and drive less.
This will prevent fossil fuels from further polluting the air

Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, biological and physical matter into large
bodies of water that corrupt the quality of life that lives in it and consumes it. Oil spills,
household chemicals, pesticides and fertilizers are the major sources of water pollution.
The best way to prevent water pollution is to not throw trash and other harmful chemicals
into our water supplies because it causes harm to the rivers and lakes.

2
With Pollution in life, Earth is becoming disturbed; sooner or later causing dramatic
changes in its surface. Nevertheless, Pollution is simultaneously endangering life in
Earth. Pollution is becoming closer to put life on the threshold of death. These harmful
actions have changed Earth, and they continue to do so today. Although pollution has
harmful effects, it has provided us the life we have today; without it, we would not be
here where we are. Pollution is a life killer, but also a life saver.

Technology, each day has been evolving to make this world a better place. Nowadays,
technology is being cleaner to preserve Earth. Also, it has been cleaning Earth through
water treatment plants, air purifiers, etc. Technology will progress over the years to make
Earth a healthier living experience. As a nation we have to learn to respect and salute the
environment. We as individuals live in this environment and it our soul responsibility to
take care of it.

Air Pollution

One of the formal definitions of air pollution is as follows – ‘The presence in the
atmosphere of one or more contaminants in such quality and for such duration as is
injurious, or tends to be injurious, to human health or welfare, animal or plant life.’ It is
the contamination of air by the discharge of harmful substances. Air pollution can cause
health problems and it can also damage the environment and property. It has caused
thinning of the protective ozone layer of the atmosphere, which is leading to climate
change.

Modernisation and progress have led to air getting more and more polluted over the
years. Industries, vehicles, increase in the population, and urbanization are some of the
major factors responsible for air pollution. The following industries are among those that
emit a great deal of pollutants into the air: thermal power plants, cement, steel, refineries,
petro chemicals, and mines.

Air pollution results from a variety of causes, not all of which are within human control.
Dust storms in desert areas and smoke from forest fires and grass fires contribute to

3
chemical and particulate pollution of the air. The source of pollution may be in one
country but the impact of pollution may be felt elsewhere. The discovery of pesticides in
Antarctica, where they have never been used, suggests the extent to which aerial transport
can carry pollutants from one place to another

Listed below are the major air pollutants and their sources.

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless gas that is produced by the incomplete
burning of carbon-based fuels including petrol, diesel, and wood. It is also produced from
the combustion of natural and synthetic products such as cigarettes. It lowers the amount
of oxygen that enters our blood . It can slow our reflexes and make us confused and
sleepy.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the principle greenhouse gas emitted as a result of human
activities such as the burning of coal, oil, and natural gases.

Chloroflorocarbons (CFC) are gases that are released mainly from air-conditioning
systems and refrigeration. When released into the air, CFCs rise to the stratosphere,
where they come in contact with few other gases, which leads to a reduction of the ozone
layer that protects the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.

Lead is present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dye products, etc. Lead affects
children in particular. It can cause nervous system damage and digestive problems and, in
some cases, cause cancer.

Ozone occur naturally in the upper layers of the atmosphere. This important gas shields
the earth from the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. However, at the ground level, it is a
pollutant with highly toxic effects. Vehicles and industries are the major source of
ground-level ozone emissions. Ozone makes our eyes itch, burn, and water. It lowers our
resistance to colds and pneumonia.

4
Nitrogen oxide (Nox) causes smog and acid rain. It is produced from burning fuels
including petrol, diesel, and coal. Nitrogen oxides can make children susceptible to
respiratory diseases in winters.

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) consists of solids in the air in the form of smoke,
dust, and vapour that can remain suspended for extended periods and is also the main
source of haze which reduces visibility. The finer of these particles, when breathed in can
lodge in our lungs and cause lung damage and respiratory problems.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a gas produced from burning coal, mainly in thermal power
plants. Some industrial processes, such as production of paper and smelting of metals,
produce sulphur dioxide. It is a major contributor to smog and acid rain. Sulfur dioxide
can lead to lung diseases.

• Automobile emissions
• Tobacco smoke
• Combustion of coal
• Acid rain
• Noise pollution from cars and construction
• Power plants
• Manufacturing buildings
• Large ships
• Paint fumes
• Aerosol sprays
• Wildfires
• Nuclear weapons

Facts about Air Pollution

Here are a few facts about air pollution:

• Almost 232 million different types of vehicles are driven by U.S. citizens every
day, adding greenhouse gases into the air
• U.S. vehicle emissions contribute 45% to global warming
• The average adult consumes 3,000 gallons of polluted air every day
• Vehicle exhaust contributes to 60% of carbon monoxide emissions in the U.S. and
up to 95% in large cities
• Every year 335,000 Americans die of lung cancer, which is a direct result of air
pollution

5
How to Prevent Air Pollution

The number one way to prevent air pollution is to walk or bike more and drive less. This
will prevent fossil fuels from polluting the air. Here are some other ways to prevent air
pollution:

• Carpool or join a ride share with friends and coworkers

• Don’t smoke
• Keep your car maintenance up-to-date
• If you have to drive, do your errands at one time
• Don’t buy products that come in aerosol spray cans
• Avoid using lighter fluid when barbecuing outside
• When you drive accelerate slowly and use cruise control
• Always replace your car’s air filter
• Use a push or electric lawnmower rather than a gas-powered one
• Don’t use harsh chemical cleaners that can emit fumes
• Inspect your gas appliances and heaters regularly

Water Pollution

When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water bodies, they
get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on the bed. This results in the
pollution of water whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic
ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits.

Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers, and seas, thus making
water bodies the final resting place of cans, bottles, plastics, and other household
products. The various substances that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water
pollution as they contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people mostly used soaps made
from animal and vegetable fat for all types of washing. But most of today’s cleaning
products are synthetic detergents and come from the petrochemical industry. Most
detergents and washing powders contain phosphates, which are used to soften the water
among other things. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders affect the
health of all forms of life in the water.

The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish,
and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry.
It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water

6
destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard to
human health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution

Water pollution is the introduction of chemical, biological and physical matter into large
bodies of water that degrade the quality of life that lives in it and consumes it.

What are the sources of water pollution?

Some of the main contributors to water pollution are:

• Factories
• Refineries
• Waste treatment facilities
• Mining
• Pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers
• Human sewage
• Oil spills
• Failing septic systems
• Soap from washing your car
• Oil and antifreeze leaking from cars
• Household chemicals
• Animal waste

Facts about Water Pollution

Here are a few facts about water pollution:

• Over two-thirds of U.S. estuaries and bays are severely degraded because of
nitrogen and phosphorous pollution
• Every year almost 25% of U.S. beaches are closed at least once because of water
pollution
• Over 73 different kinds of pesticides have been found in the groundwater that we
eventually use to drink
• 1.2 trillion gallons of sewage, stormwater and industrial waste are discharged into
U.S. waters every year
• 40% of U.S. rivers are too polluted for aquatic life to survive
• Americans use over 2.2 billion pounds of pesticides every year, which eventually
washes into our rivers and lakes

How to Prevent Water Pollution

The best way to prevent water pollution is to not throw trash and other harmful chemicals
into our water supplies. Here are a few more ways you can prevent water pollution:

• Wash your car far away from any stormwater drains

7
 • Don’t throw trash, chemicals or solvents into sewer drains
• Inspect your septic system every 3-5 years
• Avoid using pesticides and fertilizers that can run off into water systems
• Sweep your driveway instead of hosing it down
• Always pump your waste-holding tanks on your boat
• Use non-toxic cleaning materials
• Clean up oil and other liquid spills with kitty litter and sweet them up

Sound Pollution

Noise, by definition, is unwanted sound. What is pleasant to some ears may be extremely
unpleasant to others, depending on a number of factors. The natural environment contains
many sources of noise - wind, volcanoes, oceans, and animal sounds are all familiar
intrusions accepted at various levels. Man-made noises - from machines, automobiles,
trains, planes, explosives and firecrackers, etc. - are more contentious. Both kinds of
noise affect sleep, hearing, communication, as well as mental and physical health.

Pollution is a noun derived from the verb pollute, meaning: to foul. It is now increasingly
understood that pollution from noise is an important component of air pollution, which
was previously understood as being limited to material pollution. Noise is an inescapable
by-product of the industrial environment, which is increasing with advances in
industrialization and urbanization. Even in non-industrial areas, noise from such activities
as printing, auto-repair, grinding, affects those living in the immediate surroundings.
Noise not only causes irritation or annoyance but also constricts the arteries, and
increases the flow of adrenaline and forces the heart to work faster. Continuous noise
causes an increase in the cholesterol level resulting in permanent constriction of blood
vessels, making one prone to heart attacks and strokes. Health experts are of the opinion
that excessive noise can also lead to neurosis and nervous breakdown.

Noise travels through air and hence it is measured in ambient air quality level. Noise is
measured in decibels. Experts believe that continuous noise levels in excess of 90
decibels can cause loss of hearing and irreversible changes in nervous systems. The
World Health Organization [WHO] has fixed 45 decibels as the safe noise level for a city.
Metropolitan areas in India usually register an average more than 90 decibels; Mumbai is
rated the third noisiest city in the world, with New Delhi following closely.

8
Chemical Pollution

In some parts of the world, the bodies of whales and dolphins washing ashore are so
highly contaminated that they qualify as toxic waste and have to be specially disposed of.
There are many different sources of chemical pollution, including:

• domestic sewage
• industrial discharges
• seepage from waste sites
• atmospheric fallout
• domestic run-off
• accidents and spills at sea
• operational discharges from oil rigs
• mining discharges and
• agricultural run-off.

However, the chemicals that are probably of most concern for everyone are the persistent
pollutants: those substances that enter marine food chains and are eventually passed along
the chain to the marine top predators in increasing amounts.Persistent pollutants include
pesticides, such as DDT, and industrial chemicals, most famously the PCBs

Soil Pollution

Soil pollution involves the contamination of soil by the release of harmful substances into the soil.
Unlike air pollution, which has a direct affect on human lives, soil pollution causes an indirect damage
to humans and other animals.

The lives of all the living things depend on three sources: water, light and soil. The plants which are
the producers of the food chain take up their nutrients, which are essential for their living, from the
soil.
The nutrients taken by the plants are then transferred to the consumers that depend on these plants.
Hence a soil consisting of contaminants will not only affect the plants growing on the soil but it will
also indirectly harm the entire food chain.

9
Causes Of Soil Pollution

Soil pollution is mainly caused by the release of industrial waste. This waste is directly incorporated
into the soil by large industries and factories. Soil pollution is also caused by human acts as mining
and deforestation etc.

Radioactive Pollution

Radioactive pollution is one of the types of pollution that is rare but extremely
detrimental, even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the difficulty of
reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution.

Sources of radioactive contamination include:

• Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage

• Improper nuclear waste disposal
• Uranium mining operations

Radiation pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health
problems for human and wildlife populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute
to water and air pollution.

Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of
time. The earth has a natural thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be
considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects. Many types of thermal
pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider
impacts over a greater geographic area.

Thermal pollution may be caused by:

• Power plants
• Urban sprawl
• Air pollution particulates that trap heat
• Deforestation
• Loss of temperature moderating water supplies

As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and wildlife

populations may be unable to recover from swift changes

10
Light Pollution

Cities cause light pollution.

Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources
include:

• Large cities
• Billboards and advertising
• Nighttime sporting events and other nighttime entertainment

Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical
observation and personal enjoyment. If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also
degrade the quality of life for residents.

Personal Pollution

Are you polluting yourself?

Personal pollution is the contamination of one's body and lifestyle with detrimental
actions. This may include:

• Excessive smoking, drinking or drug abuse

• Emotional or physical abuse
• Poor living conditions and habits
• Poor personal attitudes

In some cases, personal pollution may be inflicted by caregivers, while in other cases it is
caused by voluntary actions. Taking positive steps in your life can help eliminate this and
other types of pollution so you can lead a more productive, satisfying life.

11
 Pollution Effects
On Humans, Animals, Plants and The
Environment
Pollution effects are indeed many and wide-ranging. There is no doubt that excessive
levels of pollution are causing a lot of damage to human & animal health, plants & trees
including
tropical rainforests, as well as the wider environment.
Children Playing in Polluted Water
All types of pollution – air, water and soil pollution – have an impact on the living
environment.
The effects in living organisms may range from mild discomfort to serious diseases such
as cancer to
physical deformities; ex., extra or missing limbs in frogs.Experts admit that pollution
effects are quite
often underestimated and that more research is needed to understand the connections
between pollution
and its effects on all life forms.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Humans
We know that pollution causes not only physical disabilities but also psychological and
behavioral disorders in people. The following pollution effects on humans have been
reported:
I. Effects of Air Pollution
• Reduced lung functioning
• Irritation of eyes, nose, mouth and throat
• Asthma attacks
• Respiratory symptoms such as coughing and wheezing
• Increased respiratory disease such as bronchitis
• Reduced energy levels
• Headaches and dizziness
• Disruption of endocrine, reproductive and immune systems
• Neurobehavioural disorders

12
• Cardiovascular problems
• Cancer
• Premature death
II.Effects of Water Pollution
a. Waterborne diseases caused by polluted drinking water:
• Typhoid
• Amoebiasis
• Giardiasis
• Ascariasis
• Hookworm
b. Waterborne diseases caused by polluted beach water:
• Rashes, ear ache, pink eye
• Respiratory infections
• Hepatitis, encephalitis, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, vomiting, and stomach aches
c. Conditions related to water polluted by chemicals (such as pesticides, hydrocarbons,
persistent
organic pollutants, heavy metals etc):
• Cancer, incl. prostate cancer and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma
• Hormonal problems that can disrupt reproductive and developmental processes
• Damage to the nervous system
• Liver and kidney damage
• Damage to the DNA
• Exposure to mercury (heavy metal):
• In the womb: may cause neurological problems including slower reflexes, learning
deficits, delayed or incomplete mental development, autism and brain damage
• In adults: Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease,
and
even death
d. Other effects:
• Water pollution may also result from interactions between water and contaminated soil,
as well

13
as from deposition of air contaminants (such as acid rain)
• Damage to people may be caused by fish foods coming from polluted water (a well
known
example is high mercury levels in fish)
• Damage to people may be caused by vegetable crops grown / washed with polluted
water
(author’s own conclusion)
III. Effects of Soil Pollution
• Causes cancers including leukaemia
• Lead in soil is especially hazardous for young children causing developmental damage
to the
brain
• Mercury can increase the risk of kidney damage; cyclo dienes can lead to liver toxicity
• Causes neuro muscular blockage as well as depression of the central nervous system
• Also causes headaches, nausea, fatigue, eye irritation and skin rash
• Contact with contaminated soil may be direct (from using parks, schools etc) or indirect
(by
inhaling soil contaminants which have vaporized)
• Soil pollution may also result from secondary contamination of water supplies and from
deposition of air contaminants (for example, via acid rain)
• Contamination of crops grown in polluted soil brings up problems with food security
• Since it is closely linked to water pollution, many effects of soil contamination appear
to be
similar to the ones caused by water contamination.
IV. Effects of Noise Pollution
Decreases the efficiency of a man-Regarding the impact of noise on human efficiency
there are
number of experiments which shows that human efficiency increases with noise
reduction.
Lack of concentration-For better quality of work there should be concentration , Noise
causes lack of

14
concentration. In big cities , mostly all the offices are on main road. The noise of traffic
or the
loud speakers of different types of horns divert the attention of the people working in
offices.
Fatigue:Because of Noise Pollution, people cannot concentrate on their work. Thus they
have to give
their more time for completing the work and they feel tiring.
Abortion is caused-There should be cool and calm atmosphere during the pregnancy.
Unpleasant
sounds make a lady of irritative nature. Sudden Noise causes abortion in females.
Causes Blood Pressure-Noise Pollution causes certain diseases in human. It attacks on the
person’s
peace of mind. The noises are recognized as major contributing factors in accelerating the
already
existing tensions of modern living. These tensions result in certain disease like blood
pressure or
mental illness etc.
Temporary of permanent Deafness-The effect of noise on audition is well recognized.
Mechanics ,
locomotive drivers, telephone operators etc. All have their hearing impairment as a result
of noise
at the place of work. Physicians & psychologists are of the view that continued exposure
to noise
level above. 80 to 100 db is unsafe, Loud noise causes temporary or permanent deafness.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Animals
I. Effects of Air Pollution
• Acid rain (formed in the air) destroys fish life in lakes and streams
• Excessive ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun through the ozone layer in the
upper
atmosphere which is eroded by some air pollutants, may cause skin cancer in wildlife
• Ozone in the lower atmosphere may damage lung tissues of animals

15
II. Effects of Water Pollution
• Nutrient pollution (nitrogen, phosphates etc) causes overgrowth of toxic algae eaten by
other
aquatic animals, and may cause death; nutrient pollution can also cause outbreaks of fish
diseases
Oil Coated Duck
• Chemical contamination can cause declines in frog biodiversity and tadpole mass
• Oil pollution (as part of chemical contamination) can negatively affect development of
marine
organisms, increase susceptibility to disease and affect reproductive processes; can also
cause
gastrointestinal irritation, liver and kidney damage, and damage to the nervous system
• Mercury in water can cause abnormal behavior, slower growth and development,
reduced
reproduction, and death
• Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) may cause declines, deformities and death of fish
life
• Too much sodium chloride (ordinary salt) in water may kill animals
• We also assume that some higher forms of non-aquatic animals may have similar
effects from
water pollution as those experienced by humans, as described above
III. Effects of Soil Pollution
• Can alter metabolism of microorganisms and arthropods in a given soil environment;
this may
destroy some layers of the primary food chain, and thus have a negative effect on
predator
animal species
• Small life forms may consume harmful chemicals which may then be passed up the
food chain
to larger animals; this may lead to increased mortality rates and even animal extinction.
IV. Effects of Noise Pollution

16
• Noise pollution damage the nervous system of animal.
• Animal looses the control of its mind.
• They become dangerous.
Environmental Pollution Effects on Trees and Plants
I. Effects of Air Pollution
Trees Damaged by Acid Rain
• Acid rain can kill trees, destroy the leaves of plants, can infiltrate soil by making it
unsuitable
for purposes of nutrition and habitation
• Ozone holes in the upper atmosphere can allow excessive ultraviolet radiation from the
sun to
enter the Earth causing damage to trees and plants
• Ozone in the lower atmosphere can prevent plant respiration by blocking stomata
(openings in
leaves) and negatively affecting plants’ photosynthesis rates which will stunt plant
growth;
ozone can also decay plant cells directly by entering stomata.
II. Effects of Water Pollution
• May disrupt photosynthesis in aquatic plants and thus affecting ecosystems that depend
on these
plants
• Terrestrial and aquatic plants may absorb pollutants from water (as their main nutrient
source)
and pass them up the food chain to consumer animals and humans
• Plants may be killed by too much sodium chloride (ordinary slat) in water
• Plants may be killed by mud from construction sites as well as bits of wood and leaves,
clay and
other similar materials
• Plants may be killed by herbicides in water; herbicides are chemicals which are most
harmful to
plants.

17
III. Effects of Soil Pollution
• May alter plant metabolism and reduce crop yields
• Trees and plants may absorb soil contaminants and pass them up the food chain
IV. Effects of Noise Pollution

Noise pollution causes poor quality of crops in a pleasant atmosphere.

Understanding Pollution Effects

A transition is also occurring in our understanding of the health effects of

pollutants. It is now recognized that there are subtle health effects of
environmental pollutants, such as endocrine disruption and neurobehavioral
changes, for which newer toxicological paradigms are being developed. The
unraveling of the human genome may provide a better understanding of the
role of genetic susceptibility factors in response to pollution.

Understanding the effects of pollutants requires understanding how

pollutants change following their release from a source, and how they can
have effects many miles from their sources. For example, there are no
significant direct emitters of air pollutant ozone. Rather, this major
component of oxidant smog is formed in the air through the action of
sunlight on a mixture of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons coming from
many different sources, primarily automobiles. The precursors may have
been emitted hundreds of miles upwind of where the ozone is eventually
formed. For the northeastern United States, this means that statewide control
strategies, which are the major enforcement focus of the U.S. Clean Air Act,

18
are an inadequate approach to a regional issue. Similarly, acid rain and other
forms of particulate air pollution can be derived from atmospheric reactions
of gaseous sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides precursors occurring many
hundreds of miles downwind. Agents released into water can also undergo
significant changes. For example, methyl mercury, which is far more toxic
than elemental mercury, is formed in water through the action of bacteria
and makes its way into the food chain. The dumping of inorganic mercury
from a single chloralkali plant in Minimata Bay, Japan, led to contamination
of fish with methyl mercury and to over a hundred deaths and thousands of
people being affected by what is known as Minimata disease. There is also a
global air circulation of metals, such as mercury, and of persistent organic
pollutants, such as PCBs, which tends to carry these agents toward the arctic
where they often bioaccumulate.

Understanding the effects of pollutants on human health requires not only an

understanding of the intrinsic hazard of the chemical or physical agent, but
also the extent of human exposure. Exposure is often determined by local
pathways within a community, such as whether drinking water comes from
wells or from surface sources or whether individuals consume vegetables
grown in their backyards or brought to market from far away. Individual
activities can also alter pollutant intake; exercise, for example, increases
respiratory uptake of air pollutants. Health effects due to pollutants are
heavily dependent upon susceptibility factors, including age, gender, and
genetic predisposition.

Managing Pollution

19
A variety of approaches have been developed to manage existing pollution.
These include punishment of polluters through regulation, taxation, fines,
toxic tort suits, and other disincentives; encouragement of nonpolluting
approaches through tax and other incentives; and education of the public.
The increased awareness of the potential harmful effects of pollution has had
a major impact on industries and on individuals, particularly the young, who
have led the way in activities such as recycling. Risk assessment has
developed as a useful technique to estimate the risks of environmental
pollutants and to establish priorities for environmental control and
remediation efforts. These efforts to manage existing pollution are largely a
form of secondary prevention in that the pollution already exists and the
focus is on lessening the extent or the effects.

Primary prevention of pollution has occurred through approaches that, like

any form of primary prevention, are both highly effective and difficult to
quantify. The United States National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was
the first major action arising out of the new environmental movement aimed
at avoiding unwanted environmental consequences. It contained the
requirement that significant newly proposed federal activities have an
environmental impact statement prepared in advance, the goal being the
incorporation of environmental concerns into all planning processes and the
avoidance of those activities that would have an adverse impact. Advances
in science have had a significant primary preventive effect, in part through
providing assessment tools of use in preventing the development of new
harmful products by the chemical industry. As examples, a basic
understanding of the role of mutation in cancer and recognition of the
structural aspects resulting in the environmental persistence of chemicals

20
have led the chemical industry to detect and quickly drop out of its
development programs those new chemicals that are mutagens or are likely
to persist in the environment. The Precautionary Principle is basic to public
health practice, but is also now being advocated as a form of primary
prevention of environmental pollution.

Control of the more challenging insidious pollutant effects related to the

health of the planetary biosphere and to nonpoint sources cannot depend
solely upon standard command and control regulatory approaches. Central to
avoiding significant long-term consequences to health and the environment
is the development of innovative pollution prevention and control strategies,
including emissions trading, taxation of consumption and international
compacts; better targeting of controls through improved scientific
understanding of the processes involved; and a more informed public.

21