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UNIT-3
INTRODUCTION
The free electron theory of metals assumes that a conduction electron in a
metal experiences a constant (or zero) potential and so completely free to move
within the metal. This theory successfully explained several properties like specific
heat, electrical conductivity, magnetic susceptibility etc., But it could not explain
why some solids are good conductors, and some other are insulators and semi
conductors.
Band theory of solids assumes that when an electron moves through the
crystal lattice, it experiences periodic potentials. This theory explained the
distinguish between metals, semi conductors and insulators.
BLOCH THEOREM
Metals and alloys are crystalline in nature. The conduction electrons can move
inside periodic +ve ion cores. We consider the variation of potential inside the
metallic crystal as shown in the figure. The potential is minimum at the +ve
ion sites and maximum between the two ions as shown in the figure.
This means the probability of finding the electron is same throughout the crystal.
From equation (5)
eikNa = 1
kNa=2n π
2 nπ
k= (n=0,1.2,3--------)
Na
N π
when n= , we have k= . This is the edge of first Brillouin zone.
2 a
NOTE:-The first Brillouin zone allows energy values lying in a region between
π π
k=+ and k=-
a a
♣ CONDUCTORS:
The conduction and valence band are overlapped each other. Free
electrons
already exists in the conduction band at room temperature, hence conductivity is
high. The resistivity increases with temperature.
Ex:- all metals.
♣ INSULATORS:
In insulators the valence electrons are bound very tightly to their parent
atoms. The conduction band is empty and the valence band is full and these bands
are separated by a large forbidden gap.
Ex:- The best example is diamond(energy gap is 7ev)
♣ SEMICONDUCTORS:
At 0K there are no free electrons in conduction band and Valence band is
completely filled. In these, the two bands are partially filled at room temperature.
The forbidden gap is small. When a small amount of energy supplied, the electrons
can easily jump from valence band to conduction band. The conductivity increases
with increase of temperature.
Ex:- Silicon and Germanium
CONCEPT OF EFFECTIVE MASS:-
eE
electric field E .The acceleration a= (since F=ma) is not a constant in the periodic
m*
lattice.
eE
Acceleration a= ----------- (1)
m*
The force acting on the electron is F=m*a ------------- (2)
According to debroglies hypothesis, a moving electron is associated with a
wave. The group velocity Vg is given by
dw d ( 2πϑ) dϑ
Vg = = =2 π
dk dk dk
E
)d(
⇒ Vg = h (since E=h ϑ)
2π
dk
2π dE
=
h dk
1 dE
⇒ Vg = ----------- (3)
dk
This relation is called dispersion relation.
Consider an external field E acting on an electron. The energy gained by an
electron in this time dt is given by dE = Fdx
= eEdx
dE = eEvdt -------------(4)
From eq(3) and (4) we get
1 dE
dE = eE dt
dk
dv g d 1 dE
Acceleration a = = ( )
dt dt dk
1 d 2E dk
a= X
dtdk dk
1 d 2 E eE eE d 2 E
= X ⇒ a= ---------- (6)
dk 2 2 dk 2
Comparing equations (1) and (6) we get
eE eE d 2 E 1 1 d 2E
* =
⇒ * =
m 2 dk 2 m 2 dk 2
2
m = d 2E
*
dk 2
d 2E
The effective mass is thus determined by
dk 2
Conclusions:
For increasing P, electron is more attached to the positive ion. This situation
symbolizes the nature of the insulator.
P2
☼ When P → 0 , It is clear that Cos α a = Cos ka. Solving this condition we get E=
2m
So all the electrons are completely free to move within the crystal and all
energies are allowed to the electron which indicates the nature of conductor.