Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Knowledge Representation
Techniques
By
u production rules
u semantic nets
u frames
u O-A-V triplets
u scripts
Information
Data
Noise
Stages of Knowledge
1. Acquisition
u structure of facts
u integration of old & new knowledge
2. Retrieval (recall)
u chunking of data and searching
3. Reasoning (various types)
u Deduction - formal reasoning; theorem proving
u procedural reasoning – Expert System
u Induction - reasoning by analogy (very hard for
machines), reasoning from examples
u abstraction – simplification
Logic Representation
n Logic Representation is the most common method of
representing knowledge.
n Logic is language like representation of knowledge. Usually
its statements are built up of two parts;
u premises: information and observations
u Temporal Logic
u Fuzzy Logic
Propositional Logic
n A proposition is a statement that is either true or false
n A string of symbols separated by conjunctions (AND),
disjunctions (OR) negations (NOT). Propositional Logic
assumes that knowledge contains only facts.
n once the truth of a statement is known, it becomes a
premise that can be used to derive new propositions or
inferences
n Logic Symbols or connectives used in propositional logic
are shown as:
∧ (and)
∨ (or)
¬ (not)
⇒ (implication) if-then
⇔ (equivalence)
∀ (for all)
∃ (there exists)
Propositional Logic: Syntax
n Symbols (e.g., letters, words) are used to represent facts
about the world, e.g.,
u “ P” represents the fact “ Ali likes chocolate”
n Examples:
n ∀x At(x,AU) ∧ Smart(x) means
“Everyone is at AU and everyone is
smart”
n ∃x At(x,AU) ∧ Smart(x) means
“Someone at AU is smart”
Other Logic Types
n Temporal Logic
u Allows time-based description of facts and
knowledge.
n Fuzzy Logic
u It is a multi-valued logic based on set theory.
u In Fuzzy Logic the answer can be other than
‘0’ or ‘1’.
u It assigns likelihood to facts, instead of only yes
or no.
Production Rules
n with production rules, knowledge is represented in
condition -action pairs
u IF this condition THEN some action will occur
lives in pine
Mini nest
tree
fly is a in
can
are endan- Wang’s
robin
have gered yard
wings is a protected
by
bird govern-
ment
Semantic Nets Problems
n Semantic nets are fine at representing
relationships between two objects but for
relationship with more than two objects it
can not represent the relationship.
n For example we want to represent the fact
that “John gives Mary the book” This might
be represented in logic as;
gives(john, mary, book1)
n Graphical representation can be very large
for complex problems.
Semantic Nets Problems (cont)
n expressiveness
u no internal structure of nodes
n efficiency
u may result in large sets of nodes and links
n usability
u lack of standards for link types
u naming of nodes
t classes, instances
Frames
n a frame includes all the knowledge about an object
n the knowledge in a frame is divided into slots
u a slot can describe declarative or procedural
knowledge
u each slot contains one or more facets
Robin Frame
is a: Bird
is an: Endangered species
fly: Yes
wings Yes
instance of
Facet
Mini: instance frame location: pine tree
is a: robin
lives in: nest
Facet
location: Wang’s yard
Objects, Attribute, and Values
n using O-A-V triplets is a common way to
represent knowledge
n objects may be physical or conceptual
n attributes are the characteristics of the
objects
n values are specific measures of the attributes